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The noble class of the Maya was much smaller than any other class, but they were far more wealthy and powerful. Maya nobles, known as almehenob, filled the priesthood, or became government officials, court officers, town rulers, scribes, tribute collectors, military leaders and administrators. Their position, as well as their noble heritage, was passed down to their young. According to Maya beliefs, nobles were intermediaries between the gods and men, with the king being the greatest intermediary. Nobles, therefore, had duties both to the gods and to man.
The lives of Maya nobles differed significantly from the lower classes. Because of their almost priestly role, nobles received more material benefits than those of the lower classes. Maya nobles lived in large houses built of stone in the center of Maya cities. Men and women of the noble class wore fancy clothes and elaborate jewelry. Their diet was much the same as other classes, but they would have eaten more meat. They drank chocolate and an alcoholic beverage known as blache.
In return for the benefits, nobles regularly offered their blood to the gods, by puncturing their ears, tongues and genitals with thorns or stingray spines. Nobles considered bloodletting an honor. They would bleed onto strips of paper, which were then burnt in an offering to the gods. Often, before the bloodletting rituals, nobles would drink or eat a hallucinogenic plant and would puncture themselves while in a drugged trance.
A day began for the Maya nobles with a cup of frothy chocolate. Nobles and royalty were the only people who could afford to drink chocolate daily. While they ate the same meat and vegetables as everyone else, no doubt they could afford more meat and special foods. After breakfast, they would attend to religious duties or the position they held in the government or military. The Maya king employed scribes, potters, weavers and stone carvers to create beautiful works of art for his palace. These palace workers might be nobles or of the artisan class. The multiple servants taking care of the royal family were memba uinicoob, or laborers.
The noble class purchased almost all of the luxury goods produced by artisans. They loved adorning themselves and would wear feathers, jadeite ear bobs, fancy sandals and brightly colored cotton clothes. The boundary between nobles and commoners were protected by law. There were laws prohibiting commoners from wearing the type of clothes nobles wore.
The life of a Maya noble was easier than for Maya commoner, but if they were captured in a war, nobles were far more likely to be tortured and sacrificed to the gods. Commoners, if caught, were more likely to end up as slaves, although they too could be sacrificed by the enemy.
Cite This Article"Daily Life for a Maya Noble" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 27, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/daily-life-for-a-maya-noble>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:afc737e4-8d63-4b9c-a3e0-ff124acde912> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/daily-life-for-a-maya-noble | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.980996 | 628 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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-0.0700292... | 1 | The noble class of the Maya was much smaller than any other class, but they were far more wealthy and powerful. Maya nobles, known as almehenob, filled the priesthood, or became government officials, court officers, town rulers, scribes, tribute collectors, military leaders and administrators. Their position, as well as their noble heritage, was passed down to their young. According to Maya beliefs, nobles were intermediaries between the gods and men, with the king being the greatest intermediary. Nobles, therefore, had duties both to the gods and to man.
The lives of Maya nobles differed significantly from the lower classes. Because of their almost priestly role, nobles received more material benefits than those of the lower classes. Maya nobles lived in large houses built of stone in the center of Maya cities. Men and women of the noble class wore fancy clothes and elaborate jewelry. Their diet was much the same as other classes, but they would have eaten more meat. They drank chocolate and an alcoholic beverage known as blache.
In return for the benefits, nobles regularly offered their blood to the gods, by puncturing their ears, tongues and genitals with thorns or stingray spines. Nobles considered bloodletting an honor. They would bleed onto strips of paper, which were then burnt in an offering to the gods. Often, before the bloodletting rituals, nobles would drink or eat a hallucinogenic plant and would puncture themselves while in a drugged trance.
A day began for the Maya nobles with a cup of frothy chocolate. Nobles and royalty were the only people who could afford to drink chocolate daily. While they ate the same meat and vegetables as everyone else, no doubt they could afford more meat and special foods. After breakfast, they would attend to religious duties or the position they held in the government or military. The Maya king employed scribes, potters, weavers and stone carvers to create beautiful works of art for his palace. These palace workers might be nobles or of the artisan class. The multiple servants taking care of the royal family were memba uinicoob, or laborers.
The noble class purchased almost all of the luxury goods produced by artisans. They loved adorning themselves and would wear feathers, jadeite ear bobs, fancy sandals and brightly colored cotton clothes. The boundary between nobles and commoners were protected by law. There were laws prohibiting commoners from wearing the type of clothes nobles wore.
The life of a Maya noble was easier than for Maya commoner, but if they were captured in a war, nobles were far more likely to be tortured and sacrificed to the gods. Commoners, if caught, were more likely to end up as slaves, although they too could be sacrificed by the enemy.
Cite This Article"Daily Life for a Maya Noble" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 27, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/daily-life-for-a-maya-noble>
More Citation Information. | 635 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The term loyalty has widely been misinterpreted through the ages especially at the present times. By derivation, loyalty means fidelity to law but to a king. It is not difficult to see how this change of meaning was brought about. In old times, before the growth of republican ideas had begun to oppose the doctrine of divine right, the sovereign was regarded as the embodiment of law, and devotion to him was therefore called loyalty. But as time went on and new political opinions spread among the nations of the earth, it became apparent that there might be a conflict between devotion to the kind and devotion to the laws. This was conspicuously the case in England at the time of the Great Rebellion, when those who rebelled against the king were moved to, do so by regard for the law of England, which, as they thought, had been violated by Charles I. Many of the loyalists on the contrary, cared little for the law and constitution, and were animated by personal devotion to their kings, for whom they were willing to sacrifice their liberty and life.
One of the earliest of the Stuart kings of Scotland, after making noble efforts to establish peace and justice in his native country, was attacked by a party of assassins who resented his innovations. He was taken at a disadvantage while sitting unarmed with his wife and her ladies-in-waiting, and, when the noise of the approaching conspirators was heard, it was found that the bolts and bars had been removed from the room, in which the family party were quietly conversing, apprehensive of no evil. Thus the king would have been immediately at the mercy of the assassins, had not a lady of the noble house of Douglas thrust her arm as a bolt in the staple of her door, and so delayed the murderers until they burst open the door and broke her delicate arm. It is added to relate that her splendid act of devotion did not save the life of the doomed king.
A similar spirit of devotion to the Stuart kings was displayed for more than three centuries until the time when the noblest blood of Scotland was poured out like water in the gallant but hopeless attempt to place Charles Edward on the throne of his fathers. The pages of history are full of such incidents.
The spirit of love has a universal appeal. It may not be confined to one particular region or area or country but it must not be supposed that the spirit of loyalty is confined to one country or continent. Striking examples of it may be found in England and Scotland and the sub-continent.
Loyalty reflects credit on human nature that many such stories illuminate the pages of ancient and modern history. The word loyalty is not confined to the feeling of a faithful subject to a king; for we can speak of a loyal friend, a loyal servant, a loyal partner, and even a loyal dog. We can also be loyal to abstract ideas, such as principles, religion and our native land; for loyalty means sincere and faithful attachment to anything and does not mean blind faith or vulgar and uncalled-for support of a ruler. | <urn:uuid:b66bbef4-3c61-4135-af28-e8e93927175c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2019/03/short-paragraph-on-loyalty-550-words.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.98546 | 621 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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-0.190929025411... | 8 | The term loyalty has widely been misinterpreted through the ages especially at the present times. By derivation, loyalty means fidelity to law but to a king. It is not difficult to see how this change of meaning was brought about. In old times, before the growth of republican ideas had begun to oppose the doctrine of divine right, the sovereign was regarded as the embodiment of law, and devotion to him was therefore called loyalty. But as time went on and new political opinions spread among the nations of the earth, it became apparent that there might be a conflict between devotion to the kind and devotion to the laws. This was conspicuously the case in England at the time of the Great Rebellion, when those who rebelled against the king were moved to, do so by regard for the law of England, which, as they thought, had been violated by Charles I. Many of the loyalists on the contrary, cared little for the law and constitution, and were animated by personal devotion to their kings, for whom they were willing to sacrifice their liberty and life.
One of the earliest of the Stuart kings of Scotland, after making noble efforts to establish peace and justice in his native country, was attacked by a party of assassins who resented his innovations. He was taken at a disadvantage while sitting unarmed with his wife and her ladies-in-waiting, and, when the noise of the approaching conspirators was heard, it was found that the bolts and bars had been removed from the room, in which the family party were quietly conversing, apprehensive of no evil. Thus the king would have been immediately at the mercy of the assassins, had not a lady of the noble house of Douglas thrust her arm as a bolt in the staple of her door, and so delayed the murderers until they burst open the door and broke her delicate arm. It is added to relate that her splendid act of devotion did not save the life of the doomed king.
A similar spirit of devotion to the Stuart kings was displayed for more than three centuries until the time when the noblest blood of Scotland was poured out like water in the gallant but hopeless attempt to place Charles Edward on the throne of his fathers. The pages of history are full of such incidents.
The spirit of love has a universal appeal. It may not be confined to one particular region or area or country but it must not be supposed that the spirit of loyalty is confined to one country or continent. Striking examples of it may be found in England and Scotland and the sub-continent.
Loyalty reflects credit on human nature that many such stories illuminate the pages of ancient and modern history. The word loyalty is not confined to the feeling of a faithful subject to a king; for we can speak of a loyal friend, a loyal servant, a loyal partner, and even a loyal dog. We can also be loyal to abstract ideas, such as principles, religion and our native land; for loyalty means sincere and faithful attachment to anything and does not mean blind faith or vulgar and uncalled-for support of a ruler. | 614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Recently, survey taking has captured the interest of many children in the classroom. A great learning experience for both the survey taker and the child who is asked questions for the survey. One survey topic was “how many people are in your family?”. It was interesting to observe children stopping to think and count out loud all the members of their family. Very few knew the number right off the top of their head! The survey taker had to practice grace and courtesy while politely interrupting children at work to ask the question. They also had to practice recording the information on a chart or graph. The children have come up with so many great ideas on their own for surveys, as well! Favorite color, favorite animal, favorite food, and favorite toy were all great ideas the kids came up with for new survey ideas. This is sure to be a work we will do all year long!
“The goal of early childhood education should be to activate the child’s own natural desire to learn.”Maria Montessori | <urn:uuid:d123e0af-d9d7-42cb-a6e1-6e45669afa25> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pinegrovecenter.com/single-post/2019/12/05/Kindergarten-Class-Surveys | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00189.warc.gz | en | 0.983091 | 211 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.6373466... | 4 | Recently, survey taking has captured the interest of many children in the classroom. A great learning experience for both the survey taker and the child who is asked questions for the survey. One survey topic was “how many people are in your family?”. It was interesting to observe children stopping to think and count out loud all the members of their family. Very few knew the number right off the top of their head! The survey taker had to practice grace and courtesy while politely interrupting children at work to ask the question. They also had to practice recording the information on a chart or graph. The children have come up with so many great ideas on their own for surveys, as well! Favorite color, favorite animal, favorite food, and favorite toy were all great ideas the kids came up with for new survey ideas. This is sure to be a work we will do all year long!
“The goal of early childhood education should be to activate the child’s own natural desire to learn.”Maria Montessori | 201 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A story told in a whisper of fans...
How many exotic lands should we visit to follow their trail throughout centuries of history? How much of human history is hidden inside this apparently completely innocuous and frivolous object?
The earliest fans date back to the days of the ancient Egypt, where they were initially reserved for pharaohs and priests. Fans played a significant role in the ceremonies of the court; they were a sign of power to be carried behind the pharaoh in processions. To have a fan held for you indicated a high position in the state hierarchy. Large fans of leaves or feathers, mounted on long handles, sometimes bent at a right angle at the base of the plume were used. Fans also accompanied the deceased in their post-mortem journey. Two handles of fans found in Tutankhamen’s tomb, now located in the museum in Cairo, made from ivory and gold (with visible depictions of scarabs) indicate an accomplished artistic level that the Egyptians achieved in the creation of such items.
In Greece, fans borrowed from the Egyptians were originally made from leaves mounted on a long handle. They were used by both men and women, but due to their large size, were carried by slaves. Their form began to change in the 4th century BC when their size was reduced and they became more compact so that they could be carried alone. Other materials began to be used in their production: thin boards, fabrics and leather stretched on a frame. In the Hellenist period, feather fans were also made and magical properties were often attributed to them. The most common form was the semicircular fan, which was reflected in the decoration of Greek ceramics.
The Romans invented their own type of a fan called musicarum (Latin musicas – a fly) which was used to flick insects away. Around the 4th century BC, small fans resembling simple flags appeared.
While following the trail of the fan, we cannot forget about imperial China and the Land of the Rising Sun where this object was created in an extremely beautiful form and played an important role in a daily life of the court and its inhabitants.
One of the Chinese legends concerning the creation of a fan refers to the beautiful daughter of the mandarin Kan-Si, who, during the Torch Holiday, started to fan herself with a mask very quickly, hoping to cool her face hidden behind the mask. She was followed by the other 10,000 ladies who were also tired of the heat. Thanks to this, their faces remained in hiding and there was pleasant coolness all around...
At the imperial court and in the hierarchy of state officials, stringent rules on the use of fans were applied. However, if a person abode by these rules, the fan became a useful tool to evade etiquette. One could avoid endless ceremonial bows by hiding their faces behind a fan. Another practical use of a fan, probably pretty amazing to the youth, was using it to discipline students at schools. There were also “war fans“ made of metal, designed for soldiers as well as large decorative ceremonial and presentable fans used, for example, during parades or processions.
Fans were made of paper, silk, feathers, wood, palm leaves, and ivory, as well as white nephrite which was especially valued in China. The handles of precious specimens were created from silver, gold or mother-of-pearl. Colours were often monochromatic, and the decorations were derived from the art of calligraphy. In China, India, and Mesopotamia fan feathers were impregnated with fragrant oils so that a pleasant scent emanated from them every time they moved. A significant development in the field of this artistic craftsmanship occurred after the form of a folding fan was adopted from Japan.
In Japan, this form was invented around the 7th century. It was accompanied by a legend which told about a married couple into whose flat a bat flew at night. An observation of the animal’s wings made when it was taken out of the house contributed to the invention of the folding fan. The oldest forms of this were named Komori (bat in Japanese). Fans arrived to Japan from Korea. The material they were made from indicated the social and property status of their owners. Different fan forms were associated with different purposes. Materials similar to those used in China were used, but fan decorations were further developed by introducing ink drawings and woodcut reproductions, as well as the inscribing of short poems. Fans were also covered with scenes from court life, and picturesque landscapes or calligraphy. It was also possible to purchase an undecorated fan and to decorate it on one’s own.
In China and Japan, the most popular fan was the Brise folding fan. Their frames were uniquely charming, due to their floral, landscape, and architectural, as well as anthropomorphic ornamentation, which was intricately carved. Another fan form, which was developed by Japanese culture, was the pleated fan. The demand for fans was huge, so small factories, often with a high degree of specialisation, were established. The technology of production changed and improved; fan painting schools were opened, and various decoration techniques were introduced (including incrustation and openwork patterns). Considered to be everyday objects, they were regarded as an inseparable attribute of, for example, a samurai costume. They also played an important role in Japanese theatre.
The folding fan didn’t reach Europe until as late as the 17th century; earlier, around the 15th century, they appeared in the East. Fans spread across European courts thanks to Portuguese sailors. Before that, European women had used small flags or fans of bird feathers. Fan fashion reached all social classes, so production facilities began to be established. The best-known production centres were located in Italy. In Milan, Genoa and Siena, fans were made of bird feathers (fans made of long-tail parrot feathers were a novelty). Their handles were made from precious materials such as ivory, gold, and silver, as well as precious stones. In order to secure the fan to a dress, a chain or a ribbon was attached to it. Flag-fans used by wealthy women were manufactured in Venice. Those decorated with Venetian lace and made of white vellum were intended for young betrothed girls. In Naples and Bologna, there were popular screen fans with geometric decorations.
One of the most beautiful collections of fans was owned by Elizabeth I, the Queen of England. She used to say that this was the only object that could be given to her by her subjects. However, it was the 18th century which became known as the golden age of fans.
This practical, fetching and entertaining item quickly became an irreplaceable and ever-present accessory of every elegant lady. French Rococo introduced a fashion for meticulously crafted fans; ivory became very popular. Themes were derived from Italian comedies; pastoral, love, and hunting scenes, as well as depictions of landscapes and portraits. Eighteenth-century fans were true works of art. Made of paper, thin leather, tortoiseshell, ivory, and mother of pearl; they were carved and lacquer painted – they were an elegant complement to the wardrobe of that time. The most common decorations were landscape, genre, and mythological scenes, and sometimes erotic scenes. The Marquise de Pompadour ordered her fans from the most famous painters of the era. In social life, a domino-type fan was useful, with cut-out holes through which a lady could observe the surroundings, while remaining unseen. Lenses could also be fitted in a fan, which served as glasses in a very elegant setting; such fans were used by Marie Antoinette.
A fan could enable one to escape difficult situations. During an audience with Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France, an embarrassing incident occurred. The queen, known for her passion for fashion, noticed an extremely charming bracelet on the hand of one of the ladies, the German Baroness d’Oberkirch. So she asked the Baroness to show her the trinket. However, according to the Versailles etiquette, the Queen could not be given an object in a public place with a bare hand not wearing a glove. Therefore, the Baroness took off the bracelet and put it on her spread fan. With this manner of handing the jewellery, etiquette was observed, and the queen was delighted.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, fans of the aide-mémoire type could be seen, reminding people of the words of popular songs, dances or game rules. During the French Revolution, prints on fans made comment on current political events.
In the 19th century, delicate lace fans were intended for young girls, whereas dignified ladies had a liking for elegant fans made from feathers, matching the colour of their dresses. Scenes depicting an elegant group during a game and a walk, known from paintings by Fragonard, Boucher, and Watteau, became a popular decoration. Interestingly, a famous Polish painter of horses, Wojciech Kossak, also decorated fans: A knight paying homage to the queen, Yankel’s polonaise and concert, A wedding in Kraków.
The 20th century saw a decline in the popularity of the fan; after World War I only old ladies who remembered the days of splendour of the fan and their own experiences could not be parted from this sophisticated object.
Today’s fans, enclosed in museum showcases, still enchant with their unique charm, and visitors continue to fall into a reverie over the ephemeral beauty of bygone eras.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Poland License.
See also: Woman’s fan | <urn:uuid:7873e27d-4126-47b1-a2ce-4f9b608b96e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://muzea.malopolska.pl/en/czy-wiesz-ze/-/a/historia-opowiedziana-szeptem-wachlarzy%E2%80%A6?view=full | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.986566 | 2,023 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.219472616... | 2 | A story told in a whisper of fans...
How many exotic lands should we visit to follow their trail throughout centuries of history? How much of human history is hidden inside this apparently completely innocuous and frivolous object?
The earliest fans date back to the days of the ancient Egypt, where they were initially reserved for pharaohs and priests. Fans played a significant role in the ceremonies of the court; they were a sign of power to be carried behind the pharaoh in processions. To have a fan held for you indicated a high position in the state hierarchy. Large fans of leaves or feathers, mounted on long handles, sometimes bent at a right angle at the base of the plume were used. Fans also accompanied the deceased in their post-mortem journey. Two handles of fans found in Tutankhamen’s tomb, now located in the museum in Cairo, made from ivory and gold (with visible depictions of scarabs) indicate an accomplished artistic level that the Egyptians achieved in the creation of such items.
In Greece, fans borrowed from the Egyptians were originally made from leaves mounted on a long handle. They were used by both men and women, but due to their large size, were carried by slaves. Their form began to change in the 4th century BC when their size was reduced and they became more compact so that they could be carried alone. Other materials began to be used in their production: thin boards, fabrics and leather stretched on a frame. In the Hellenist period, feather fans were also made and magical properties were often attributed to them. The most common form was the semicircular fan, which was reflected in the decoration of Greek ceramics.
The Romans invented their own type of a fan called musicarum (Latin musicas – a fly) which was used to flick insects away. Around the 4th century BC, small fans resembling simple flags appeared.
While following the trail of the fan, we cannot forget about imperial China and the Land of the Rising Sun where this object was created in an extremely beautiful form and played an important role in a daily life of the court and its inhabitants.
One of the Chinese legends concerning the creation of a fan refers to the beautiful daughter of the mandarin Kan-Si, who, during the Torch Holiday, started to fan herself with a mask very quickly, hoping to cool her face hidden behind the mask. She was followed by the other 10,000 ladies who were also tired of the heat. Thanks to this, their faces remained in hiding and there was pleasant coolness all around...
At the imperial court and in the hierarchy of state officials, stringent rules on the use of fans were applied. However, if a person abode by these rules, the fan became a useful tool to evade etiquette. One could avoid endless ceremonial bows by hiding their faces behind a fan. Another practical use of a fan, probably pretty amazing to the youth, was using it to discipline students at schools. There were also “war fans“ made of metal, designed for soldiers as well as large decorative ceremonial and presentable fans used, for example, during parades or processions.
Fans were made of paper, silk, feathers, wood, palm leaves, and ivory, as well as white nephrite which was especially valued in China. The handles of precious specimens were created from silver, gold or mother-of-pearl. Colours were often monochromatic, and the decorations were derived from the art of calligraphy. In China, India, and Mesopotamia fan feathers were impregnated with fragrant oils so that a pleasant scent emanated from them every time they moved. A significant development in the field of this artistic craftsmanship occurred after the form of a folding fan was adopted from Japan.
In Japan, this form was invented around the 7th century. It was accompanied by a legend which told about a married couple into whose flat a bat flew at night. An observation of the animal’s wings made when it was taken out of the house contributed to the invention of the folding fan. The oldest forms of this were named Komori (bat in Japanese). Fans arrived to Japan from Korea. The material they were made from indicated the social and property status of their owners. Different fan forms were associated with different purposes. Materials similar to those used in China were used, but fan decorations were further developed by introducing ink drawings and woodcut reproductions, as well as the inscribing of short poems. Fans were also covered with scenes from court life, and picturesque landscapes or calligraphy. It was also possible to purchase an undecorated fan and to decorate it on one’s own.
In China and Japan, the most popular fan was the Brise folding fan. Their frames were uniquely charming, due to their floral, landscape, and architectural, as well as anthropomorphic ornamentation, which was intricately carved. Another fan form, which was developed by Japanese culture, was the pleated fan. The demand for fans was huge, so small factories, often with a high degree of specialisation, were established. The technology of production changed and improved; fan painting schools were opened, and various decoration techniques were introduced (including incrustation and openwork patterns). Considered to be everyday objects, they were regarded as an inseparable attribute of, for example, a samurai costume. They also played an important role in Japanese theatre.
The folding fan didn’t reach Europe until as late as the 17th century; earlier, around the 15th century, they appeared in the East. Fans spread across European courts thanks to Portuguese sailors. Before that, European women had used small flags or fans of bird feathers. Fan fashion reached all social classes, so production facilities began to be established. The best-known production centres were located in Italy. In Milan, Genoa and Siena, fans were made of bird feathers (fans made of long-tail parrot feathers were a novelty). Their handles were made from precious materials such as ivory, gold, and silver, as well as precious stones. In order to secure the fan to a dress, a chain or a ribbon was attached to it. Flag-fans used by wealthy women were manufactured in Venice. Those decorated with Venetian lace and made of white vellum were intended for young betrothed girls. In Naples and Bologna, there were popular screen fans with geometric decorations.
One of the most beautiful collections of fans was owned by Elizabeth I, the Queen of England. She used to say that this was the only object that could be given to her by her subjects. However, it was the 18th century which became known as the golden age of fans.
This practical, fetching and entertaining item quickly became an irreplaceable and ever-present accessory of every elegant lady. French Rococo introduced a fashion for meticulously crafted fans; ivory became very popular. Themes were derived from Italian comedies; pastoral, love, and hunting scenes, as well as depictions of landscapes and portraits. Eighteenth-century fans were true works of art. Made of paper, thin leather, tortoiseshell, ivory, and mother of pearl; they were carved and lacquer painted – they were an elegant complement to the wardrobe of that time. The most common decorations were landscape, genre, and mythological scenes, and sometimes erotic scenes. The Marquise de Pompadour ordered her fans from the most famous painters of the era. In social life, a domino-type fan was useful, with cut-out holes through which a lady could observe the surroundings, while remaining unseen. Lenses could also be fitted in a fan, which served as glasses in a very elegant setting; such fans were used by Marie Antoinette.
A fan could enable one to escape difficult situations. During an audience with Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France, an embarrassing incident occurred. The queen, known for her passion for fashion, noticed an extremely charming bracelet on the hand of one of the ladies, the German Baroness d’Oberkirch. So she asked the Baroness to show her the trinket. However, according to the Versailles etiquette, the Queen could not be given an object in a public place with a bare hand not wearing a glove. Therefore, the Baroness took off the bracelet and put it on her spread fan. With this manner of handing the jewellery, etiquette was observed, and the queen was delighted.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, fans of the aide-mémoire type could be seen, reminding people of the words of popular songs, dances or game rules. During the French Revolution, prints on fans made comment on current political events.
In the 19th century, delicate lace fans were intended for young girls, whereas dignified ladies had a liking for elegant fans made from feathers, matching the colour of their dresses. Scenes depicting an elegant group during a game and a walk, known from paintings by Fragonard, Boucher, and Watteau, became a popular decoration. Interestingly, a famous Polish painter of horses, Wojciech Kossak, also decorated fans: A knight paying homage to the queen, Yankel’s polonaise and concert, A wedding in Kraków.
The 20th century saw a decline in the popularity of the fan; after World War I only old ladies who remembered the days of splendour of the fan and their own experiences could not be parted from this sophisticated object.
Today’s fans, enclosed in museum showcases, still enchant with their unique charm, and visitors continue to fall into a reverie over the ephemeral beauty of bygone eras.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Poland License.
See also: Woman’s fan | 1,984 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pope St. Gregory the Great (Feast: September 3)
Gregory was born in Rome about the year 540. His family was wealthy, distinguished and known for their piety. He was well educated and began a career in public office, becoming prefect of the city and one of the richest men in Rome by the time he was thirty.
Though he held the highest civil office, Gregory decided to give up his career, money and possessions to dedicate himself to God.
He became a monk and was ordained a priest at the monastery of St. Andrew, later becoming one of the pope’s seven deacons of the Roman Church.
He acted as a papal ambassador in the East for six years, and on his return to Rome, was made Abbot of St. Andrews.
In 590 Pope Pelagius died of a plague that had swept through Rome. Gregory was unanimously elected pope in the same year, but continued to live with monastic simplicity.
As pope, Gregory sought peace with the invading Lombards. For nine years he strived for a settlement between the Byzantine Emperor and king of the Lombards, Agilulf, but was eventually forced to negotiate a separate treaty for the safety of Rome and the surrounding districts.
A generous and kind man, Gregory strove to ease the sufferings of the poor, feeding them on a regular basis. He converted many Jews in Rome using an uncommon method: instead of coercion, he declared that they were to be converted by meekness and charity and did not allow them to be oppressed or deprived of their synagogue. Using the same method, he converted many in England.
Gregory died in 604 at the age of 64. He humbly called himself “servus servorum Dei,” Servant of the servants of God. He is the first pope given the title of “great.”
DAILY QUOTE for January 26, 2020
SAINT OF THE DAY
Sts. Timothy and Titus
Many centuries ago, three young nuns lived together in a convent. Day after day, they took their meals together, they went to chapel together, and they prayed and sang together. | <urn:uuid:6e090fd9-7c45-41b9-97df-a8c2a34f07a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.americaneedsfatima.org/Saints-Heroes/pope-st-gregory-the-great.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00442.warc.gz | en | 0.988804 | 447 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3000629842... | 1 | Pope St. Gregory the Great (Feast: September 3)
Gregory was born in Rome about the year 540. His family was wealthy, distinguished and known for their piety. He was well educated and began a career in public office, becoming prefect of the city and one of the richest men in Rome by the time he was thirty.
Though he held the highest civil office, Gregory decided to give up his career, money and possessions to dedicate himself to God.
He became a monk and was ordained a priest at the monastery of St. Andrew, later becoming one of the pope’s seven deacons of the Roman Church.
He acted as a papal ambassador in the East for six years, and on his return to Rome, was made Abbot of St. Andrews.
In 590 Pope Pelagius died of a plague that had swept through Rome. Gregory was unanimously elected pope in the same year, but continued to live with monastic simplicity.
As pope, Gregory sought peace with the invading Lombards. For nine years he strived for a settlement between the Byzantine Emperor and king of the Lombards, Agilulf, but was eventually forced to negotiate a separate treaty for the safety of Rome and the surrounding districts.
A generous and kind man, Gregory strove to ease the sufferings of the poor, feeding them on a regular basis. He converted many Jews in Rome using an uncommon method: instead of coercion, he declared that they were to be converted by meekness and charity and did not allow them to be oppressed or deprived of their synagogue. Using the same method, he converted many in England.
Gregory died in 604 at the age of 64. He humbly called himself “servus servorum Dei,” Servant of the servants of God. He is the first pope given the title of “great.”
DAILY QUOTE for January 26, 2020
SAINT OF THE DAY
Sts. Timothy and Titus
Many centuries ago, three young nuns lived together in a convent. Day after day, they took their meals together, they went to chapel together, and they prayed and sang together. | 451 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Brontë was a British novelist and poet, the youngest member of the Brontë literary family. Anne’s two novels, written in a sharp and ironic style, are completely different from the romanticism followed by her sisters, Emily Brontë and Charlotte Brontë. She wrote in a realistic, rather than a romantic style. Mainly because the re-publication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall was prevented by Charlotte Brontë after Anne’s death, she is less known than her sisters. However, her novels, like those of her sisters, have become classics of English literature.The daughter of a poor Irish clergyman in the Church of England, Anne Brontë lived most of her life with her family at the parish of Haworth on the Yorkshire moors. In Elizabeth Gaskell’s biography, Anne’s father remembered her as
precocious, reporting that once, when she was four years old, in reply to his question about what a child most wanted, she answered: “age and experience”.During her life Anne was particularly close to Emily. When Charlotte’s friend Ellen Nussey visited Haworth in 1833, she reported that Emily and Anne were “like twins”, “inseparable companions”. Together they created imaginary world Gondal after they broke up from Charlotte and Branwell who created another imaginary world – Angria.For a couple of years she went to a boarding school. At the age of 19 she left Haworth and worked as a governess between 1839 and 1845. After leaving her teaching position, she fulfilled her literary ambitions. She wrote a volume of poetry with her sisters (Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, 1846) and two novels. Agnes Grey, based upon her experiences as a governess, was published in 1847. Her second and last novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, which is considered to be one of the first sustained feminist novels, appeared in 1848 and was an instant, phenomenal success; within six weeks it was sold out.The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is perhaps the most shocking of the Brontës’ novels. In seeking to present the truth in literature, Anne’s depiction of alcoholism and debauchery was profoundly disturbing to 19th-century sensibilities. Helen Graham, the tenant of the title, intrigues Gilbert Markham and gradually she reveals her past as an artist and wife of the dissipated Arthur Huntingdon. The book’s brilliance lies in its revelation of the position of women at the time, and its multi-layered plot.Her sister Emily’s death on 19 December 1848 deeply affected Anne and her grief undermined her physical health. Over Christmas, Anne caught influenza. Her symptoms intensified, and in early January, her father sent for a Leeds physician, who diagnosed her condition as consumption, and intimated that it was quite advanced leaving little hope of recovery. Anne met the news with characteristic determination and self-control.Unlike Emily, Anne took all the recommended medicines, and responded to the advice she was given. That same month she wrote her last poem, ” A dreadful darkness closes in”, in which she deals with being terminally ill.In February 1849, Anne decided to make a return visit to Scarborough in the hope that the change of location and fresh sea air might initiate a recovery. However, it was clear that she had little strength left.Dying, Anne expressed her love and concern for Ellen and Charlotte, and seeing Charlotte’s distress, whispered to her to “take courage”. Conscious and calm, Anne died at about two o’clock in the afternoon, Monday, 28 May 1849. | <urn:uuid:4eceafa1-ca1b-43a7-a554-21cfe2bfc2c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookziz.com/a/anne-bronte/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.98186 | 779 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.201483... | 1 | Anne Brontë was a British novelist and poet, the youngest member of the Brontë literary family. Anne’s two novels, written in a sharp and ironic style, are completely different from the romanticism followed by her sisters, Emily Brontë and Charlotte Brontë. She wrote in a realistic, rather than a romantic style. Mainly because the re-publication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall was prevented by Charlotte Brontë after Anne’s death, she is less known than her sisters. However, her novels, like those of her sisters, have become classics of English literature.The daughter of a poor Irish clergyman in the Church of England, Anne Brontë lived most of her life with her family at the parish of Haworth on the Yorkshire moors. In Elizabeth Gaskell’s biography, Anne’s father remembered her as
precocious, reporting that once, when she was four years old, in reply to his question about what a child most wanted, she answered: “age and experience”.During her life Anne was particularly close to Emily. When Charlotte’s friend Ellen Nussey visited Haworth in 1833, she reported that Emily and Anne were “like twins”, “inseparable companions”. Together they created imaginary world Gondal after they broke up from Charlotte and Branwell who created another imaginary world – Angria.For a couple of years she went to a boarding school. At the age of 19 she left Haworth and worked as a governess between 1839 and 1845. After leaving her teaching position, she fulfilled her literary ambitions. She wrote a volume of poetry with her sisters (Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, 1846) and two novels. Agnes Grey, based upon her experiences as a governess, was published in 1847. Her second and last novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, which is considered to be one of the first sustained feminist novels, appeared in 1848 and was an instant, phenomenal success; within six weeks it was sold out.The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is perhaps the most shocking of the Brontës’ novels. In seeking to present the truth in literature, Anne’s depiction of alcoholism and debauchery was profoundly disturbing to 19th-century sensibilities. Helen Graham, the tenant of the title, intrigues Gilbert Markham and gradually she reveals her past as an artist and wife of the dissipated Arthur Huntingdon. The book’s brilliance lies in its revelation of the position of women at the time, and its multi-layered plot.Her sister Emily’s death on 19 December 1848 deeply affected Anne and her grief undermined her physical health. Over Christmas, Anne caught influenza. Her symptoms intensified, and in early January, her father sent for a Leeds physician, who diagnosed her condition as consumption, and intimated that it was quite advanced leaving little hope of recovery. Anne met the news with characteristic determination and self-control.Unlike Emily, Anne took all the recommended medicines, and responded to the advice she was given. That same month she wrote her last poem, ” A dreadful darkness closes in”, in which she deals with being terminally ill.In February 1849, Anne decided to make a return visit to Scarborough in the hope that the change of location and fresh sea air might initiate a recovery. However, it was clear that she had little strength left.Dying, Anne expressed her love and concern for Ellen and Charlotte, and seeing Charlotte’s distress, whispered to her to “take courage”. Conscious and calm, Anne died at about two o’clock in the afternoon, Monday, 28 May 1849. | 770 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On August 7, 1789 the U.S. Congress approved an Act for the establishment and support of lighthouses, beacons, buoys, and public piers.
The most famous and possibly the first lighthouse was the Lighthouse of Alexandria built on Pharos island in Egypt. It was built in 280 BC and is estimated to be about 120 meters (400 feet) in height.
The Golden Age of Lighthouses began in the 17th century and they were essential to maritime navigation for centuries. They were also very labor intensive. Lighthouse keepers needed to trim the wicks, replenish fuel, wind clockworks and perform maintenance tasks like cleaning lenses and windows.
In 1907 Nils Gustaf Dalen invented a sun valve which turned the beacon off and on using daylight. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention of automatic valves designed to be used in combination with gas accumulators in lighthouses.
These and other improvements led the phasing out of lighthouse keepers. In the U.S., the last keepers were removed in the 1990s. In Canada, however, this trend has been stopped and there are still 50 staffed light stations in that country. The rationale is that keepers also serve as a rescue service if needed.
Modern lighthouses are mainly found in inaccessible locations and are more functional and less picturesque. They generally used a solar-charged battery and have a single flashing light.
Now that lighthouses are no longer essential to navigation their maintenance and preservation has fallen into the hands of many non-profits groups around the world.
The best directory of lighthouses that I could find is at this site sponsored by the University of North Carolina.
These posts are true to the best of my knowledge at the time of writing. I make no claims as to their accuracy. The purpose is to inform, educate, amuse, and make people aware of causes and opportunities around the world. I also encourage civil debate in the comment section. | <urn:uuid:8f38f9bb-44dc-4b4b-af0d-6d240103e385> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://365holidaysayear.com/2019/08/07/lighthouse-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.980628 | 408 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.2065924853086... | 2 | On August 7, 1789 the U.S. Congress approved an Act for the establishment and support of lighthouses, beacons, buoys, and public piers.
The most famous and possibly the first lighthouse was the Lighthouse of Alexandria built on Pharos island in Egypt. It was built in 280 BC and is estimated to be about 120 meters (400 feet) in height.
The Golden Age of Lighthouses began in the 17th century and they were essential to maritime navigation for centuries. They were also very labor intensive. Lighthouse keepers needed to trim the wicks, replenish fuel, wind clockworks and perform maintenance tasks like cleaning lenses and windows.
In 1907 Nils Gustaf Dalen invented a sun valve which turned the beacon off and on using daylight. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention of automatic valves designed to be used in combination with gas accumulators in lighthouses.
These and other improvements led the phasing out of lighthouse keepers. In the U.S., the last keepers were removed in the 1990s. In Canada, however, this trend has been stopped and there are still 50 staffed light stations in that country. The rationale is that keepers also serve as a rescue service if needed.
Modern lighthouses are mainly found in inaccessible locations and are more functional and less picturesque. They generally used a solar-charged battery and have a single flashing light.
Now that lighthouses are no longer essential to navigation their maintenance and preservation has fallen into the hands of many non-profits groups around the world.
The best directory of lighthouses that I could find is at this site sponsored by the University of North Carolina.
These posts are true to the best of my knowledge at the time of writing. I make no claims as to their accuracy. The purpose is to inform, educate, amuse, and make people aware of causes and opportunities around the world. I also encourage civil debate in the comment section. | 426 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Medici family were merchants and bankers who had enormous impacts over the city of Florence throughout the Renaissance. They managed the Medici bank, which at its peak was the biggest bank in Europe. The House Of Medici rose to power around the time of Giovanni de Medici who began the Medici bank and became leader of the merchants in Florence. His son Cosimo continued the family’s rise to power by becoming the leader of Florence.
The Medici were famous for their patronage of art throughout the Renaissance, and are said to be the reason why Florence became such a centre of the Renaissance in Italy. Patronage is a term to describe a rich person or a rich family that gives supports and making life easier for artists. For example, they economically help to artists for their major works of art. The Medici patronage had brought enormous effects on the Renaissance, allowing artist to give their attentions purely on their work without having to worry about financial problems. Thanks to the Medici family, a remarkable amount of the art and architecture was created in Florence toward the start of the Renaissance.
Lorenzo de Medici followed in Cosimos’s footsteps and ruled Florence though the peak of the Renaissance. He supported many artists including the now famous Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.
The powerful family ruled Florence until its decline in the late fifteenth century. In its time, the Medici family rose to positons of power throughout Europe.
The Medici have been called the “godfathers of the Renaissance.” Their accumulation of power in the early fifteenth century in Florence was orchestrated by Cosimo de’ Medici even though his family started with less wealth and political clout than other families in the oligarchy that ruled Florence at the time.
During this time the Medici (with Cosimo de’ Medici playing the key role) rose in power and largely consolidated control of business and politics in Florence. This paper looks at the Medici family’s rise to power and control over Florence. The main focus of the paper is on Cosimo de’ Medici, who is the man responsible for bringing his family to power.
Cosomo De Medici
Cosimo de’ Medici was born in 1389, into a wealthy banking family. His father,Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, was already a successful businessman. In 1420 Giovanni di Bicci retired and handed over his various business and art ventures, including the bank to Cosimo.
Cosimo de’ Medici was one of the most famous personalities of Renaissance Florence and a great patron of the arts,especially architecture. He was also one the most powerful bankers in Florence, and eventually in all of Europe, thanks in part to his management of the Papacy’s finances. Cosimo’s influence in the art and the economic world made him very politically powerful, and he was posthumously given the title pater patriae, Latin for “father of his country.” His success was the beginning of the reign of the Medici family in Florence that lasted until well into the 17th century.
Cosimo de’ Medici was a very successful businessman. Cosimo gave a large part of his wealth to churches and other charitable institutions, and what he did not give away he used as a weapon to gain power, especially outside of Florence. Cosimo de’ Medici garnered a significant amount of power from his extensive family and the connections that this gave him.
As Professor Dale Kent has noted, “Cosimo became the family’s leading representative in the ruling group, its symbolic head, and the chief architect of family and party policy.”
For instance, Cosimo gave extensive loans to the Venetian Republic to help them fight off the French and the Duke of Milan. Cosimo’s financial assistance allowed the Venetians to successfully ward off the attack, which kept Florence safe from invasion. Conversely, when Venice and Naples united against Florence, Cosimo crippled their attacks by demanding that they pay their debts to the Medici bank, leaving them without any resources to continue the war.
Cosimo also had many personal connections that gave him influence in the political world . He attended meetings of humanists and had learned conversation with such men as Bruni,
Poggio, and Marsuppini, leading humanists in Florence. All of these men later became chancellors of the Republic, giving Cosimo considerable political influence through his friends.
As Dale Kent argued,
Cosimo succeeded in identifying the honor of the Medici family with that of the commune more completely than any citizen before him. He did this by making his friends and political supporters honorary extensions of this group, to be seen as dear as fathers, brothers, and sons in affection and obligation.
Cosimo used this and his wealth to influence policy, especially foreign policy. For example, he used his connections and economic power to arrange the Council of Florence in 1439, a meeting between the authorities of the Eastern and Western church. Cosimo housed all of the members of the council with his own resources, giving him ample opportunity to gain from the council.
This merging of Eastern and Western culture gave Cosimo and other humanists special opportunities to expand their learning. Cosimo de Medici’s rise to power in Florence was not always smooth. His carefully crafted persona as a pious patriot made him very popular, even though he held no official political title.
As Cosimo began to gain power among the people, the Albizzi family held sway over the government. The Albizzi family were not unpopular, as they ruled in a time of prosperity for Florence. However, the rival family saw the threat that Cosimo posed due to his wealth and influence over the citizens of Florence. They were not convinced by Cosimo’s pious persona. They managed to arrest him on the charges of attempting to raise himself above the average citizen, a serious offense in Florence, where modesty and humility were highly valued.
Cosimo’s adversaries planned to have him killed in prison, but Cosimo detected their plan and refused to eat anything, lest it had been poisoned.11 Seeing that they would not be able to kill him without raising suspicion, on September 7, 1433, Cosimo and his family were exiled. However, the government soon shifted in the favor of the Medici, and Cosimo made a triumphant return just over a year later. Cosimo became the head of a group of families, typically younger families determined to oppose the older families led by the Albizzi. The Albizzi family eventually made their way to Arezzo, which caused tension between the Medici and Arezzo for many years to come.Cosimo took great care to ensure that his return to power was reflected in every aspect of his life, especially in the art he commissioned.Cosimo commissioned a great variety of works from the most talented artists in Florence at the time. His patronage spanned personal, religious, and civic subjects. Each work he commissioned contained a specific message for a specific audience, depending on the context of the work. These works aimed to promote the strength and honor of the Medici family.
Cosimo de’ Medici was a powerful, wealthy man who gained power and control by connections, economic influence, and a persona portrayed through the art he commissioned. In each commission and business decision, Cosimo increased the strength and honor of the Medici family, and he was so beloved that when he died in 1464, the ruler of Florence gave the title pater patriae, or father of his country. He left a powerful legacy in the buildings he commissioned, including the churches of San Lorenzo and San Marco, as well as his own residence, the Medici Palace. He also left an economic legacy, as his son Piero became the wealthiest man in Europe at Cosimo’s death. Finally, Cosimo left a legacy in his family, who controlled Florence, one of the most powerful cities in Europe, until 1537. | <urn:uuid:922bb868-6f38-4dff-b779-7640f1505967> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://doowop-net.com/the-medici-family-were-merchants-and-bankers-who-had-enormous-impacts-over-the-city-of-florence-throughout-the-renaissance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.983343 | 1,657 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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-0.01862811669... | 2 | The Medici family were merchants and bankers who had enormous impacts over the city of Florence throughout the Renaissance. They managed the Medici bank, which at its peak was the biggest bank in Europe. The House Of Medici rose to power around the time of Giovanni de Medici who began the Medici bank and became leader of the merchants in Florence. His son Cosimo continued the family’s rise to power by becoming the leader of Florence.
The Medici were famous for their patronage of art throughout the Renaissance, and are said to be the reason why Florence became such a centre of the Renaissance in Italy. Patronage is a term to describe a rich person or a rich family that gives supports and making life easier for artists. For example, they economically help to artists for their major works of art. The Medici patronage had brought enormous effects on the Renaissance, allowing artist to give their attentions purely on their work without having to worry about financial problems. Thanks to the Medici family, a remarkable amount of the art and architecture was created in Florence toward the start of the Renaissance.
Lorenzo de Medici followed in Cosimos’s footsteps and ruled Florence though the peak of the Renaissance. He supported many artists including the now famous Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.
The powerful family ruled Florence until its decline in the late fifteenth century. In its time, the Medici family rose to positons of power throughout Europe.
The Medici have been called the “godfathers of the Renaissance.” Their accumulation of power in the early fifteenth century in Florence was orchestrated by Cosimo de’ Medici even though his family started with less wealth and political clout than other families in the oligarchy that ruled Florence at the time.
During this time the Medici (with Cosimo de’ Medici playing the key role) rose in power and largely consolidated control of business and politics in Florence. This paper looks at the Medici family’s rise to power and control over Florence. The main focus of the paper is on Cosimo de’ Medici, who is the man responsible for bringing his family to power.
Cosomo De Medici
Cosimo de’ Medici was born in 1389, into a wealthy banking family. His father,Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici, was already a successful businessman. In 1420 Giovanni di Bicci retired and handed over his various business and art ventures, including the bank to Cosimo.
Cosimo de’ Medici was one of the most famous personalities of Renaissance Florence and a great patron of the arts,especially architecture. He was also one the most powerful bankers in Florence, and eventually in all of Europe, thanks in part to his management of the Papacy’s finances. Cosimo’s influence in the art and the economic world made him very politically powerful, and he was posthumously given the title pater patriae, Latin for “father of his country.” His success was the beginning of the reign of the Medici family in Florence that lasted until well into the 17th century.
Cosimo de’ Medici was a very successful businessman. Cosimo gave a large part of his wealth to churches and other charitable institutions, and what he did not give away he used as a weapon to gain power, especially outside of Florence. Cosimo de’ Medici garnered a significant amount of power from his extensive family and the connections that this gave him.
As Professor Dale Kent has noted, “Cosimo became the family’s leading representative in the ruling group, its symbolic head, and the chief architect of family and party policy.”
For instance, Cosimo gave extensive loans to the Venetian Republic to help them fight off the French and the Duke of Milan. Cosimo’s financial assistance allowed the Venetians to successfully ward off the attack, which kept Florence safe from invasion. Conversely, when Venice and Naples united against Florence, Cosimo crippled their attacks by demanding that they pay their debts to the Medici bank, leaving them without any resources to continue the war.
Cosimo also had many personal connections that gave him influence in the political world . He attended meetings of humanists and had learned conversation with such men as Bruni,
Poggio, and Marsuppini, leading humanists in Florence. All of these men later became chancellors of the Republic, giving Cosimo considerable political influence through his friends.
As Dale Kent argued,
Cosimo succeeded in identifying the honor of the Medici family with that of the commune more completely than any citizen before him. He did this by making his friends and political supporters honorary extensions of this group, to be seen as dear as fathers, brothers, and sons in affection and obligation.
Cosimo used this and his wealth to influence policy, especially foreign policy. For example, he used his connections and economic power to arrange the Council of Florence in 1439, a meeting between the authorities of the Eastern and Western church. Cosimo housed all of the members of the council with his own resources, giving him ample opportunity to gain from the council.
This merging of Eastern and Western culture gave Cosimo and other humanists special opportunities to expand their learning. Cosimo de Medici’s rise to power in Florence was not always smooth. His carefully crafted persona as a pious patriot made him very popular, even though he held no official political title.
As Cosimo began to gain power among the people, the Albizzi family held sway over the government. The Albizzi family were not unpopular, as they ruled in a time of prosperity for Florence. However, the rival family saw the threat that Cosimo posed due to his wealth and influence over the citizens of Florence. They were not convinced by Cosimo’s pious persona. They managed to arrest him on the charges of attempting to raise himself above the average citizen, a serious offense in Florence, where modesty and humility were highly valued.
Cosimo’s adversaries planned to have him killed in prison, but Cosimo detected their plan and refused to eat anything, lest it had been poisoned.11 Seeing that they would not be able to kill him without raising suspicion, on September 7, 1433, Cosimo and his family were exiled. However, the government soon shifted in the favor of the Medici, and Cosimo made a triumphant return just over a year later. Cosimo became the head of a group of families, typically younger families determined to oppose the older families led by the Albizzi. The Albizzi family eventually made their way to Arezzo, which caused tension between the Medici and Arezzo for many years to come.Cosimo took great care to ensure that his return to power was reflected in every aspect of his life, especially in the art he commissioned.Cosimo commissioned a great variety of works from the most talented artists in Florence at the time. His patronage spanned personal, religious, and civic subjects. Each work he commissioned contained a specific message for a specific audience, depending on the context of the work. These works aimed to promote the strength and honor of the Medici family.
Cosimo de’ Medici was a powerful, wealthy man who gained power and control by connections, economic influence, and a persona portrayed through the art he commissioned. In each commission and business decision, Cosimo increased the strength and honor of the Medici family, and he was so beloved that when he died in 1464, the ruler of Florence gave the title pater patriae, or father of his country. He left a powerful legacy in the buildings he commissioned, including the churches of San Lorenzo and San Marco, as well as his own residence, the Medici Palace. He also left an economic legacy, as his son Piero became the wealthiest man in Europe at Cosimo’s death. Finally, Cosimo left a legacy in his family, who controlled Florence, one of the most powerful cities in Europe, until 1537. | 1,623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the early 1900s, a small number of Pocatello businesses displayed white only signs outside their restaurant. In the wake of World War I, African American veterans organized protests against segregation in many northern cities. In 1919, several men from Pocatello’s African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church entered the Louvre Café and attempted to be served despite that businesses' policy of racial segregation. The men sued the restaurant for discrimination, but failed to win their case.
In many cities during the 1920s--a decade that saw great hostility against immigrants and the revival of the Ku Klux Klan--a number of rural black families in Idaho were driven from homes and farms. In general, however, racial discrimination was more subtle, with black families being made to understand that they would not be welcome in white neighborhoods.
Residents of Pocatello recalled that during the 1940s and early 1950s, there were many restaurants and other establishments throughout the city where African Americans were made to understand that they were not welcome. The city's YMCA maintained a white only policy until African Americans in Pocatello led a protest against the organization in 1952. While the handful of white only signs in Pocatello were removed by the mid-1950s, African American residents still understood that they lived in an informally segregated community. | <urn:uuid:6bf9023b-4c33-45a0-8750-bea599d7adeb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/21279 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.985298 | 266 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.0239685103297... | 2 | In the early 1900s, a small number of Pocatello businesses displayed white only signs outside their restaurant. In the wake of World War I, African American veterans organized protests against segregation in many northern cities. In 1919, several men from Pocatello’s African Methodist Episcopal (AME) church entered the Louvre Café and attempted to be served despite that businesses' policy of racial segregation. The men sued the restaurant for discrimination, but failed to win their case.
In many cities during the 1920s--a decade that saw great hostility against immigrants and the revival of the Ku Klux Klan--a number of rural black families in Idaho were driven from homes and farms. In general, however, racial discrimination was more subtle, with black families being made to understand that they would not be welcome in white neighborhoods.
Residents of Pocatello recalled that during the 1940s and early 1950s, there were many restaurants and other establishments throughout the city where African Americans were made to understand that they were not welcome. The city's YMCA maintained a white only policy until African Americans in Pocatello led a protest against the organization in 1952. While the handful of white only signs in Pocatello were removed by the mid-1950s, African American residents still understood that they lived in an informally segregated community. | 294 | ENGLISH | 1 |
But in the case of Mars the progress of discovery has had a very different result. The most obvious peculiarity of this planet—its polar snow-caps—were seen about 250 years ago, but they were first proved to increase and decrease alternately, in the summer and winter of each hemisphere, by Sir William Herschell in the latter part of the eighteenth century. This fact gave the impulse to that idea of similarity in the conditions of Mars and the earth, which the recognition of many large dusky patches and streaks as water, and the more ruddy and brighter portions as land, further increased. Added to this, a day only about half an hour longer than our own, and a succession of seasons of the same character as ours but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year, seemed to leave little wanting to render this planet a true earth on a smaller scale. It was therefore very natural to suppose that it must be inhabited, and that we should some day obtain evidence of the fact.
The relation of the stars to the sun and moon in their respective motions was one of the earliest problems for the astronomer, and it was only solved by careful and continuous observation, which showed that the invisibility of the former during the day was wholly due to the blaze of light, and this is said to have been proved at an early period by the observed fact that from the bottom of very deep wells stars can be seen while the sun is shining. During total eclipses of the sun also the brighter stars become visible, and, taken in connection with the fixity of position of the pole-star, and the course of those circumpolar stars which never set in the latitudes of Greece, Egypt, and Chaldea, it soon became possible to frame a simple hypothesis which supposed the earth to be suspended in space, while at an unknown distance from it a crystal sphere revolved upon an axis indicated by the pole-star, and carried with it the whole host of heavenly bodies. This was the theory of Anaximander (540 B.C.), and it served as the starting-point for the more complex theory which continued to be held in various forms and with endless modifications down to the end of the sixteenth century.
It is believed that the early Greeks obtained some knowledge of astronomy from the Chaldeans, who appear to have been the first systematic observers of the heavenly bodies by means of instruments, and who are said to have discovered the cycle of eighteen years and ten days after which the sun and moon return to the same relative positions as seen from the earth. The Egyptians perhaps derived their knowledge from the same source, but there is no proof that they were great observers, and the accurate orientation, proportions, and angles of the Great Pyramid and its inner passages may perhaps indicate a Chaldean architect. | <urn:uuid:89b0c640-d14a-4086-8bc6-53f0ea9e3d5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=5qQVAAAAYAAJ&rdid=book-5qQVAAAAYAAJ&rdot=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00208.warc.gz | en | 0.980293 | 572 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2754091... | 3 | But in the case of Mars the progress of discovery has had a very different result. The most obvious peculiarity of this planet—its polar snow-caps—were seen about 250 years ago, but they were first proved to increase and decrease alternately, in the summer and winter of each hemisphere, by Sir William Herschell in the latter part of the eighteenth century. This fact gave the impulse to that idea of similarity in the conditions of Mars and the earth, which the recognition of many large dusky patches and streaks as water, and the more ruddy and brighter portions as land, further increased. Added to this, a day only about half an hour longer than our own, and a succession of seasons of the same character as ours but of nearly double the length owing to its much longer year, seemed to leave little wanting to render this planet a true earth on a smaller scale. It was therefore very natural to suppose that it must be inhabited, and that we should some day obtain evidence of the fact.
The relation of the stars to the sun and moon in their respective motions was one of the earliest problems for the astronomer, and it was only solved by careful and continuous observation, which showed that the invisibility of the former during the day was wholly due to the blaze of light, and this is said to have been proved at an early period by the observed fact that from the bottom of very deep wells stars can be seen while the sun is shining. During total eclipses of the sun also the brighter stars become visible, and, taken in connection with the fixity of position of the pole-star, and the course of those circumpolar stars which never set in the latitudes of Greece, Egypt, and Chaldea, it soon became possible to frame a simple hypothesis which supposed the earth to be suspended in space, while at an unknown distance from it a crystal sphere revolved upon an axis indicated by the pole-star, and carried with it the whole host of heavenly bodies. This was the theory of Anaximander (540 B.C.), and it served as the starting-point for the more complex theory which continued to be held in various forms and with endless modifications down to the end of the sixteenth century.
It is believed that the early Greeks obtained some knowledge of astronomy from the Chaldeans, who appear to have been the first systematic observers of the heavenly bodies by means of instruments, and who are said to have discovered the cycle of eighteen years and ten days after which the sun and moon return to the same relative positions as seen from the earth. The Egyptians perhaps derived their knowledge from the same source, but there is no proof that they were great observers, and the accurate orientation, proportions, and angles of the Great Pyramid and its inner passages may perhaps indicate a Chaldean architect. | 577 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the state of South Dakota, the Pine Ridge Reservation is home to the descendants of the Oglala Sioux Native American tribe. The children of Pine Ridge aspire to enroll in the Red Cloud High School with hopes of attending college. Many of their parent, suffer from alcoholism, a plague that has followed the Oglala Sioux since their first encounter with white settlers in the early 1800s. Poverty and discrimination have resulted in depression and despair which has yet to be fully addressed. The true story of the Native American experience remains misunderstood and in some cases neglected. They current day Oglala are the descendants of indigenous people whose home was a North American continent in which life was simple yet effective with languages largely unwritten and passed down through oral teaching. The Sioux were only one of hundreds of tribes, some of whom are now extinct such as the Canarsie Indians. Chief Luther Standing Bear (1868-1939) was born in Rosebud, South Dakota into the Oglala Sioux tribe and this is his story of his life and his people.
I found this enjoyable autobiography on Amazon while browsing through recommendations. I have always been curious about Native American history and the title quickly caught my attention. This story begins in Rosebud, South Dakota during Standing Bear’s childhood. Life is simple for the Sioux and he takes us through the motions, explaining daily life and the many customs practiced by their tribe. There is a good amount of information about the Sioux and their approach to life. Readers today may find some things strange but it is imperative to remember that this was a community that had no exposure at that time, to modern technology.
Life for the Sioux changes as the United States Government increases its policy of expansionism and begins to seize land home to native tribes. The new settlers introduce the Sioux to new foods and customs, and his descriptions about them are eye-opening and highlight the stark difference in culture between the two groups. But over time, the two groups become more acquainted with each other and the white settlers become determined to give the Sioux a formal education. Standing Bear enrolls the Carlisle Indian School under the direction of Captain Pratt who becomes one of the most important figures in his life as we read the book. And it is at this point, that his life is never the same and his path of education would take him places he never imagined. He adopted the English first name of Luther and it remained with him for the rest of his life.
As Standing Bear increases his knowledge and his expertise of the English language, he is accepted to work in a store owned by former United States Postmaster General John Wanamaker (1838-1922) which changes his view of the world and he soon realize that he must do what is possible to help his people the Sioux. He makes the tough decision to return to his home, with the intention of using his education and teaching skills to improve life for the Sioux. But the story soon take takes yet another turn as he meets and marries Nellie De Cory with whom he would father several children. And it is not long before opportunity comes knocking again and soon husband, wife and child are off to London as part of the traveling Buffalo Bill Show. He recalls life in England and how he and fellow tribesmen adjusted to show business on the road in a foreign country. Throughout all, he is the undisputed leader who lives an exemplary lifestyle founded on principle. His heritage as a Sioux is of the utmost importance and the words of his father are never far from his mind throughout the book.
Upon his return to the United States, his life takes a series of turns, and his next destination was California, headquarters for the motion picture industry. He finds work in Hollywood for a short time as an actor but quickly realizes that no one understands how to accurately portray Indians on screen. The non-existent presence of authentic Indians in motion pictures is not lost on him and he informs us at the book’s closing that he is planning on opening an Indian Employment Agency to help other Native Americans find work. However, his ultimate goal was to help other Indians make the transition from the plains to the white man’s world. Their world is foreign to us but Standing Bear knows this and his purpose here is to help you understand and appreciate the Sioux. On February 20, 1939, Standing Bear died from complications of the flue while filming ‘Union Pacific’ directed by Cecil B. DeMille (1881-1959). He was seventy-years old and had lived an extraordinary life as described within the pages of this book. | <urn:uuid:18a161be-1b34-4c94-bf36-3a03e9bd1271> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freethinkingbibliophile.com/tag/chief-standing-bear/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.983108 | 931 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.319651663... | 15 | In the state of South Dakota, the Pine Ridge Reservation is home to the descendants of the Oglala Sioux Native American tribe. The children of Pine Ridge aspire to enroll in the Red Cloud High School with hopes of attending college. Many of their parent, suffer from alcoholism, a plague that has followed the Oglala Sioux since their first encounter with white settlers in the early 1800s. Poverty and discrimination have resulted in depression and despair which has yet to be fully addressed. The true story of the Native American experience remains misunderstood and in some cases neglected. They current day Oglala are the descendants of indigenous people whose home was a North American continent in which life was simple yet effective with languages largely unwritten and passed down through oral teaching. The Sioux were only one of hundreds of tribes, some of whom are now extinct such as the Canarsie Indians. Chief Luther Standing Bear (1868-1939) was born in Rosebud, South Dakota into the Oglala Sioux tribe and this is his story of his life and his people.
I found this enjoyable autobiography on Amazon while browsing through recommendations. I have always been curious about Native American history and the title quickly caught my attention. This story begins in Rosebud, South Dakota during Standing Bear’s childhood. Life is simple for the Sioux and he takes us through the motions, explaining daily life and the many customs practiced by their tribe. There is a good amount of information about the Sioux and their approach to life. Readers today may find some things strange but it is imperative to remember that this was a community that had no exposure at that time, to modern technology.
Life for the Sioux changes as the United States Government increases its policy of expansionism and begins to seize land home to native tribes. The new settlers introduce the Sioux to new foods and customs, and his descriptions about them are eye-opening and highlight the stark difference in culture between the two groups. But over time, the two groups become more acquainted with each other and the white settlers become determined to give the Sioux a formal education. Standing Bear enrolls the Carlisle Indian School under the direction of Captain Pratt who becomes one of the most important figures in his life as we read the book. And it is at this point, that his life is never the same and his path of education would take him places he never imagined. He adopted the English first name of Luther and it remained with him for the rest of his life.
As Standing Bear increases his knowledge and his expertise of the English language, he is accepted to work in a store owned by former United States Postmaster General John Wanamaker (1838-1922) which changes his view of the world and he soon realize that he must do what is possible to help his people the Sioux. He makes the tough decision to return to his home, with the intention of using his education and teaching skills to improve life for the Sioux. But the story soon take takes yet another turn as he meets and marries Nellie De Cory with whom he would father several children. And it is not long before opportunity comes knocking again and soon husband, wife and child are off to London as part of the traveling Buffalo Bill Show. He recalls life in England and how he and fellow tribesmen adjusted to show business on the road in a foreign country. Throughout all, he is the undisputed leader who lives an exemplary lifestyle founded on principle. His heritage as a Sioux is of the utmost importance and the words of his father are never far from his mind throughout the book.
Upon his return to the United States, his life takes a series of turns, and his next destination was California, headquarters for the motion picture industry. He finds work in Hollywood for a short time as an actor but quickly realizes that no one understands how to accurately portray Indians on screen. The non-existent presence of authentic Indians in motion pictures is not lost on him and he informs us at the book’s closing that he is planning on opening an Indian Employment Agency to help other Native Americans find work. However, his ultimate goal was to help other Indians make the transition from the plains to the white man’s world. Their world is foreign to us but Standing Bear knows this and his purpose here is to help you understand and appreciate the Sioux. On February 20, 1939, Standing Bear died from complications of the flue while filming ‘Union Pacific’ directed by Cecil B. DeMille (1881-1959). He was seventy-years old and had lived an extraordinary life as described within the pages of this book. | 937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Count of Egmont descended from one of the richest and most influential families in the Low Countries. He was a cousin of the king of Spain through his mother's side. During his youth, he received a military education in Spain. In 1542, he inherited the estates of his brother Charles in Holland. His wealth increased again by his marriage to Sabina, Duchess of Bavaria in 1544.
In the service of the Spanish army, he defeated the French in the battles of Saint-Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). Egmont was appointed stadtholder of Flanders and Artesia in 1559.
As a nobleman, Egmont was a member of the Council of State. Together with William of Orange and the Count Horne he protested against the introduction of the inquisition in Flanders by cardinal Antoine Perrenot Granvelle, bishop of Arras. Egmont even threatened with his resignation, but after Granvelle left, there was a reconciliation with the king. In 1565, Egmont went to Philip II to plead for a change of policy in the Netherlands.
Shortly after, the Iconoclasm started, and the resistance against the Spanish rule in the Netherlands increased. As a devout catholic, Egmont deplored the iconoclasm, and he remained faithful to the Spanish king.
After Philip II sent the Duke of Alva to the Netherlands, William of Orange decided to flee Brussels; Egmont and Horne decided to stay in the city. After his arrival, Alva almost immediately had the counts of Egmont and Horne arrested, and they were accused of treason. Even though Egmont remained faithful to the king until the last moment, he was condemned to death, together with Count Horne.
On June 5, 1568, both men were decapitated on the Grote Markt in Brussels. Their death led to large protests in the Netherlands, and contributed to the resistance against the Spaniards. The Count of Egmont lies buried in Zottegem. | <urn:uuid:4969b237-e445-422f-8e73-4ed8bc4c2266> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.fact-index.com/c/co/count_of_egmont.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.983351 | 418 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.341513782... | 1 | The Count of Egmont descended from one of the richest and most influential families in the Low Countries. He was a cousin of the king of Spain through his mother's side. During his youth, he received a military education in Spain. In 1542, he inherited the estates of his brother Charles in Holland. His wealth increased again by his marriage to Sabina, Duchess of Bavaria in 1544.
In the service of the Spanish army, he defeated the French in the battles of Saint-Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). Egmont was appointed stadtholder of Flanders and Artesia in 1559.
As a nobleman, Egmont was a member of the Council of State. Together with William of Orange and the Count Horne he protested against the introduction of the inquisition in Flanders by cardinal Antoine Perrenot Granvelle, bishop of Arras. Egmont even threatened with his resignation, but after Granvelle left, there was a reconciliation with the king. In 1565, Egmont went to Philip II to plead for a change of policy in the Netherlands.
Shortly after, the Iconoclasm started, and the resistance against the Spanish rule in the Netherlands increased. As a devout catholic, Egmont deplored the iconoclasm, and he remained faithful to the Spanish king.
After Philip II sent the Duke of Alva to the Netherlands, William of Orange decided to flee Brussels; Egmont and Horne decided to stay in the city. After his arrival, Alva almost immediately had the counts of Egmont and Horne arrested, and they were accused of treason. Even though Egmont remained faithful to the king until the last moment, he was condemned to death, together with Count Horne.
On June 5, 1568, both men were decapitated on the Grote Markt in Brussels. Their death led to large protests in the Netherlands, and contributed to the resistance against the Spaniards. The Count of Egmont lies buried in Zottegem. | 429 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hadrian or Publius Aelius Hadrianus Augustus was Roman emperor from 117 AD to 138 AD. He was from a Hispano-Roman family. Moreover, he is known as the third of the Five Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius). Hadrian became popular for his building projects on the territory of the Roman Empire, especially, Hadrian’s Wall in Britain.
Hadrian was born in 76 AD near modern Seville, in Italica. His father was Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a senator of praetorian rank. Moreover, Hadrian’s mother was Domitia Paulina, daughter of a notable Hispano-Roman senatorial family from Gades. Hadrian had an elder sister, Aelia Domitia Paulina, and a great-nephew, Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who became Hadrian’s colleague as co-consul in 118 AD. Hadrian’s father spent most of his time out of Rome.
Hadrian was connected to emperor Trajan, who was his father’s first cousin. Also, Trajan adopted Hadrian before his death, since the emperor was childless. Moreover, his parents died in 86 AD, when he was only ten years old. He and his elder sister became under guardianship of Trajan and Publius Acilius Attianus.
Hadrian had passion for Greek literature and culture, which earned him the nickname Graeculus (Greekling)
His wife’s name was Pauline and they had a daughter, Julia Serviana Paulina.
When Hadrian became a new emperor, he rewarded the legions’ loyalty with the customary bonus. He spent some time in the east, suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under emperor Trajan. Hadrian was an excellent administrator and a person, who devoted himself to the army and its discipline.
Hadrian is known for the fact that he was absent from Rome for the most part of his reign
Interestingly, Hadrian’s main rivals were close friends of emperor Trajan, who were senior members of the imperial council. In 125 AD, Hadrian appointed Marcius Turbo as his Praetorian Prefect. His reign is most importantly marked for his building projects.
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Hadrian made a lot of significant building projects. For instance, he established cities throughout the Balkan Peninsula, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Greece. Moreover, the Arch of Hadrian, was constructed by the citizens of Athens in 131 AD, in honor to the Emperor as a founder of the city. The emperor dedicated several sites in Greece to his lover Antinous, who drowned in the Nile River in 130 AD. The death of young man affected Hadrian so much, so he had him deified. This is the reason how the cult in honor of Antinous grew.
Another important building project was the city of Antinopolis in Egypt. In Rome, Hadrian rebuilt many villas and buildings. Most of these constructions survived for centuries. The emperor had a passion for the architecture and took part in projects planning.
Hadrian rebuilt famous Pantheon in Rome, which had been destroyed by fire and Trajan’s Forum
Hadrian was travelling a lot. More than half of his reign was spent outside Italy. If previous emperors left Rome mostly because of wars and then returned back to the Eternal City, Hadrian travelled for various reasons. The emperor supported the implementation of provincial towns (municipia), semi-autonomous urban communities with their own laws in contrast to the creation of new Roman colonies with Roman constitutions.
One of the most important projects by Hadrian is Hadrian’s Wall in north Britain. Building of the wall was begun in 122 AD. It marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire in Britain. Since it was long and massive, the wall was also dedicated to show the power of Rome. Its original width was 9.7 feet (3 m) and height 16-20 feet (6 m) east of the River Irthing, made of stone, and 20 feet wide (6 m) by 11 feet high (3.5 m) west of the river, made of stone and turf. Overall, the Hadrian’s wall length was 73 miles (120 km).
Hadrian’s Wall was built in six years
Despite the fact that Hadrian was highly educated, his policy of peaceful relations was not always followed. In 130 AD, Hadrian visited Jerusalem, which was still in ruins after the First Roman-Jewish War of 66-73 AD. He rebuilt the city following his own plan and renamed it to Aelia Capitolina Jupiter Capitolinus in honor of himself and the king of the Roman gods. When he built a temple to Jupiter on the ruins of the Temple of Solomon, which is the so-called Second Temple, considered sacred to the Jews, the population rebelled under the leadership of Simon Bar-Kokhbah in what became known as the Kokhbah’s Rebellion (132-136 AD). Roman losses in This campaign were huge, but the Jewish losses weren’t less significant. By the time the uprising was crushed, 580,000 Jews had been killed and more than 1,000 cities and villages destroyed. Then Hadrian expelled the remaining Jews from the region and renamed it Syria Palaestina in honor of the traditional enemies of the Jewish people – the Philistines. He ordered the Torah to be publicly burned, executed Jewish scholars, and prohibited the practice and observance of Judaism.
When Hadrian returned to Rome, he started to write a poetry and participate in administrative affairs. He named as his successor Antoninus Pius with aim to make Antoninus adopt the yound Marcus Aurelius to follow him. Hadrian died in 138 AD, when he was 62. The main reason of his death was a heart attack. The emperor was buried first at Puteoli, but then Antnoninus Pius created the great Tomb of Hadrian in Rome and his body was cremated and the ashes placed to the tomb.
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
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0.09515795111656... | 1 | Hadrian or Publius Aelius Hadrianus Augustus was Roman emperor from 117 AD to 138 AD. He was from a Hispano-Roman family. Moreover, he is known as the third of the Five Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius). Hadrian became popular for his building projects on the territory of the Roman Empire, especially, Hadrian’s Wall in Britain.
Hadrian was born in 76 AD near modern Seville, in Italica. His father was Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer, a senator of praetorian rank. Moreover, Hadrian’s mother was Domitia Paulina, daughter of a notable Hispano-Roman senatorial family from Gades. Hadrian had an elder sister, Aelia Domitia Paulina, and a great-nephew, Gnaeus Pedanius Fuscus Salinator, who became Hadrian’s colleague as co-consul in 118 AD. Hadrian’s father spent most of his time out of Rome.
Hadrian was connected to emperor Trajan, who was his father’s first cousin. Also, Trajan adopted Hadrian before his death, since the emperor was childless. Moreover, his parents died in 86 AD, when he was only ten years old. He and his elder sister became under guardianship of Trajan and Publius Acilius Attianus.
Hadrian had passion for Greek literature and culture, which earned him the nickname Graeculus (Greekling)
His wife’s name was Pauline and they had a daughter, Julia Serviana Paulina.
When Hadrian became a new emperor, he rewarded the legions’ loyalty with the customary bonus. He spent some time in the east, suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under emperor Trajan. Hadrian was an excellent administrator and a person, who devoted himself to the army and its discipline.
Hadrian is known for the fact that he was absent from Rome for the most part of his reign
Interestingly, Hadrian’s main rivals were close friends of emperor Trajan, who were senior members of the imperial council. In 125 AD, Hadrian appointed Marcius Turbo as his Praetorian Prefect. His reign is most importantly marked for his building projects.
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Hadrian made a lot of significant building projects. For instance, he established cities throughout the Balkan Peninsula, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Greece. Moreover, the Arch of Hadrian, was constructed by the citizens of Athens in 131 AD, in honor to the Emperor as a founder of the city. The emperor dedicated several sites in Greece to his lover Antinous, who drowned in the Nile River in 130 AD. The death of young man affected Hadrian so much, so he had him deified. This is the reason how the cult in honor of Antinous grew.
Another important building project was the city of Antinopolis in Egypt. In Rome, Hadrian rebuilt many villas and buildings. Most of these constructions survived for centuries. The emperor had a passion for the architecture and took part in projects planning.
Hadrian rebuilt famous Pantheon in Rome, which had been destroyed by fire and Trajan’s Forum
Hadrian was travelling a lot. More than half of his reign was spent outside Italy. If previous emperors left Rome mostly because of wars and then returned back to the Eternal City, Hadrian travelled for various reasons. The emperor supported the implementation of provincial towns (municipia), semi-autonomous urban communities with their own laws in contrast to the creation of new Roman colonies with Roman constitutions.
One of the most important projects by Hadrian is Hadrian’s Wall in north Britain. Building of the wall was begun in 122 AD. It marked the northern boundary of the Roman Empire in Britain. Since it was long and massive, the wall was also dedicated to show the power of Rome. Its original width was 9.7 feet (3 m) and height 16-20 feet (6 m) east of the River Irthing, made of stone, and 20 feet wide (6 m) by 11 feet high (3.5 m) west of the river, made of stone and turf. Overall, the Hadrian’s wall length was 73 miles (120 km).
Hadrian’s Wall was built in six years
Despite the fact that Hadrian was highly educated, his policy of peaceful relations was not always followed. In 130 AD, Hadrian visited Jerusalem, which was still in ruins after the First Roman-Jewish War of 66-73 AD. He rebuilt the city following his own plan and renamed it to Aelia Capitolina Jupiter Capitolinus in honor of himself and the king of the Roman gods. When he built a temple to Jupiter on the ruins of the Temple of Solomon, which is the so-called Second Temple, considered sacred to the Jews, the population rebelled under the leadership of Simon Bar-Kokhbah in what became known as the Kokhbah’s Rebellion (132-136 AD). Roman losses in This campaign were huge, but the Jewish losses weren’t less significant. By the time the uprising was crushed, 580,000 Jews had been killed and more than 1,000 cities and villages destroyed. Then Hadrian expelled the remaining Jews from the region and renamed it Syria Palaestina in honor of the traditional enemies of the Jewish people – the Philistines. He ordered the Torah to be publicly burned, executed Jewish scholars, and prohibited the practice and observance of Judaism.
When Hadrian returned to Rome, he started to write a poetry and participate in administrative affairs. He named as his successor Antoninus Pius with aim to make Antoninus adopt the yound Marcus Aurelius to follow him. Hadrian died in 138 AD, when he was 62. The main reason of his death was a heart attack. The emperor was buried first at Puteoli, but then Antnoninus Pius created the great Tomb of Hadrian in Rome and his body was cremated and the ashes placed to the tomb.
Author: Kate Zusmann
For the last 6 years I live in the Eternal City. Traveling, exploring new things, writing blogs, shooting vlogs are my main hobbies, but the thing that I like even more is to share my experience and thoughts with you! Explore Rome with Us :)
Rome.us © 2020. All Rights Reserved | 1,370 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“We’re telling lies; we know we’re telling lies; we don’t tell the public the truth” (Lord Rothermere 1917). Many occurrences in one’s life may change them in a profound way, but the result are not as familiar. For example, settings of false hope and despair such as the Western Front during the Great War can cause feelings of uneasiness and emotional numbness to develop in an individual. In the novels All Quiet On The Western Front by Erich Remarque, and The Wars by Timothy Findley, the effects that war has on an individual’s consciousness are clearly displayed. In All Quiet On The Western Front, Paul Baumer slowly starts to learn how the effects of war are changing the way he views himself and his life in the present, but also the way he views what has taken place in his past and what his life will be like in the future. In The Wars, Robert Ross is on an undecided journey, questioning the apparent loss and dignity of humanity in the environment around him. This immersion into the relentless and foreign conflict of the Great War led both Baumer and Ross to develop symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder as they battled the internal and external conflicts that surrounded them. As a result of the horrors and tragedies around Paul and Robert, the characters go through the stages of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder which include a change in reality, turning point, and an ultimate acceptance as they question and reflect on their sense of worth and their dignity in the war. Once the Great War began both Baumer and Ross were sent to the Western Front. As they spend more time in the trenches they had to alter their view on reality and open themselves up to realize that death is common and the loss of human life should be expected. Paul Baumer joined the Great War as an innocent young nineteen year old boy. He was too inexperienced to understand the impacts that war had on the soldiers, especially himself. The Great War forced Baumer to face the new reality that death is now a frequent and driving force in his life, and that each human life is no longer revered and adored. He learns this lesson when his close friend, Kemmerich dies a slow and painful death in his arms. The only way he is able to show his emotions is by saying “I become faint, all at once I cannot do any more. I won’t revile any more, it is senseless, I could drop down and never rise up again” (Remarque 32). The death of Kemmerich dealt an emotional and physical blow to Baumer. This gives Baumer a new perspective into the Great War, that hidden cost not described when enlisting such as death come with every war, which can affects each and every soldier in different ways. Death is becoming a common event in Baumer’s life and he is accepting it without question. However, Baumer started to experience problems such as emotional numbing after this tragic event which is an early sign of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, it made him suppress his feelings of sadness and anger ultimately altering how he sees reality and destroying his feelings and relationships towards the other soldiers around him. Robert Ross was seen as a gentle, loving and caring person. However, after the death of his sister Rowena, he became unable to cope with all the situations taking place around him and he had to adapt and change his view on reality. The easiest way for him to do this, enlist in the war. This put stress on the already tense relationship he had with his mother since she believed he was the one to blame for Rowena’s death. Robert’s mother kept on pushing and abusing Robert mentally by making critical and hateful remarks towards him about the death of Rowena. This eventually let to Robert’s mother saying “Funny, she said, how most people fall down and nothing happens. Some people bruise like apples. But most people – nothing! Yes. While others die “(Findley 23). This led to Robert enlisting for the Great War so he could try to escape the memory of Rowena dying and extinguish the guilt and pity he had for himself. Beginning the early development of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder that has intensified the internal and external conflicts he has been having with himself about the death of Rowena, his mother and enlisting for the Great War. In war, men like Paul and Robert have to change how they see reality and adapt to their new way of life. However, it comes at a cost and often leads to the repeated exposure of events much like these and injuries that have a significant impact on the deterioration of both Robert and Paul’s mental states. As the novels continue, both Paul and Robert consistently must face the intense exposure and conflicts that come with the horrors of war on the Western Front. Paul and Robert often had to face the different “Brutalities, traumhaus, and violences that were common themes throughout the history of war, and they were especially prominent during the First World War.” (Joseph Zeppetello and Steven Pearlman) These brutalities, traumhaus, and violences from the Great War often took a heavy toll on both Paul and Robert’s conscious and how they viewed the changing world around them. The repeated exposure to these issues created individual turning points that put heavy strain on the mental and physical tasks required to survive in this treacherous environment. Only deteriorating their mental state more and more due to the immersion into the relentless conflict that was the Great War. Paul’s changes occur almost simultaneously when he gets to experience the ammetities of his childhood home again compared to the years he has spent on the Western Front. Paul’s leave from the front shows himself that the war has undisputedly changed his own life through his immersion into the conflict that was the Great War. As Paul reminisces with his family in his old house he feels dissimilar to the way he used to live. The books surrounding him are a symbol that he left for the war a young innocent nineteen year old child and came back a hardened war veteran with a deteriorating mental state and images of death and despair nobody would understand. He can no longer function in a place without conflict, which is why Paul feels so disoriented at his own home. The symbol of the books and his family represent his own turning point in the novel as Paul talks to himself and wants to “Speak to me – take me up – take me, Life of my Youth – you who are carefree, beautiful – receive me again” (Remarque 172). This quote describes how Paul is finally realizing that it is impossible for him to return to his old life. The Great War has reduced him to a numbed creature that he believes is only being used as a pawn in this conflict. His own mental state has deteriorated so much that he no longer can live a civilian life. The only place he feels truly at home is on the Western Front. | <urn:uuid:53a1b86e-d73a-4fe4-bd3d-77197bfddb44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://heliosenlighten.org/were-during-the-great-war-can-cause-feelings/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00197.warc.gz | en | 0.980504 | 1,435 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.575805068016... | 1 | “We’re telling lies; we know we’re telling lies; we don’t tell the public the truth” (Lord Rothermere 1917). Many occurrences in one’s life may change them in a profound way, but the result are not as familiar. For example, settings of false hope and despair such as the Western Front during the Great War can cause feelings of uneasiness and emotional numbness to develop in an individual. In the novels All Quiet On The Western Front by Erich Remarque, and The Wars by Timothy Findley, the effects that war has on an individual’s consciousness are clearly displayed. In All Quiet On The Western Front, Paul Baumer slowly starts to learn how the effects of war are changing the way he views himself and his life in the present, but also the way he views what has taken place in his past and what his life will be like in the future. In The Wars, Robert Ross is on an undecided journey, questioning the apparent loss and dignity of humanity in the environment around him. This immersion into the relentless and foreign conflict of the Great War led both Baumer and Ross to develop symptoms of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder as they battled the internal and external conflicts that surrounded them. As a result of the horrors and tragedies around Paul and Robert, the characters go through the stages of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder which include a change in reality, turning point, and an ultimate acceptance as they question and reflect on their sense of worth and their dignity in the war. Once the Great War began both Baumer and Ross were sent to the Western Front. As they spend more time in the trenches they had to alter their view on reality and open themselves up to realize that death is common and the loss of human life should be expected. Paul Baumer joined the Great War as an innocent young nineteen year old boy. He was too inexperienced to understand the impacts that war had on the soldiers, especially himself. The Great War forced Baumer to face the new reality that death is now a frequent and driving force in his life, and that each human life is no longer revered and adored. He learns this lesson when his close friend, Kemmerich dies a slow and painful death in his arms. The only way he is able to show his emotions is by saying “I become faint, all at once I cannot do any more. I won’t revile any more, it is senseless, I could drop down and never rise up again” (Remarque 32). The death of Kemmerich dealt an emotional and physical blow to Baumer. This gives Baumer a new perspective into the Great War, that hidden cost not described when enlisting such as death come with every war, which can affects each and every soldier in different ways. Death is becoming a common event in Baumer’s life and he is accepting it without question. However, Baumer started to experience problems such as emotional numbing after this tragic event which is an early sign of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, it made him suppress his feelings of sadness and anger ultimately altering how he sees reality and destroying his feelings and relationships towards the other soldiers around him. Robert Ross was seen as a gentle, loving and caring person. However, after the death of his sister Rowena, he became unable to cope with all the situations taking place around him and he had to adapt and change his view on reality. The easiest way for him to do this, enlist in the war. This put stress on the already tense relationship he had with his mother since she believed he was the one to blame for Rowena’s death. Robert’s mother kept on pushing and abusing Robert mentally by making critical and hateful remarks towards him about the death of Rowena. This eventually let to Robert’s mother saying “Funny, she said, how most people fall down and nothing happens. Some people bruise like apples. But most people – nothing! Yes. While others die “(Findley 23). This led to Robert enlisting for the Great War so he could try to escape the memory of Rowena dying and extinguish the guilt and pity he had for himself. Beginning the early development of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder that has intensified the internal and external conflicts he has been having with himself about the death of Rowena, his mother and enlisting for the Great War. In war, men like Paul and Robert have to change how they see reality and adapt to their new way of life. However, it comes at a cost and often leads to the repeated exposure of events much like these and injuries that have a significant impact on the deterioration of both Robert and Paul’s mental states. As the novels continue, both Paul and Robert consistently must face the intense exposure and conflicts that come with the horrors of war on the Western Front. Paul and Robert often had to face the different “Brutalities, traumhaus, and violences that were common themes throughout the history of war, and they were especially prominent during the First World War.” (Joseph Zeppetello and Steven Pearlman) These brutalities, traumhaus, and violences from the Great War often took a heavy toll on both Paul and Robert’s conscious and how they viewed the changing world around them. The repeated exposure to these issues created individual turning points that put heavy strain on the mental and physical tasks required to survive in this treacherous environment. Only deteriorating their mental state more and more due to the immersion into the relentless conflict that was the Great War. Paul’s changes occur almost simultaneously when he gets to experience the ammetities of his childhood home again compared to the years he has spent on the Western Front. Paul’s leave from the front shows himself that the war has undisputedly changed his own life through his immersion into the conflict that was the Great War. As Paul reminisces with his family in his old house he feels dissimilar to the way he used to live. The books surrounding him are a symbol that he left for the war a young innocent nineteen year old child and came back a hardened war veteran with a deteriorating mental state and images of death and despair nobody would understand. He can no longer function in a place without conflict, which is why Paul feels so disoriented at his own home. The symbol of the books and his family represent his own turning point in the novel as Paul talks to himself and wants to “Speak to me – take me up – take me, Life of my Youth – you who are carefree, beautiful – receive me again” (Remarque 172). This quote describes how Paul is finally realizing that it is impossible for him to return to his old life. The Great War has reduced him to a numbed creature that he believes is only being used as a pawn in this conflict. His own mental state has deteriorated so much that he no longer can live a civilian life. The only place he feels truly at home is on the Western Front. | 1,411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everyone knows the story of the Titanic: the unsinkable ship that sank. It was a marvel of modern engineering — the peak of luxury, at least for the people in first class — and also one of the most tragic events of the 20th century. Even 100 years after its fateful maiden voyage, the Titanic still intrigues people all over the world. There have been movies, musicals, and stories made of the incident, and it has been the subject of continuing scientific research. Here’s a quick rundown of the Titanic and its legacy.
Building the largest ship in the world
In its day, the Titanic was the largest movable manmade object in the world. When finished, the ship weighed 46,328 tons (about 92.5 million pounds), was 882 feet long and 175 feet high including the smokestacks.
The massive ship was built by Harland and Wolff shipbuilders in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It took 15,000 men almost three years and at a cost of $7.5 million. While that might not sound like a lot of money, in today’s terms, that’s equivalent to $166 million dollars.
Fun fact: Building the real Titanic was cheaper than making the movie “Titanic” in 1997. The movie had an estimated budget of $200-$315 million dollars.
The Titanic was built to compete with other luxury liners of the time like the Lusitania (pictured above) and the Mauretania. The Titanic was to outclass them in both speed and luxury. It featured 416 first-class rooms, 162 second-class rooms, and 262 third-class rooms for a total of 840 rooms. It was made to hold 3,547 people at one time. It’s been said that the second-class rooms on the Titanic were equivalent to first-class rooms on other ships. It also had a large, first-class dining room, ornate decorations, four elevators, and a swimming pool.
The ship also featured a state-of-the-art safety system. Sixteen compartments could be closed remotely from the bridge in the “highly unlikely” event that the double-hull was breached. These “watertight” compartments would hold air and keep the ship afloat. This is what led people to believe that the Titanic was unsinkable.
On the 10th of April 1912, the Titanic left the port in Southampton, England and made stops in France and Ireland before setting off to cross the Atlantic for New York. It was quite the spectacle, as no one had ever seen a ship that large before. Many of the passengers were wealthy business owners, dignitaries and celebrities.
Right off the bat, the Titanic nearly missed colliding with an American ship ironically named the S.S. New York. While no damage was sustained, the superstitious believed this to be a bad omen of things to come, especially on a ship’s maiden voyage.
Early into the trip there was a small coal fire in the engine rooms. Coal fires were relatively common in steamships, especially in one the size of the Titanic. The crew got it under control and claimed that it didn’t do any damage. Some experts believe that the fire actually became uncontrollable and forced the crew to cross the Atlantic at full speed to reach harbor — a speed which that make stopping for something, like perhaps an iceberg, nearly impossible.
As far as the passengers were concerned, the voyage had been rather normal and uneventful.
On the fourth day at sea, the crew started to get reports from other ships about ice in the area. They didn’t heed much of the warning because they thoroughly believed their ship was unsinkable. Around 11:40 p.m. on a clear night, a crew member spotted an iceberg in the distance. The captain did his best to avoid the ice: The engines were thrown in reverse to try and stop or slow the speeding ship as he turned the rudder hard to the side. The captain missed a head-on collision, but the iceberg scraped the side of the boat and penetrated six of the water-tight compartments.
The crew radioed for help using the newly-invented SOS signal, and a few minutes later, just after midnight, the command for passengers to head to the lifeboats was issued. Unfortunately, the Titanic only had 20 lifeboats, enough to carry 1,178 people. Regulations at the time required that lifeboats hold only 1,060 people, but the regulations weren’t made for a ship the size of the Titanic. There were no emergency drills conducted, so passengers were in a state of panic. In all the chaos, many of the lifeboats left without a full load.
The ship broke in half and plunged into the frigid Atlantic depths at 2:20 a.m. on April 15, 1912. In total, 68 percent of those on board the ship, or 1,517 people, were killed in the disaster. Most of them were second- and third-class passengers along with most of the crew.
An hour after the incident, a nearby ship named the Carpathia arrived and rescued the 705 people that made it into the lifeboats. No one who fell into the water survived. The accident led to the passing of several new safety regulations and became a warning of the dangers of hubris for generations to come. | <urn:uuid:cecfe9df-bd43-45b5-90ea-0d70761e2d2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.triviagenius.com/the-2-minute-history-of-the-titanic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.98485 | 1,127 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.21697482466... | 2 | Everyone knows the story of the Titanic: the unsinkable ship that sank. It was a marvel of modern engineering — the peak of luxury, at least for the people in first class — and also one of the most tragic events of the 20th century. Even 100 years after its fateful maiden voyage, the Titanic still intrigues people all over the world. There have been movies, musicals, and stories made of the incident, and it has been the subject of continuing scientific research. Here’s a quick rundown of the Titanic and its legacy.
Building the largest ship in the world
In its day, the Titanic was the largest movable manmade object in the world. When finished, the ship weighed 46,328 tons (about 92.5 million pounds), was 882 feet long and 175 feet high including the smokestacks.
The massive ship was built by Harland and Wolff shipbuilders in Belfast, Northern Ireland. It took 15,000 men almost three years and at a cost of $7.5 million. While that might not sound like a lot of money, in today’s terms, that’s equivalent to $166 million dollars.
Fun fact: Building the real Titanic was cheaper than making the movie “Titanic” in 1997. The movie had an estimated budget of $200-$315 million dollars.
The Titanic was built to compete with other luxury liners of the time like the Lusitania (pictured above) and the Mauretania. The Titanic was to outclass them in both speed and luxury. It featured 416 first-class rooms, 162 second-class rooms, and 262 third-class rooms for a total of 840 rooms. It was made to hold 3,547 people at one time. It’s been said that the second-class rooms on the Titanic were equivalent to first-class rooms on other ships. It also had a large, first-class dining room, ornate decorations, four elevators, and a swimming pool.
The ship also featured a state-of-the-art safety system. Sixteen compartments could be closed remotely from the bridge in the “highly unlikely” event that the double-hull was breached. These “watertight” compartments would hold air and keep the ship afloat. This is what led people to believe that the Titanic was unsinkable.
On the 10th of April 1912, the Titanic left the port in Southampton, England and made stops in France and Ireland before setting off to cross the Atlantic for New York. It was quite the spectacle, as no one had ever seen a ship that large before. Many of the passengers were wealthy business owners, dignitaries and celebrities.
Right off the bat, the Titanic nearly missed colliding with an American ship ironically named the S.S. New York. While no damage was sustained, the superstitious believed this to be a bad omen of things to come, especially on a ship’s maiden voyage.
Early into the trip there was a small coal fire in the engine rooms. Coal fires were relatively common in steamships, especially in one the size of the Titanic. The crew got it under control and claimed that it didn’t do any damage. Some experts believe that the fire actually became uncontrollable and forced the crew to cross the Atlantic at full speed to reach harbor — a speed which that make stopping for something, like perhaps an iceberg, nearly impossible.
As far as the passengers were concerned, the voyage had been rather normal and uneventful.
On the fourth day at sea, the crew started to get reports from other ships about ice in the area. They didn’t heed much of the warning because they thoroughly believed their ship was unsinkable. Around 11:40 p.m. on a clear night, a crew member spotted an iceberg in the distance. The captain did his best to avoid the ice: The engines were thrown in reverse to try and stop or slow the speeding ship as he turned the rudder hard to the side. The captain missed a head-on collision, but the iceberg scraped the side of the boat and penetrated six of the water-tight compartments.
The crew radioed for help using the newly-invented SOS signal, and a few minutes later, just after midnight, the command for passengers to head to the lifeboats was issued. Unfortunately, the Titanic only had 20 lifeboats, enough to carry 1,178 people. Regulations at the time required that lifeboats hold only 1,060 people, but the regulations weren’t made for a ship the size of the Titanic. There were no emergency drills conducted, so passengers were in a state of panic. In all the chaos, many of the lifeboats left without a full load.
The ship broke in half and plunged into the frigid Atlantic depths at 2:20 a.m. on April 15, 1912. In total, 68 percent of those on board the ship, or 1,517 people, were killed in the disaster. Most of them were second- and third-class passengers along with most of the crew.
An hour after the incident, a nearby ship named the Carpathia arrived and rescued the 705 people that made it into the lifeboats. No one who fell into the water survived. The accident led to the passing of several new safety regulations and became a warning of the dangers of hubris for generations to come. | 1,146 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The treadmill's dark and twisted past - Conor Heffernan
- 2,904,760 Views
- 7,756 Questions Answered
- TEDEd Animation
In the 1850s, the majority of people who broke the law were sent to prison as punishment. Depending on which prison they were sent to, prisoners could find themselves isolated for hours on end, unable to talk or interact with their fellow inmates. In other prisons, inmates would be given religious instruction and taught how to read and write. The reason for this great variation was that groups in Victorian England often disagreed about the correct way to treat England's prison population. Both agreed that the prison system needed to change, but few could agree about how to do it.
The treadmill was born out of this disagreement as a compromise between those who favored harsh punishments and those who stressed the need for reforming. The treadmill constituted 'hard labour', thereby punishing the prisoners, but it was seen to help rid the prisoners of idleness, thereby reforming their character as well.
Economic Reasons for the Treadmill
Aside from helping to reform prisoners, the treadmill also provided free labour to prison wardens. Originally the treadmill helped to crush grain, power mills or pump out water. This worked well enough in the early part of the 1800s as the English economy was still booming thanks to the early Industrial Revolution.
This all changed with the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 which caused many English laborers to lose their jobs. So dire was the employment situation that by the early 1820s it was decided that prison treadmills would no longer be allowed for business purposes thereby creating work for law abiding citizens. Whilst this decision brought many people back into the workforce, it meant that from the 1830s onwards the treadmills that prisoners spent up to 6 hours a day on were effectively pointless.
Differences between America and Great Britain
So popular was the treadmill that within 50 years of their creation treadmills could be found in over 100 prisons in across Great Britain. It wasn't long before treadmills began to pop up around the greater British Empire and not long after the treadmill found itself in the United States.
However, unlike Great Britain, the United States never really warmed to the idea of the treadmill. One of the reasons being that America had long used 'hard labour' such as cotton picking or rock breaking as a means of punishing convicts. The treadmill therefore offered little new to American prison wardens despite the fact that those who did use it, such as James Hardie, valued the treadmill quite highly. Interestingly, for a period of time slave owners in the South used the treadmill to punish runaway slaves but this was eventually stopped in favor of other forms of punishments.
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0.10776767879724... | 1 | The treadmill's dark and twisted past - Conor Heffernan
- 2,904,760 Views
- 7,756 Questions Answered
- TEDEd Animation
In the 1850s, the majority of people who broke the law were sent to prison as punishment. Depending on which prison they were sent to, prisoners could find themselves isolated for hours on end, unable to talk or interact with their fellow inmates. In other prisons, inmates would be given religious instruction and taught how to read and write. The reason for this great variation was that groups in Victorian England often disagreed about the correct way to treat England's prison population. Both agreed that the prison system needed to change, but few could agree about how to do it.
The treadmill was born out of this disagreement as a compromise between those who favored harsh punishments and those who stressed the need for reforming. The treadmill constituted 'hard labour', thereby punishing the prisoners, but it was seen to help rid the prisoners of idleness, thereby reforming their character as well.
Economic Reasons for the Treadmill
Aside from helping to reform prisoners, the treadmill also provided free labour to prison wardens. Originally the treadmill helped to crush grain, power mills or pump out water. This worked well enough in the early part of the 1800s as the English economy was still booming thanks to the early Industrial Revolution.
This all changed with the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 which caused many English laborers to lose their jobs. So dire was the employment situation that by the early 1820s it was decided that prison treadmills would no longer be allowed for business purposes thereby creating work for law abiding citizens. Whilst this decision brought many people back into the workforce, it meant that from the 1830s onwards the treadmills that prisoners spent up to 6 hours a day on were effectively pointless.
Differences between America and Great Britain
So popular was the treadmill that within 50 years of their creation treadmills could be found in over 100 prisons in across Great Britain. It wasn't long before treadmills began to pop up around the greater British Empire and not long after the treadmill found itself in the United States.
However, unlike Great Britain, the United States never really warmed to the idea of the treadmill. One of the reasons being that America had long used 'hard labour' such as cotton picking or rock breaking as a means of punishing convicts. The treadmill therefore offered little new to American prison wardens despite the fact that those who did use it, such as James Hardie, valued the treadmill quite highly. Interestingly, for a period of time slave owners in the South used the treadmill to punish runaway slaves but this was eventually stopped in favor of other forms of punishments.
Create and share a new lesson based on this one. | 598 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The natural law concept existed long before Locke as a way of expressing the idea that there were certain moral truths that applied to all people, regardless of the particular place where they lived or the agreements they had made. The most important early contrast was between laws that were by nature, and thus generally applicable, and those that were conventional and operated only in those places where the particular convention had been established. This distinction is sometimes formulated as the difference between natural law and positive law. Natural law is also distinct from divine law in that the latter, in the Christian tradition, normally referred to those laws that God had directly revealed through prophets and other inspired writers.
His mother was Agnes Keene. Both parents were Puritans.
Locke was born on 29 Augustin a small thatched cottage by the church in WringtonSomerset, about 12 miles from Bristol.
He was baptised the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensfordabout seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. InLocke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Pophama member of Parliament and his father's former commander.
After completing studies there, he was admitted to Christ ChurchOxfordin the autumn of at the age of twenty. The dean of the college at the time was John Owenvice-chancellor of the university.
Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. Through his friend Richard Lowerwhom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Societyof which he eventually became a member.
Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in February and a master's degree in June Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician.
In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening.
Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo surgery then life-threatening itself to remove the cyst.
Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. During this time, Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords Proprietor of Carolina, which helped to shape his ideas on international trade and economics.
Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour inLocke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks.
Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution ofrecent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date.
Although Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.
Locke fled to the Netherlands inunder strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plotalthough there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme.
The philosopher and novelist Rebecca Newberger Goldstein argues that during his five years in Holland, Locke chose his friends "from among the same freethinking members of dissenting Protestant groups as Spinoza's small group of loyal confidants.
Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied Mary II back to England in Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs.
During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton. He died on 28 Octoberand is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since Locke never married nor had children.
He did not quite see the Act of Union ofthough the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time. Ideas In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Locke's Two Treatises were rarely cited.
Historian Julian Hoppit said of the book, "except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the s it made little impression and was generally ignored until though in Oxford in it was reported to have made 'a great noise' ".
However, with the rise of American resistance to British taxation, the Second Treatise gained a new readership; it was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain.
The first American printing occurred in in Boston. Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State.Young Locke was there the same time as the poet and future apologist for Charles II, John Dryden () and was at school at the time of Charles I’s execution on the scaffolding erected in front of the nearby Banqueting House (Jan.
"John Locke (–)", The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics and Liberty (2nd ed.), Liberty Fund, Kraynak, Robert P. (March ). "John . May 05, · By Peter Smith. The life and times of John Locke, the English philosopher (part 1).
John Locke’s Political Philosophy, entry by Alexander Moseley, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy John Locke Bibliography, maintained by John Attig (Pennsylvania State University). Images of Locke, at the National Portrait Gallery, Great Britain.
John Locke was an English philosopher and political theorist during the s. He was also the founder of British empiricism.
He is known for his great contribution to the Enlightenment period, in which he gave people the idea of natural rights and a government that protects those rights.
Locke's writings helped found modern Western philosophy. Early Life. Influential philosopher and physician John Locke, whose writings had a significant impact on Western philosophy, was born on August 29, , in Wrington, a village in the English county of alphabetnyc.com: Aug 29, | <urn:uuid:95778eb9-4a5d-45fe-aa46-bc1483cbed32> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jylykoqegymev.alphabetnyc.com/the-life-and-times-of-john-locke-28143ll.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00003.warc.gz | en | 0.982859 | 1,398 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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-0.085396... | 1 | The natural law concept existed long before Locke as a way of expressing the idea that there were certain moral truths that applied to all people, regardless of the particular place where they lived or the agreements they had made. The most important early contrast was between laws that were by nature, and thus generally applicable, and those that were conventional and operated only in those places where the particular convention had been established. This distinction is sometimes formulated as the difference between natural law and positive law. Natural law is also distinct from divine law in that the latter, in the Christian tradition, normally referred to those laws that God had directly revealed through prophets and other inspired writers.
His mother was Agnes Keene. Both parents were Puritans.
Locke was born on 29 Augustin a small thatched cottage by the church in WringtonSomerset, about 12 miles from Bristol.
He was baptised the same day. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensfordabout seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton. InLocke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Pophama member of Parliament and his father's former commander.
After completing studies there, he was admitted to Christ ChurchOxfordin the autumn of at the age of twenty. The dean of the college at the time was John Owenvice-chancellor of the university.
Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. Through his friend Richard Lowerwhom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Societyof which he eventually became a member.
Locke was awarded a bachelor's degree in February and a master's degree in June Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. Locke had been looking for a career and in moved into Shaftesbury's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as Lord Ashley's personal physician.
In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Shaftesbury's liver infection became life-threatening.
Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to undergo surgery then life-threatening itself to remove the cyst.
Shaftesbury survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. During this time, Locke served as Secretary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secretary to the Lords Proprietor of Carolina, which helped to shape his ideas on international trade and economics.
Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor in Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour inLocke spent some time travelling across France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks.
Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution ofrecent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date.
Although Locke was associated with the influential Whigs, his ideas about natural rights and government are today considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.
Locke fled to the Netherlands inunder strong suspicion of involvement in the Rye House Plotalthough there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme.
The philosopher and novelist Rebecca Newberger Goldstein argues that during his five years in Holland, Locke chose his friends "from among the same freethinking members of dissenting Protestant groups as Spinoza's small group of loyal confidants.
Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied Mary II back to England in Locke's close friend Lady Masham invited him to join her at the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from asthma attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs.
During this period he discussed matters with such figures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton. He died on 28 Octoberand is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver east of Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since Locke never married nor had children.
He did not quite see the Act of Union ofthough the thrones of England and Scotland were held in personal union throughout his lifetime. Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy were in their infancy during Locke's time. Ideas In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Locke's Two Treatises were rarely cited.
Historian Julian Hoppit said of the book, "except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the s it made little impression and was generally ignored until though in Oxford in it was reported to have made 'a great noise' ".
However, with the rise of American resistance to British taxation, the Second Treatise gained a new readership; it was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain.
The first American printing occurred in in Boston. Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the realms of Church and State.Young Locke was there the same time as the poet and future apologist for Charles II, John Dryden () and was at school at the time of Charles I’s execution on the scaffolding erected in front of the nearby Banqueting House (Jan.
"John Locke (–)", The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics and Liberty (2nd ed.), Liberty Fund, Kraynak, Robert P. (March ). "John . May 05, · By Peter Smith. The life and times of John Locke, the English philosopher (part 1).
John Locke’s Political Philosophy, entry by Alexander Moseley, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy John Locke Bibliography, maintained by John Attig (Pennsylvania State University). Images of Locke, at the National Portrait Gallery, Great Britain.
John Locke was an English philosopher and political theorist during the s. He was also the founder of British empiricism.
He is known for his great contribution to the Enlightenment period, in which he gave people the idea of natural rights and a government that protects those rights.
Locke's writings helped found modern Western philosophy. Early Life. Influential philosopher and physician John Locke, whose writings had a significant impact on Western philosophy, was born on August 29, , in Wrington, a village in the English county of alphabetnyc.com: Aug 29, | 1,374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
affirmative action existed even in the 19th century
Burnside had trained a division of United States Colored Troops (USCT) under Brig. Gen. Edward Ferrero to lead the assault. Two regiments were to leave the attack column and extend the breach by rushing perpendicular to the crater, while the remaining regiments were to rush through, seizing the Jerusalem Plank Road. Burnside's two other divisions, made up of white troops, would then move in, supporting Ferrero's flanks and race for Petersburg itself. However, the day before the attack, Meade, who lacked confidence in the operation, ordered Burnside not to use the black troops in the lead assault, claiming that if the attack failed black soldiers would be killed needlessly, creating political repercussions in the North. Burnside protested to General Grant, who sided with Meade. When volunteers were not forthcoming Burnside selected a replacement white division by having the three commanders draw lots. Brig. Gen. James H. Ledlie's 1st Division was selected, but he failed to brief the men on what was expected of them and was reported during the battle to be drunk, well behind the lines, and providing no leadership. (Ledlie was later dismissed for his actions during the battle.)
Sketch of the explosion seen from the Union line.
At 4:44 a.m. on July 30, the charges exploded in a massive shower of earth, men, and guns. A crater (still visible today) was created, 170 feet (52 m) long, 60 to 80 feet (24 m) wide, and 30 feet (9.1 m) deep. The blast destroyed the Confederate fortifications in the immediate vicinity, and instantly killed between 250 and 350 Confederate soldiers. Ledlie's untrained white division was not prepared for the explosion, and reports indicate they waited ten minutes before leaving their own entrenchments. Once they had wandered to the crater, instead of moving around it as the black troops had been trained to do, they moved down into the crater itself. Since this was not the planned movement, there were no ladders provided for the men to use in exiting the crater. The Confederates, under Maj. Gen. William Mahone, gathered as many troops together as they could for a counterattack. In about an hour's time, they had formed up around the crater and began firing rifles and artillery down into it, in what Mahone later described as a "turkey shoot". The plan had failed, but Burnside, instead of cutting his losses, sent in Ferrero's men. Now faced with considerable flanking fire, they also went down into the crater, and for the next few hours, Mahone's soldiers, along with those of Maj. Gen. Bushrod Johnson and artillery, slaughtered the men of the IX Corps as they attempted to escape from the crater. Some Union troops eventually advanced and flanked to the right beyond the Crater to the earthworks and assaulted the Confederate lines, driving the Confederates back for several hours in hand-to-hand combat. Mahone's Confederates conducted a sweep out of a sunken gully area about 200 yards (180 m) from the right side of the Union advance. This charge reclaimed the earthworks and drove the Union force back towards the east.
Grant wrote that, "It was the saddest affair I have witnessed in the war." Union casualties were 3,798 (504 killed, 1,881 wounded, 1,413 missing or captured), Confederate casualties were approximately 1,500 (200 killed, 900 wounded, 400 missing or captured). Many of these losses were suffered by Ferrero's division of the USCT. Burnside was relieved of command.[ | <urn:uuid:d4d16605-c456-44af-a90e-dc9f08db6c3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zigforums.com/thread/750373/britain/brit-pol-2313-for-him-edition.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.980219 | 758 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.568222... | 1 | affirmative action existed even in the 19th century
Burnside had trained a division of United States Colored Troops (USCT) under Brig. Gen. Edward Ferrero to lead the assault. Two regiments were to leave the attack column and extend the breach by rushing perpendicular to the crater, while the remaining regiments were to rush through, seizing the Jerusalem Plank Road. Burnside's two other divisions, made up of white troops, would then move in, supporting Ferrero's flanks and race for Petersburg itself. However, the day before the attack, Meade, who lacked confidence in the operation, ordered Burnside not to use the black troops in the lead assault, claiming that if the attack failed black soldiers would be killed needlessly, creating political repercussions in the North. Burnside protested to General Grant, who sided with Meade. When volunteers were not forthcoming Burnside selected a replacement white division by having the three commanders draw lots. Brig. Gen. James H. Ledlie's 1st Division was selected, but he failed to brief the men on what was expected of them and was reported during the battle to be drunk, well behind the lines, and providing no leadership. (Ledlie was later dismissed for his actions during the battle.)
Sketch of the explosion seen from the Union line.
At 4:44 a.m. on July 30, the charges exploded in a massive shower of earth, men, and guns. A crater (still visible today) was created, 170 feet (52 m) long, 60 to 80 feet (24 m) wide, and 30 feet (9.1 m) deep. The blast destroyed the Confederate fortifications in the immediate vicinity, and instantly killed between 250 and 350 Confederate soldiers. Ledlie's untrained white division was not prepared for the explosion, and reports indicate they waited ten minutes before leaving their own entrenchments. Once they had wandered to the crater, instead of moving around it as the black troops had been trained to do, they moved down into the crater itself. Since this was not the planned movement, there were no ladders provided for the men to use in exiting the crater. The Confederates, under Maj. Gen. William Mahone, gathered as many troops together as they could for a counterattack. In about an hour's time, they had formed up around the crater and began firing rifles and artillery down into it, in what Mahone later described as a "turkey shoot". The plan had failed, but Burnside, instead of cutting his losses, sent in Ferrero's men. Now faced with considerable flanking fire, they also went down into the crater, and for the next few hours, Mahone's soldiers, along with those of Maj. Gen. Bushrod Johnson and artillery, slaughtered the men of the IX Corps as they attempted to escape from the crater. Some Union troops eventually advanced and flanked to the right beyond the Crater to the earthworks and assaulted the Confederate lines, driving the Confederates back for several hours in hand-to-hand combat. Mahone's Confederates conducted a sweep out of a sunken gully area about 200 yards (180 m) from the right side of the Union advance. This charge reclaimed the earthworks and drove the Union force back towards the east.
Grant wrote that, "It was the saddest affair I have witnessed in the war." Union casualties were 3,798 (504 killed, 1,881 wounded, 1,413 missing or captured), Confederate casualties were approximately 1,500 (200 killed, 900 wounded, 400 missing or captured). Many of these losses were suffered by Ferrero's division of the USCT. Burnside was relieved of command.[ | 801 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Farewell to Arms was published 11 years after World War I ended. Hemingway did not feel obligated to explain geographical or political references, as they were well remembered by most of his audience. Known originally as the Great War, World War I (1914-1918) pitted the Allied Forces (Great Britain, Italy, France, Japan, and Russia, joined by the United States in 1917) against the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Germany). The majority of the novel's fighting takes place in the Alps, along the northeastern border of Italy and Austria. Henry recovers in a Milan hospital, in northern Italy, far from the front lines, and convalesces in Stresa, a lakeside resort town in the northwestern corner of Italy, near the border with Switzerland.
World War I was a harrowing war that took the lives of more than 8 million soldiers and injured more than 21 million others. Almost the entire war was fought using an intricate maze of trenches, where soldiers ate, slept, and fought. Life in the trenches was brutal. Soldiers lived in narrow holes dug in the ground, often exposed to challenging conditions, including bad weather, insects, and rodents. Nearby latrines and mass graves contributed to trench filth and stench. Soldiers were given daily rations of food, but supplies could be dangerous to distribute, which meant soldiers often went without, especially toward the end of the war. Additionally, World War I was the first war in which combatants used chemical weapons. Victims of chemical attacks were defenseless, and they died painful, sickening deaths.
During World War I, governments used propaganda to encourage young men to defend their country's honor by fighting on the front. Chasing wartime glory, young men signed up in droves, unaware of what war was really like. Even before the United States entered the war in 1917, many Americans volunteered on the Allied side. Henry is one of these volunteers, having signed up to be an ambulance driver in the Italian army. As the conflict dragged on, however, volunteer forces were not enough to sustain the war effort. Governments had to draft young men into service to fill out their armed forces.
Upon arriving at the front, however, some soldiers became disillusioned. Those who survived the war were often scarred by their experiences. Gertrude Stein, a mentor of Hemingway's, referred to these young people as "a lost generation." The name Lost Generation came to apply to the group of artists and writers--including Hemingway--who came of age during World War I. For them the war was a common theme in their work. A Farewell to Arms, for example, describes the disorganization, bewilderment, and mindless tragedy of the war. These descriptions place the novel in the genre of antiwar literature.
American audiences loved A Farewell to Arms when it was first released. Publishing wartime novels was in vogue in the late 1920s, yet the New York Times called Hemingway's venture "unique ... moving and beautiful." Still, his manuscript was censored at publication; publishers feared that its "barracks talk" would be too offensive. International audiences were not as enamored of Hemingway's depiction of the war. Italy banned the book for its less-than-ideal portrayal of the Italian army. Hemingway even went so far as to publish a disclaimer reminding Italian audiences that the novel was a work of fiction and not based on his experiences, but to no avail. A Farewell to Arms would not be printed or sold in Italy until after World War II. | <urn:uuid:fcfc673f-dadc-4763-992c-aa60aac8e1c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bbuio.it/moodle/course/index.php?categoryid=23 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.98153 | 738 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.61007547378... | 2 | A Farewell to Arms was published 11 years after World War I ended. Hemingway did not feel obligated to explain geographical or political references, as they were well remembered by most of his audience. Known originally as the Great War, World War I (1914-1918) pitted the Allied Forces (Great Britain, Italy, France, Japan, and Russia, joined by the United States in 1917) against the Central Powers (Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Germany). The majority of the novel's fighting takes place in the Alps, along the northeastern border of Italy and Austria. Henry recovers in a Milan hospital, in northern Italy, far from the front lines, and convalesces in Stresa, a lakeside resort town in the northwestern corner of Italy, near the border with Switzerland.
World War I was a harrowing war that took the lives of more than 8 million soldiers and injured more than 21 million others. Almost the entire war was fought using an intricate maze of trenches, where soldiers ate, slept, and fought. Life in the trenches was brutal. Soldiers lived in narrow holes dug in the ground, often exposed to challenging conditions, including bad weather, insects, and rodents. Nearby latrines and mass graves contributed to trench filth and stench. Soldiers were given daily rations of food, but supplies could be dangerous to distribute, which meant soldiers often went without, especially toward the end of the war. Additionally, World War I was the first war in which combatants used chemical weapons. Victims of chemical attacks were defenseless, and they died painful, sickening deaths.
During World War I, governments used propaganda to encourage young men to defend their country's honor by fighting on the front. Chasing wartime glory, young men signed up in droves, unaware of what war was really like. Even before the United States entered the war in 1917, many Americans volunteered on the Allied side. Henry is one of these volunteers, having signed up to be an ambulance driver in the Italian army. As the conflict dragged on, however, volunteer forces were not enough to sustain the war effort. Governments had to draft young men into service to fill out their armed forces.
Upon arriving at the front, however, some soldiers became disillusioned. Those who survived the war were often scarred by their experiences. Gertrude Stein, a mentor of Hemingway's, referred to these young people as "a lost generation." The name Lost Generation came to apply to the group of artists and writers--including Hemingway--who came of age during World War I. For them the war was a common theme in their work. A Farewell to Arms, for example, describes the disorganization, bewilderment, and mindless tragedy of the war. These descriptions place the novel in the genre of antiwar literature.
American audiences loved A Farewell to Arms when it was first released. Publishing wartime novels was in vogue in the late 1920s, yet the New York Times called Hemingway's venture "unique ... moving and beautiful." Still, his manuscript was censored at publication; publishers feared that its "barracks talk" would be too offensive. International audiences were not as enamored of Hemingway's depiction of the war. Italy banned the book for its less-than-ideal portrayal of the Italian army. Hemingway even went so far as to publish a disclaimer reminding Italian audiences that the novel was a work of fiction and not based on his experiences, but to no avail. A Farewell to Arms would not be printed or sold in Italy until after World War II. | 755 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Topeka is the capital city of the state of Kansas. It is also the county seat of Shawnee County. Located along the Kansas River, Topeka is a city of about 127,000 people and is part of a greater metropolitan area of about 233,000 people.
The Topeka name is from the Kansas-Osage Native American tribes and means “place where we dug potatoes.” It alternately means “a good place to dig potatoes.” The name Topeka was recorded for the first known time in 1826 as the name the Kansa Native American tribe gave to the Kansas River. The founders of Topeka chose this name as the official name of the city in 1855 because, according to them, it was “novel, of Indian origin, and euphonious of sound.”
A half Kansa tribe/half-white man named Joseph James is usually credited with suggesting the name Topeka for the city. The city was laid out on a map in 1854 and was established by eastern Abolitionists. It was a free city in a free state and founded right after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Topeka received its official city charter in 1857.
Topeka is the site of some important historical moments in American history. One of the most famous moments to take place there was the US Supreme Court case, Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka. This landmark ruling overturned the Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling and declared that segregation by race in public schools was now illegal in the United States. There are three U.S. Navy ships named the USS Topeka after this important US city.
As for the history of Topeka, it was home to Native American tribes for thousands of years. In the 1500s to the mid-1700s, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of the area that is now Topeka, along with much of North America. After the French and Indian War in the mid-1700s, France ceded most of its North American land to Spain in a secret treaty called the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Spain returned most of this land to France forty years later. The next year after Spain returned the land to France, the United States bought it from them in 1803, and this land included the land that is now Topeka.
Wagon trains made their way to Topeka in the 1840s, on their way west from Independence, Missouri on what became known as the Oregon Trail. Topeka was part of this trail. In Topeka at the time were three sisters who were half-Kansas Native American, and they were married to the Pappan brothers, who were a French-Canadian family. These three couples established a ferry service over the Kansas River at Topeka. This was the only way westward travelers could reliably cross the river, as there were not many other ways to cross in the area; anyone looking for another way would have had to travel hundreds or even thousands of miles out of their way to do it.
The traffic along the Oregon Trail in Topeka was supplemented the next decade by trade on the new military road leading from Fort Leavenworth. The road went through Topeka and ended at the new Fort Riley. In 1854, nine men built a cabin in Topeka and established the Topeka Town Association. A man named Cyrus Holliday was among the group, and was considered to be an “idea man.” He became the first mayor of Topeka and was the founder of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad.
After the establishment of the cabins at Topeka, steamboats began to dock at the Topeka landing. Once docked, they brought meat, flour, and lumber to the western frontier town. They then returned to the east with potatoes, wheat, and corn they obtained at Topeka. With such a healthy trade going on, Topeka was a thriving commercial hub by the time the Civil War ended, and it was able to offer its residents many of the highest technology comforts of the era.
The state capitol building, newly built in Topeka, was first used in 1869, after moving from Constitution Hall. Constitution Hall, which was located on South Kansas Avenue, was where abolitionists gathered in the mid-1850s to write the first of the state’s eventual four constitutions. Today, the National Park Service celebrates Constitution Hall in Topeka as the headquarters of the Lane Trail to Freedom on the Underground Railroad.
The growth of Topeka as a city slowed somewhat after a drought in 1860, and then the Civil War. But, it picked back up again after the war and kept pace with the other metropolitan cities in the area. The city thrived from 1865 to 1870, as it bounced back from its previous hardships. In the 1870s, lots of former slaves came to Topeka, settling on the east side of Lincoln Street between Munson and 12th Streets; these settlers called themselves the Exodusters. The area of the city where they settled was called Tennessee Town because so many of the Exodusters came from that state. The first African-American Kindergarten was established in Topeka in 1893 by Dr. Charles Sheldon, the pastor of the Central Congregational Church.
A college was established in Topeka in 1865 by a charter issue of the state of Kansas. It was called Lincoln College but is today known as Washburn University. The railroad that went from the east to Topeka moved westward toward new frontiers in the west in 1869. General offices and machine shops for the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad were built in Topeka in 1878.
There was a housing boom in Topeka in the late 1880s, where investors speculated on housing lots in town. When the bubble burst in 1889, it ruined many of the investors. However, the population of the town doubled during the housing boom period, and most citizens were able to get through the localized financial depression of the 1890s just fine.
The automobile industry created another financial boom in Topeka in the early 20th century. The Smith Automobile Company made Topeka its home for a decade in the early 20th century. Topeka is a healthy, popular modern city today. | <urn:uuid:5659232f-46e4-4ce4-956f-488121369aa6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ancestralfindings.com/the-state-capitals-kansas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.985191 | 1,294 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1222951710... | 5 | Topeka is the capital city of the state of Kansas. It is also the county seat of Shawnee County. Located along the Kansas River, Topeka is a city of about 127,000 people and is part of a greater metropolitan area of about 233,000 people.
The Topeka name is from the Kansas-Osage Native American tribes and means “place where we dug potatoes.” It alternately means “a good place to dig potatoes.” The name Topeka was recorded for the first known time in 1826 as the name the Kansa Native American tribe gave to the Kansas River. The founders of Topeka chose this name as the official name of the city in 1855 because, according to them, it was “novel, of Indian origin, and euphonious of sound.”
A half Kansa tribe/half-white man named Joseph James is usually credited with suggesting the name Topeka for the city. The city was laid out on a map in 1854 and was established by eastern Abolitionists. It was a free city in a free state and founded right after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Topeka received its official city charter in 1857.
Topeka is the site of some important historical moments in American history. One of the most famous moments to take place there was the US Supreme Court case, Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka. This landmark ruling overturned the Plessy vs. Ferguson ruling and declared that segregation by race in public schools was now illegal in the United States. There are three U.S. Navy ships named the USS Topeka after this important US city.
As for the history of Topeka, it was home to Native American tribes for thousands of years. In the 1500s to the mid-1700s, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of the area that is now Topeka, along with much of North America. After the French and Indian War in the mid-1700s, France ceded most of its North American land to Spain in a secret treaty called the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Spain returned most of this land to France forty years later. The next year after Spain returned the land to France, the United States bought it from them in 1803, and this land included the land that is now Topeka.
Wagon trains made their way to Topeka in the 1840s, on their way west from Independence, Missouri on what became known as the Oregon Trail. Topeka was part of this trail. In Topeka at the time were three sisters who were half-Kansas Native American, and they were married to the Pappan brothers, who were a French-Canadian family. These three couples established a ferry service over the Kansas River at Topeka. This was the only way westward travelers could reliably cross the river, as there were not many other ways to cross in the area; anyone looking for another way would have had to travel hundreds or even thousands of miles out of their way to do it.
The traffic along the Oregon Trail in Topeka was supplemented the next decade by trade on the new military road leading from Fort Leavenworth. The road went through Topeka and ended at the new Fort Riley. In 1854, nine men built a cabin in Topeka and established the Topeka Town Association. A man named Cyrus Holliday was among the group, and was considered to be an “idea man.” He became the first mayor of Topeka and was the founder of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad.
After the establishment of the cabins at Topeka, steamboats began to dock at the Topeka landing. Once docked, they brought meat, flour, and lumber to the western frontier town. They then returned to the east with potatoes, wheat, and corn they obtained at Topeka. With such a healthy trade going on, Topeka was a thriving commercial hub by the time the Civil War ended, and it was able to offer its residents many of the highest technology comforts of the era.
The state capitol building, newly built in Topeka, was first used in 1869, after moving from Constitution Hall. Constitution Hall, which was located on South Kansas Avenue, was where abolitionists gathered in the mid-1850s to write the first of the state’s eventual four constitutions. Today, the National Park Service celebrates Constitution Hall in Topeka as the headquarters of the Lane Trail to Freedom on the Underground Railroad.
The growth of Topeka as a city slowed somewhat after a drought in 1860, and then the Civil War. But, it picked back up again after the war and kept pace with the other metropolitan cities in the area. The city thrived from 1865 to 1870, as it bounced back from its previous hardships. In the 1870s, lots of former slaves came to Topeka, settling on the east side of Lincoln Street between Munson and 12th Streets; these settlers called themselves the Exodusters. The area of the city where they settled was called Tennessee Town because so many of the Exodusters came from that state. The first African-American Kindergarten was established in Topeka in 1893 by Dr. Charles Sheldon, the pastor of the Central Congregational Church.
A college was established in Topeka in 1865 by a charter issue of the state of Kansas. It was called Lincoln College but is today known as Washburn University. The railroad that went from the east to Topeka moved westward toward new frontiers in the west in 1869. General offices and machine shops for the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad were built in Topeka in 1878.
There was a housing boom in Topeka in the late 1880s, where investors speculated on housing lots in town. When the bubble burst in 1889, it ruined many of the investors. However, the population of the town doubled during the housing boom period, and most citizens were able to get through the localized financial depression of the 1890s just fine.
The automobile industry created another financial boom in Topeka in the early 20th century. The Smith Automobile Company made Topeka its home for a decade in the early 20th century. Topeka is a healthy, popular modern city today. | 1,392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paraguay, it turns out, owes much to Russia. Thanks largely to a few dozen Russian officers, the country emerged victorious in an almost unwinnable war, and doubled its territory in the process.
The Chaco War (1932-1935) between Bolivia and Paraguay was the bloodiest conflict in Latin America, in which well-over 100,000 lives were lost. It was also the first air-war fought in South America. It is a war little remembered now. A key role in the hostilities was played by Russian and German émigré officers on the two warring sides. It was, in effect, a continuation of WWI on another continent.
For decades, Paraguay and Bolivia had bickered over the vast region of Gran Chaco. Both considered it as its own, yet neither risked an open confrontation. That was until 1928, when geologists claimed that this sparsely populated, impassable territory could be a source of oil.
Asuncion and La Paz (the administrative capital of Bolivia) were soon at each other’s throats. And oil companies added literal fuel to the metaphorical fire. The sworn enemies Standard Oil (a U.S. company supporting Bolivia) and Royal-Dutch Shell (an Anglo-Dutch company backing Paraguay) saw great prospects in Gran Chaco.
The first clash occurred between a Paraguayan cavalry detachment and Bolivian police in August 1928. All-out war was prevented only through the intervention of the League of Nations. Four years later, however, the organization was powerless to do anything. On June 15, 1932, the Bolivian army launched a surprise attack on Paraguayan outposts in the disputed territory.
Tiny Paraguay seemed to have little hope against the far mightier Bolivia. Not only was the latter’s manpower 3.5 times larger, but just 60 years previously Paraguay had endured a brutal war against Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, which claimed the lives of up to 70% of its male population.
Moreover, the Bolivian armed forces had three times as much air power and an overwhelming advantage in terms of armored vehicles. The Paraguayans could not field a single armored vehicle against the Vickers Mk E light tanks and Carden Lloyd VI tankettes of Bolivia. Only in respect of artillery guns was a certain parity maintained.
In this dire situation, only a miracle could save the country, and one duly arrived in the form of several dozen Russian officers who had left their homeland after the Russian Civil War and found a new home across the ocean.
One of the émigré officers, Lieutenant General Nikolai Stogov, wrote: “There seems not to be a single area of military affairs that our Russian émigré officers in Paraguay have not contributed to in terms of know-how and experience.”
Even before the conflict began, realizing the invaluable experience of the Russian officers, Paraguay’s leadership actively engaged them in modernizing both the armed forces and the country as a whole. “Russian émigrés were a boon to Paraguay, which needed to restore its shaky economy. Bridges, roads, administrative buildings, barracks, etc. all started to be built. The country gradually came to life thanks to the help of Russian technical personnel,” said Russian architect Georges Benois, who visited Asuncion in the 1920s.
It was Russian advisers who insisted on adopting the Danish Madsen machine gun, which the Tsarist cavalry had used in WWI. It was far more effective and reliable than the Chauchat machine gun, which the French military mission gave the Paraguayans.
Thanks to the Russians, in 1932, Paraguay created its first cavalry division. In this regard, it outpaced Bolivia, where such a formation appeared only two years later. The Paraguayan cavalry was trained to carry out blitz raids on the enemy rear, and Major Nikolai Korsakov even translated Russian cavalry songs into Spanish to instill military spirit.
Meanwhile, 120 German officers had settled in Bolivia and were now serving in the national army, which had been remodeled along German lines and dressed in the uniform of the Reichswehr. WWI veteran officer Hans Kundt was appointed commander-in-chief, arrogantly asserting that he would easily deal with the Russians (meaning the Paraguayan army).
At that time, 86 Russian émigrés were serving in the ranks of the Paraguayan armed forces. Despite their small number, most were officers with invaluable combat experience, and almost all proved their considerable worth in their respective area of expertise.
Having completed 13 reconnaissance trips to Gran Chaco, General Ivan Belyaev had vast experience as both a cartographer of the region and an artilleryman. And as the head of the cartographic unit of the General Staff and adviser to the Paraguayan president, he was heavily involved in planning the offensive and defensive operations of the Paraguayan army.
Thanks to the deciphering of the Bolivian military codes at the very start of the war by the head of Paraguay’s military intelligence, Nikolai Ern, and Captain Sergei Kern, the Paraguayan military secured an invaluable advantage. They often knew about the enemy’s intentions before the Bolivian troops had even received their orders.
A major role in the organization of the Paraguayan air defenses was played by aviator Captain Sergei Schetinin. Through his efforts, Bolivian aviation became far more potent. On his advice, the Paraguayans created dummy artillery, which the Bolivian planes wastefully bombarded.
The culmination of the Bolivian-Paraguayan (as well as Russian-German) Chaco War was the second battle of Nanawa (a suburb of Asuncion) in July 1933. In this operation, Kundt concentrated 6,000 of his Bolivian men against 3,600 Paraguayans.
Under the cover of German-crewed tanks, led by a detachment of flamethrowers, the Bolivians advanced on the Paraguayan army’s positions. Thanks to the solid defenses set up by the Russian military experts (fortified areas equipped with mortars and machine guns, surrounded by minefields and barbed wire), eight enemy attacks were repelled, followed by a successful counterattack. The Bolivian army lost several tanks and around 2,000 men, against Paraguayan losses of just 448. Shortly after the failed operation, Kundt was removed from his post.
The following year, after several major victories, Paraguay finally gained the strategic upper hand. When its armed forces entered Bolivia, the latter turned to the League of Nations for assistance in concluding a peace.
Under the 1935 peace treaty, Paraguay received most of Gran Chaco, which almost doubled its territory. In an evil twist of irony, oil was discovered in the valley only 77 years later, in 2012.
The Paraguayans praised the Russian officers for their vital role in the Chaco War. The future president of Paraguay, Alfredo Stroessner, who had served under General Stepan Vysokolyan, had deep respect for both his commander and the entire Russian officer corps, calling them “people of honor.”
After the war, many of these Russian émigrés received all kinds of awards, were proclaimed national heroes, and occupied high positions in the country. To this day, six streets in Asuncion are named after the six Russian officers who were killed in the Chaco War.
How Ivan Belyaev Became Juan Belaieff (1875–1957)
Belyaev lost everything in his homeland after the Bolshevik revolution, so he moved to Latin America, chasing his childhood dreams – and became Juan Belaieff, Paraguay’s national hero.
Imagine your country just had a terrible civil war and the side you fought for lost. Your land is occupied by communists who killed your friends; you have nothing and are forced out to foreign lands. What would you do?
That’s the question all the officers and soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik White Army had to answer in the 1920s, after losing in the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. Some settled down in Europe or the U.S., becoming successful bourgeois. Those less successful had to work as butlers or taxi drivers; some succumbed to alcoholism or committed suicide.
But General Ivan Timofeevich Belyaev (better known as Juan Belaieff), a hero of World War I and old-school Russian imperial officer, had a far more impressive and adventurous fate than any other emigre. He moved to Paraguay and tried to build a second home for Russian émigrés there, at the same time studying the South American Indians and becoming their hero. How so?
“My fate was decided by a completely minor event,” Belyaev wrote in his autobiography, Notes of a Russian Exile. “As a child, having a stroll with my aunt in St. Petersburg, I noticed a small book at a book market, with a picture of an Indian, named The Last of the Mohicans.”
After reading that adventure novel and many other, far more serious, stories, touching upon customs and civilization of American Indians, little Belyaev completely fell in love with this theme, becoming interested in Indians for the rest of his life. “Each night I was praying for my Indians,” he recalled of his childhood. Yet, it would take several decades and Russia’s national disaster to make Belyaev actually meet Indians.
He had another career ahead of him – born to a family where all men were in military service, Belyaev became an artillerist and devotedly served Russia.
By the time World War I began in 1914, Belyaev held a rank of colonel. When hearing the news that Russia had declared war on Austro-Hungary and Germany, he reacted simply: “Long live Russia, death to her enemies!” and headed to the front to fight.
“Artillery is a mother of a child who got sick,” he used to say. “We are to watch our infantry close, listen to its pulse, being always ready to help it.” Loved by his soldiers, Belyaev was a classic Russian officer of his time, conservative and brave.
At war, the colonel survived many dangers, but once – only by chance. A bullet came through his chest but didn’t reach his spine or guts. Wounded Belyaev was transferred to a hospital near Petrograd, where he met Empress Alexandra Fedorovna and was promoted to general. After recovery, Belyaev headed back to the front-line.
In his memoirs, Belyaev admitted that despite the bravery and efforts of the Russian army, by 1917, Russia was too exhausted with the war, losing its best sons. “The last of the decent drowned in a sea of blood, the last impulse to fight burned out,” he wrote. The chaos of revolutions made Russian people turn their weapons against each other – at first Belyaev refused to fight against Russians but then his monarchist views prevail.
The White Army lost the war. In the 1920s, Belyaev, as well as many other soldiers and officers, sailed away from the shores of Russia. Along with his family, he moved to Europe, but didn’t stay there either. He decided to find a new home in Latin America.
In the 1920s, Russian émigrés in Paris could find a strange Russian-language newspaper called Paraguay, published in France by Belyaev. Each issue read on the front page: “Europe failed the Russian hope. Paraguay is a country to build a future in.” The general called on his compatriots to go to Paraguay and help him to, basically, build a new small Russia there. As for him, he had already been living in Paraguay since 1924, and was known as, Juan Belaieff.
Why Paraguay? Even by Latin America’s standards, that poor and underpopulated country was hardly a popular destination – but that’s why the local authorities welcomed immigration. Ever since losing the Paraguayan War of 1864-1870 to the alliance of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, Paraguay remained weak and lacked military force – and inviting some Russian officers was a good option for the government.
Belaieff, along with 12 other White Army officers, entered Paraguayan military service in 1924, joining the General Staff. His interests, however, lied beyond just military – in Paraguay he became a scientist.
Belaieff led 13 expeditions to the Gran Chaco, a vast area in West Paraguay populated by indigenous Maká people. “They spoke their own languages and hardly communicated with the other Paraguayans,” historian Boris Martynov, author of Russian Paraguay, notes. Belaieff, fascinated by Indians since his childhood, immediately established close ties with them, helping with supplies and clothes, studying their ancient culture, opening schools and even theaters.
Paradoxically, the Russian officer became a bridge uniting the Maká with their more-Westernized compatriots. The Indians adored Belaieff, calling him the ‘White Father’.
Even though he enjoyed his communication with the Maká, Belaieff had bigger plans. “I’d like to find a corner where everything sacred that created eternal holy Russia could be preserved, as Noah’s Ark did during the flood until better times,” he recalled. With his help, several Russian settlements were founded in Paraguay, but Russian migration to the country didn’t become widespread, and internal conflicts condemned the idea of some kind of “new Russia” in Latin America.
Though disappointed, Belaieff considered Paraguay his second home and, along with many Russian officers, gladly supported it in the Chaco war of 1932-1935, when neighboring Bolivia attacked Paraguay. Wounded and infected with malaria, Belaieff could have died a dozen times – but he survived and his side, though outnumbered, prevailed, with the help of the Maká, who were loyal to Belaieff.
He never returned to Russia, living out the rest of his long life in Paraguay. When he died, the Maká transported his body to their area and kept it in a mausoleum, worshipping the spirit of the White Father as a deity. A fellow Russian émigré officer in Paraguay said to a friend about Belaieff: “We, perhaps, will be forgotten after we die, but not him.”
Boris Egorov and Oleg Yegorov write for Russia Beyond.
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0.48785877227783... | 12 | Paraguay, it turns out, owes much to Russia. Thanks largely to a few dozen Russian officers, the country emerged victorious in an almost unwinnable war, and doubled its territory in the process.
The Chaco War (1932-1935) between Bolivia and Paraguay was the bloodiest conflict in Latin America, in which well-over 100,000 lives were lost. It was also the first air-war fought in South America. It is a war little remembered now. A key role in the hostilities was played by Russian and German émigré officers on the two warring sides. It was, in effect, a continuation of WWI on another continent.
For decades, Paraguay and Bolivia had bickered over the vast region of Gran Chaco. Both considered it as its own, yet neither risked an open confrontation. That was until 1928, when geologists claimed that this sparsely populated, impassable territory could be a source of oil.
Asuncion and La Paz (the administrative capital of Bolivia) were soon at each other’s throats. And oil companies added literal fuel to the metaphorical fire. The sworn enemies Standard Oil (a U.S. company supporting Bolivia) and Royal-Dutch Shell (an Anglo-Dutch company backing Paraguay) saw great prospects in Gran Chaco.
The first clash occurred between a Paraguayan cavalry detachment and Bolivian police in August 1928. All-out war was prevented only through the intervention of the League of Nations. Four years later, however, the organization was powerless to do anything. On June 15, 1932, the Bolivian army launched a surprise attack on Paraguayan outposts in the disputed territory.
Tiny Paraguay seemed to have little hope against the far mightier Bolivia. Not only was the latter’s manpower 3.5 times larger, but just 60 years previously Paraguay had endured a brutal war against Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, which claimed the lives of up to 70% of its male population.
Moreover, the Bolivian armed forces had three times as much air power and an overwhelming advantage in terms of armored vehicles. The Paraguayans could not field a single armored vehicle against the Vickers Mk E light tanks and Carden Lloyd VI tankettes of Bolivia. Only in respect of artillery guns was a certain parity maintained.
In this dire situation, only a miracle could save the country, and one duly arrived in the form of several dozen Russian officers who had left their homeland after the Russian Civil War and found a new home across the ocean.
One of the émigré officers, Lieutenant General Nikolai Stogov, wrote: “There seems not to be a single area of military affairs that our Russian émigré officers in Paraguay have not contributed to in terms of know-how and experience.”
Even before the conflict began, realizing the invaluable experience of the Russian officers, Paraguay’s leadership actively engaged them in modernizing both the armed forces and the country as a whole. “Russian émigrés were a boon to Paraguay, which needed to restore its shaky economy. Bridges, roads, administrative buildings, barracks, etc. all started to be built. The country gradually came to life thanks to the help of Russian technical personnel,” said Russian architect Georges Benois, who visited Asuncion in the 1920s.
It was Russian advisers who insisted on adopting the Danish Madsen machine gun, which the Tsarist cavalry had used in WWI. It was far more effective and reliable than the Chauchat machine gun, which the French military mission gave the Paraguayans.
Thanks to the Russians, in 1932, Paraguay created its first cavalry division. In this regard, it outpaced Bolivia, where such a formation appeared only two years later. The Paraguayan cavalry was trained to carry out blitz raids on the enemy rear, and Major Nikolai Korsakov even translated Russian cavalry songs into Spanish to instill military spirit.
Meanwhile, 120 German officers had settled in Bolivia and were now serving in the national army, which had been remodeled along German lines and dressed in the uniform of the Reichswehr. WWI veteran officer Hans Kundt was appointed commander-in-chief, arrogantly asserting that he would easily deal with the Russians (meaning the Paraguayan army).
At that time, 86 Russian émigrés were serving in the ranks of the Paraguayan armed forces. Despite their small number, most were officers with invaluable combat experience, and almost all proved their considerable worth in their respective area of expertise.
Having completed 13 reconnaissance trips to Gran Chaco, General Ivan Belyaev had vast experience as both a cartographer of the region and an artilleryman. And as the head of the cartographic unit of the General Staff and adviser to the Paraguayan president, he was heavily involved in planning the offensive and defensive operations of the Paraguayan army.
Thanks to the deciphering of the Bolivian military codes at the very start of the war by the head of Paraguay’s military intelligence, Nikolai Ern, and Captain Sergei Kern, the Paraguayan military secured an invaluable advantage. They often knew about the enemy’s intentions before the Bolivian troops had even received their orders.
A major role in the organization of the Paraguayan air defenses was played by aviator Captain Sergei Schetinin. Through his efforts, Bolivian aviation became far more potent. On his advice, the Paraguayans created dummy artillery, which the Bolivian planes wastefully bombarded.
The culmination of the Bolivian-Paraguayan (as well as Russian-German) Chaco War was the second battle of Nanawa (a suburb of Asuncion) in July 1933. In this operation, Kundt concentrated 6,000 of his Bolivian men against 3,600 Paraguayans.
Under the cover of German-crewed tanks, led by a detachment of flamethrowers, the Bolivians advanced on the Paraguayan army’s positions. Thanks to the solid defenses set up by the Russian military experts (fortified areas equipped with mortars and machine guns, surrounded by minefields and barbed wire), eight enemy attacks were repelled, followed by a successful counterattack. The Bolivian army lost several tanks and around 2,000 men, against Paraguayan losses of just 448. Shortly after the failed operation, Kundt was removed from his post.
The following year, after several major victories, Paraguay finally gained the strategic upper hand. When its armed forces entered Bolivia, the latter turned to the League of Nations for assistance in concluding a peace.
Under the 1935 peace treaty, Paraguay received most of Gran Chaco, which almost doubled its territory. In an evil twist of irony, oil was discovered in the valley only 77 years later, in 2012.
The Paraguayans praised the Russian officers for their vital role in the Chaco War. The future president of Paraguay, Alfredo Stroessner, who had served under General Stepan Vysokolyan, had deep respect for both his commander and the entire Russian officer corps, calling them “people of honor.”
After the war, many of these Russian émigrés received all kinds of awards, were proclaimed national heroes, and occupied high positions in the country. To this day, six streets in Asuncion are named after the six Russian officers who were killed in the Chaco War.
How Ivan Belyaev Became Juan Belaieff (1875–1957)
Belyaev lost everything in his homeland after the Bolshevik revolution, so he moved to Latin America, chasing his childhood dreams – and became Juan Belaieff, Paraguay’s national hero.
Imagine your country just had a terrible civil war and the side you fought for lost. Your land is occupied by communists who killed your friends; you have nothing and are forced out to foreign lands. What would you do?
That’s the question all the officers and soldiers of the anti-Bolshevik White Army had to answer in the 1920s, after losing in the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. Some settled down in Europe or the U.S., becoming successful bourgeois. Those less successful had to work as butlers or taxi drivers; some succumbed to alcoholism or committed suicide.
But General Ivan Timofeevich Belyaev (better known as Juan Belaieff), a hero of World War I and old-school Russian imperial officer, had a far more impressive and adventurous fate than any other emigre. He moved to Paraguay and tried to build a second home for Russian émigrés there, at the same time studying the South American Indians and becoming their hero. How so?
“My fate was decided by a completely minor event,” Belyaev wrote in his autobiography, Notes of a Russian Exile. “As a child, having a stroll with my aunt in St. Petersburg, I noticed a small book at a book market, with a picture of an Indian, named The Last of the Mohicans.”
After reading that adventure novel and many other, far more serious, stories, touching upon customs and civilization of American Indians, little Belyaev completely fell in love with this theme, becoming interested in Indians for the rest of his life. “Each night I was praying for my Indians,” he recalled of his childhood. Yet, it would take several decades and Russia’s national disaster to make Belyaev actually meet Indians.
He had another career ahead of him – born to a family where all men were in military service, Belyaev became an artillerist and devotedly served Russia.
By the time World War I began in 1914, Belyaev held a rank of colonel. When hearing the news that Russia had declared war on Austro-Hungary and Germany, he reacted simply: “Long live Russia, death to her enemies!” and headed to the front to fight.
“Artillery is a mother of a child who got sick,” he used to say. “We are to watch our infantry close, listen to its pulse, being always ready to help it.” Loved by his soldiers, Belyaev was a classic Russian officer of his time, conservative and brave.
At war, the colonel survived many dangers, but once – only by chance. A bullet came through his chest but didn’t reach his spine or guts. Wounded Belyaev was transferred to a hospital near Petrograd, where he met Empress Alexandra Fedorovna and was promoted to general. After recovery, Belyaev headed back to the front-line.
In his memoirs, Belyaev admitted that despite the bravery and efforts of the Russian army, by 1917, Russia was too exhausted with the war, losing its best sons. “The last of the decent drowned in a sea of blood, the last impulse to fight burned out,” he wrote. The chaos of revolutions made Russian people turn their weapons against each other – at first Belyaev refused to fight against Russians but then his monarchist views prevail.
The White Army lost the war. In the 1920s, Belyaev, as well as many other soldiers and officers, sailed away from the shores of Russia. Along with his family, he moved to Europe, but didn’t stay there either. He decided to find a new home in Latin America.
In the 1920s, Russian émigrés in Paris could find a strange Russian-language newspaper called Paraguay, published in France by Belyaev. Each issue read on the front page: “Europe failed the Russian hope. Paraguay is a country to build a future in.” The general called on his compatriots to go to Paraguay and help him to, basically, build a new small Russia there. As for him, he had already been living in Paraguay since 1924, and was known as, Juan Belaieff.
Why Paraguay? Even by Latin America’s standards, that poor and underpopulated country was hardly a popular destination – but that’s why the local authorities welcomed immigration. Ever since losing the Paraguayan War of 1864-1870 to the alliance of Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, Paraguay remained weak and lacked military force – and inviting some Russian officers was a good option for the government.
Belaieff, along with 12 other White Army officers, entered Paraguayan military service in 1924, joining the General Staff. His interests, however, lied beyond just military – in Paraguay he became a scientist.
Belaieff led 13 expeditions to the Gran Chaco, a vast area in West Paraguay populated by indigenous Maká people. “They spoke their own languages and hardly communicated with the other Paraguayans,” historian Boris Martynov, author of Russian Paraguay, notes. Belaieff, fascinated by Indians since his childhood, immediately established close ties with them, helping with supplies and clothes, studying their ancient culture, opening schools and even theaters.
Paradoxically, the Russian officer became a bridge uniting the Maká with their more-Westernized compatriots. The Indians adored Belaieff, calling him the ‘White Father’.
Even though he enjoyed his communication with the Maká, Belaieff had bigger plans. “I’d like to find a corner where everything sacred that created eternal holy Russia could be preserved, as Noah’s Ark did during the flood until better times,” he recalled. With his help, several Russian settlements were founded in Paraguay, but Russian migration to the country didn’t become widespread, and internal conflicts condemned the idea of some kind of “new Russia” in Latin America.
Though disappointed, Belaieff considered Paraguay his second home and, along with many Russian officers, gladly supported it in the Chaco war of 1932-1935, when neighboring Bolivia attacked Paraguay. Wounded and infected with malaria, Belaieff could have died a dozen times – but he survived and his side, though outnumbered, prevailed, with the help of the Maká, who were loyal to Belaieff.
He never returned to Russia, living out the rest of his long life in Paraguay. When he died, the Maká transported his body to their area and kept it in a mausoleum, worshipping the spirit of the White Father as a deity. A fellow Russian émigré officer in Paraguay said to a friend about Belaieff: “We, perhaps, will be forgotten after we die, but not him.”
Boris Egorov and Oleg Yegorov write for Russia Beyond.
The image shows a colored drawing of a military telephone depot, by Juan Belaieff, dated 1935. | 3,134 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today’s word of the day, thanks to wordsmith.org’s “A.Word.A.Day,” is exemplum, a noun that means 1. “An example or model” or 2. “An anecdote used to illustrate a moral truth or support an argument.” It is actually a Latin word, a second declension neuter noun, borrowed directly from Latin. The English word is actually example. It is more often used in the second sense because it is more often used by literary scholars labeling different kinds of stories, and certain kinds of stories, like fables or parables, are often classified as exampla (the –a ending in Latin is the nominative plural of exemplum—compare data [singular datum]).
On this date in 1890, William B. Purvis received a patent for his redesign of the fountain pen.
Some background: William B. Purvis was one of eight children born to Joseph and Sarah Purvis somewhere in Pennsylvania. His extended family was involved in the Underground Railway. One of his grandfathers, James Forten, was a wealthy businessman in Philadelphia and a strong abolitionist.
As a young man, Purvis worked a variety of low-paying jobs but used his spare time to work on inventions. He was interested in paper bags and worked on improving machinery to make such bags. Eventually, he had 12 different patents related to the manufacture of paper bags, so he started his own company, the Sterling Paper Bag Company, but the company eventually went bankrupt in 1884. He was able to sell his patents to the Eastern Paper Bag Company, offsetting some of the $100,000 he owed as the result of his bankruptcy.
Then he hit upon an improvement to the fountain pen, and improvement that would work so well that people could actually carry a pen in a pocket. Keep in mind that in 1890 we are not all that far removed from the quill pen and ink jars. He placed an elastic tube between the ink reservoir and the tip of the pen, which allowed excess ink to be returned to the reservoir while at the same time making the distribution of the ink on the page more even and more consistent. Since most of you have probably never used a fountain pen, this might be hard to imagine, but fountain pens, even with the improvements invented by Purvis, could be pretty splotchy.
The fountain pen was not Purvis’s first invention related to ink. In 1883, he made some improvements to the hand stamp so that such a stamp would be self-inking.
The fountain pen was also not the end of Purvis’s career as an inventor. He became interested in electric trains and invented the closed-conduit electric train, which involved an electromagnet in the center of the car and enclosed iron on the tracks. He started the Union Electric Construction Company in 1900, and took it public the same year. The company continued on well after his death in 1914.
He never married and lived with his sister.
Purvis began life one of eight children, his schooling was nothing like the schooling that is available to young people today, and he experienced failure as well as success. His life story is an exemplum of the old adage “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again.”
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-0.1075146794... | 2 | Today’s word of the day, thanks to wordsmith.org’s “A.Word.A.Day,” is exemplum, a noun that means 1. “An example or model” or 2. “An anecdote used to illustrate a moral truth or support an argument.” It is actually a Latin word, a second declension neuter noun, borrowed directly from Latin. The English word is actually example. It is more often used in the second sense because it is more often used by literary scholars labeling different kinds of stories, and certain kinds of stories, like fables or parables, are often classified as exampla (the –a ending in Latin is the nominative plural of exemplum—compare data [singular datum]).
On this date in 1890, William B. Purvis received a patent for his redesign of the fountain pen.
Some background: William B. Purvis was one of eight children born to Joseph and Sarah Purvis somewhere in Pennsylvania. His extended family was involved in the Underground Railway. One of his grandfathers, James Forten, was a wealthy businessman in Philadelphia and a strong abolitionist.
As a young man, Purvis worked a variety of low-paying jobs but used his spare time to work on inventions. He was interested in paper bags and worked on improving machinery to make such bags. Eventually, he had 12 different patents related to the manufacture of paper bags, so he started his own company, the Sterling Paper Bag Company, but the company eventually went bankrupt in 1884. He was able to sell his patents to the Eastern Paper Bag Company, offsetting some of the $100,000 he owed as the result of his bankruptcy.
Then he hit upon an improvement to the fountain pen, and improvement that would work so well that people could actually carry a pen in a pocket. Keep in mind that in 1890 we are not all that far removed from the quill pen and ink jars. He placed an elastic tube between the ink reservoir and the tip of the pen, which allowed excess ink to be returned to the reservoir while at the same time making the distribution of the ink on the page more even and more consistent. Since most of you have probably never used a fountain pen, this might be hard to imagine, but fountain pens, even with the improvements invented by Purvis, could be pretty splotchy.
The fountain pen was not Purvis’s first invention related to ink. In 1883, he made some improvements to the hand stamp so that such a stamp would be self-inking.
The fountain pen was also not the end of Purvis’s career as an inventor. He became interested in electric trains and invented the closed-conduit electric train, which involved an electromagnet in the center of the car and enclosed iron on the tracks. He started the Union Electric Construction Company in 1900, and took it public the same year. The company continued on well after his death in 1914.
He never married and lived with his sister.
Purvis began life one of eight children, his schooling was nothing like the schooling that is available to young people today, and he experienced failure as well as success. His life story is an exemplum of the old adage “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again.”
I found this picture of William B. Purvis on the Afropunk Facebook page. | 703 | ENGLISH | 1 |
February 21, 2012
KASTURBA GANDHI AND THE SATYAGRAHA IN SOUTH AFRICA
E. S. Reddy
Kasturba Gandhi, by her “silent suffering” as a prisoner sentenced in 1913 to three months rigorous imprisonment, made a crucial contribution to the success of the satyagraha in South Africa, but this is little known.
In early 1913, when satyagraha in the Transvaal had been suspended, Justice Malcolm Searle of the Cape Supreme Court ruled that marriages performed according to a religion which allowed polygamy – that is, all Mahomedan and Hindu marriages - would not be recognised in South Africa. If this ruling had prevailed, almost all married Indian women would have been reduced legally to the status of concubines and their children treated as illegitimate. The women and children would have lost the right of inheritance and the right to enter South Africa. The government ignored repeated appeals from the community for legislation to remedy the situation.
Gandhi consulted his associates in the Transvaal about renewing the satyagraha with two principal demands: recognition of the status of Indian marriages and the abolition of an onerous tax of three pounds imposed on former indentured labourers, their wives and children to force them to re-indenture or leave South Africa. They agreed that women should be invited to join the satyagraha as the honour of Indian womanhood was involved.
In the Transvaal many wives of satyagrahis volunteered. They had been anxious for years to join their husbands in resistance and share the suffering for the honour of India. It was decided that they would court arrest by hawking without permit and, if they were not arrested, go to Newcastle in Natal to persuade the mine workers to strike.
Gandhi then went to Phoenix and spoke to the inmates. Kasturba, his wife, was the first to volunteer, despite her poor health.1 Indian Opinion (October 1, 1913) reported:
1 Gandhi made an error in Satyagraha in South Africa, written from memory in prison many years later, in stating that he had spoken to Kasturba after other women in Phoenix had agreed to court imprisonment. He wrote to Gokhale on April 19, 1913: “Mrs. Gandhi made the offer on her own initiative…” Raojibhai M. Patel, an inmate of the Ashram and a member of the first batch of satyagrahis from Phoenix, was present during the conversation between Gandhi and Katsurba. He wrote in Gandhiji ki Sadhana (second edition) that he had pointed out the error to Gandhi and that Gandhi agreed, after consulting Kasturba, to correct the text.
“The ladies [in Phoenix] were allowed to join the struggle after great effort was made by them to take part in it. When Mrs. Gandhi understood the marriage difficulty, she was incensed and said to Mr. Gandhi: ‘Then I am not you wife, according to the laws of this country.’ Mr. Gandhi replied that that was so and added that their children were not their heirs. ‘Then,’ she said, ‘let us go to India.’ Mr. Gandhi replied that that would be cowardly and that it would not solve the difficulty. ‘Could I not, then, join the struggle and be imprisoned myself?’ Mr. Gandhi told her that she could but that it was not a small matter. Her health was not good, she had not known that type of hardship and it would be disgraceful if, after her joining the struggle, she weakened. But Mrs. Gandhi was not to be moved. The other ladies, so closely related and living on the Settlement, would not be gainsaid. They insisted that, apart from their own convictions, just as strong as Mrs. Gandhi’s, they could not possibly remain out and allow Mrs. Gandhi to go to jail.”
The first batch of satyagrahis – 12 men and 4 women - went from Phoenix to the Transvaal border on 15 September 1913; they were arrested for crossing the provincial border without permits. Three of the women - Mrs. Kasturba Gandhi, Mrs. Chhaganlal Gandhi and Mrs. Maganlal Gandhi – were from the Gandhi family and the fourth, Ms. Jayakunwar Mehta, was the daughter of Pranjivan Mehta, a friend of Gandhi in London. They were sentenced on 23 September to three months with hard labour.
Twelve women, with six babies in arms, crossed the border from the Transvaal to Free State at the end of the month and were not arrested. They returned to Vereeniging in the Transvaal without permits and hawked but were again not arrested. They then proceeded to Newcastle in Natal according to plan. Thambi Naidoo, the veteran satyagrahi, led them on their mission to persuade workers to strike. The twelve women included the wife and mother-in law of Thambi Naidoo and the sister-in law of Mrs. Thambi Naidoo. All of them were Tamils, except for Mrs. Bhawani Dayal.
Thambi Naidoo took them around the railway barracks and the coal mines to exhort the Indian workers to strike. He addressed thousands of people at meetings in the coal-mining area..
The strike was in full swing when Gandhi rushed to Newcastle on 20 October. “The appearance of the brave ladies simply acts like a charm and the men obey the advice given them without any great argument being required,” reported Indian Opinion on 22 October. The workers had already heard of the imprisonment of Kasturba and other members of the Gandhi family. The strike spread like wildfire after Gandhi arrived.
The Transvaal women were charged on 21 October under the Vagrancy Act. They admitted that they had come to Newcastle to advise the mine workers to suspend work until the government promised to repeal the three pound tax. They were sentenced on the same day to three months with hard labour, and taken to the jail in Maritzburg where the Phoenix women were incarcerated.
A second batch of women – includingValliamma, the teenage martyr of the satyagraha – followed early in December. They too were sentenced to three months rigorous imprisonment.
The brutal treatment of the striking workers and the harsh sentences on the women outraged public opinion in India. Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, “the lion of Bombay” who had not supported the satyagraha until then, roared after the arrest of the women that “his blood boiled at the thought of these women lying in jail herded with ordinary criminals, and India could not sleep over the matter any longer.” There were demands for an impartial investigation into the treatment of the striking workers and the satyagrahis. Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy, in an unusual move, publicly expressed his sympathy with the satyagrahis and conveyed to the South African and British Governments the strength of feeling in India. To appease Britain and to divide the Indian community, the South African Government set up an Indian Grievances Commission on 11 December. Sir William Solomon, a respected judge, was appointed Chairman. The two other members were Ewald Esselen and J.S. Wylie, two prominent advocates, who were both well known as anti-Indian. The Indian community, at meetings all over the country, protested against the composition of the Commission and called for the addition of two members acceptable to the Indians.
On the recommendation of the Commission, Gandhi was released from prison on 18 December. He addressed mass meetings in Johannesburg and Durban which decided on a boycott of the Commission unless it was expanded and all passive resisters in prison released. It was agreed that if these requests were rejected, the Indian community would resume passive resistance with a march on 1 January. Gandhi expected that the 5,000 people would join the march and their ranks may swell to 20,000.2
2 Cable to Gokhale, 26 December 1913.
3 C.F. Andrews, who had been sent by Gokhale to South Africa to assist the Indians, informed Gandhi that Europeans had told him: “If the Indians go out again, there will be shooting.” C .F. Andrews, “Mr. Gandhi and the Commission” in Modern Review, Calcutta, July 1914.
The requests of the community were rejected by General Smuts.
Lord Ampthill from London and Gopal Krishna Gokhale from India strongly urged Gandhi
not to boycott the Commission and to abandon the renewal of passive resistance. Gandhi informed them that the mass of the people were so indignant that if any attempt was made to advise acceptance of the present Commission, they would kill the leaders. Gokhale appreciated Gandhi’s position and, though ill, was almost in daily contact with Gandhi while pressing Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy for appropriate action.
Gandhi was faced with a dilemma. Abandoning the march would be resented by the Indian community while proceeding with it would alienate sympathy in Britain and India which he had cultivated over many years. Moreover, there was likelihood of violence by Europeans and the government if resistance was resumed.
In the midst of these events, Kasturba and her party of satyagrahis were released from prison on 22 December. The Indian community had planned a huge procession in Durban to welcome them. But that had to be abandoned as Kasturba came out emaciated.
Describing the heroism of the women satyagrahis, Gandhi wrote in Satyagraha in South Africa:
“The women’s bravery was beyond words. They were all kept in Maritzburg jail, where they were considerably harassed. Their food was of the worst quality and they were given laundry work as their task. No food was permitted to be given them from outside nearly till the end of their term. One sister was under a religious vow to restrict herself to a particular diet. After great difficulty the jail authorities allowed her that diet, but the food supplied was unfit for human consumption. The sister badly needed olive oil. She did not get it at first, and when she got it, it was old and rancid. She offered to get it at her own expense but was told that jail was no hotel, and she must take what food was given her. When this sister was released she was a mere skeleton and her life was saved only by a great effort…” The “sister” was obviously none other than Kasturba. Gandhi had to deal with the critical stage of the satyagraha while nursing Kasturba who was hanging between life and death.
On 27 December, he received two messages which provided a solution for his dilemma. One was a message from Gokhale that Lord Hardinge was sending a senior civil servant, Sir Benjamin Robertson, to South Africa to assist the Indians and was asking the British Government to secure adjournment of the meetings of the Commission. The other was a surprise: a telegram from Miss Emily Hobhouse appealing to him as a "humble woman" to postpone the march for fifteen days.
Miss Hobhouse had opposed the war against the Boers, and went to the concentration camps where Boer women and children were kept in such deplorable conditions that 27,000 women and children died. Her courageous campaign against the war, braving denunciation that she was a traitor, had much to do with the end of the war and the efforts at reconciliation between the British and the Boers. For Gandhi, who had been seeking support of persons with influence on the Boers, her message was a godsend. He wrote in Satyagraha in South Africa: “The Boers looked up to her with great respect and affection. She was very intimate with General Botha…”
According to Raojibhai Patel, Gandhi consulted his colleagues on the appeal of Miss Hobhouse and decided to postpone the march by fifteen days. Whether it was due to the appeal of Miss Hobhouse or the telegram from Gokhale or both, a crisis was averted. Gandhi was able to announce at a public meeting in Maritzburg on the same day that important negotiations were proceeding in connection with the grievances of the Indians and that the march might not take place until 15 January.
The papers of Miss Elizabeth Molteno in the archives of the University of Cape Town explain the intervention of Miss Hobhouse.4
4 . Sanchar Publishing House, New Delhi, 1995. It may be accessed at http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/Gandhijis_vision_of_free_south_africa-.pdf
Miss Molteno, a member of one of the most prominent families in the Cape, had also opposed the Anglo-Boer War and went to live in London for several years. She became a friend of Emily Hobhouse and met Gandhi during his visit to London in 1909.
Returning to South Africa, she bought a cottage in Ohlange, near Phoenix, and took a keen interest in the Indian struggle. She went to see Kasturba on her release and spent a long time with her enquiring about her health and the conditions in prison. She sent a message, through her friend Alice Greene, to Emily Hobhouse who had come to South Africa to attend the unveiling of a memorial to Boer women in Bloemfontein but had to remain in Cape Town because of illness.
This is how Alice Greene described the origin of the telegram to Gandhi:
"She (Miss Hobhouse) was sitting up on her couch... I told her I had sent off a telegram to Gandhi and that you had suggested her sending one too. She instantly took pencil and paper and wrote down a long telegram which I sent off... She sent it to Maritzburg to catch him at the mass meeting this afternoon. It was to the effect that her personal sympathy was intense but that she would venture to advise patience. It would not do to alienate sympathy and even endanger the very cause itself. Could he not wait until the meeting of Parliament before having recourse to further resistance? Even yet English women had not achieved full freedom. She used much gentler language than this, but that was the gist of it. She told him also that everything was being followed with much sympathy and feeling."
When Gandhi agreed to the postponement of the march, Miss Hobhouse wrote a long letter to General Smuts recalling her special connection with India through her uncle. She said that as a woman without a vote, she sympathised with other voteless folk as the Indians. She then pressed him to meet and talk to Gandhi:
"You see January 15 is the date now proposed for another march. Before then some way should be found of giving private assurance to the leaders that satisfaction is coming to them. Their grievance is really moral... never will governmental physical force prevail against a great moral and spiritual upheaval. Wasted time and wasted energy, dear Oom Jannie..."
General Smuts could not possibly ignore an appeal from her. On his invitation, Gandhi went to Pretoria on 9 January. C.F. Andrews, who accompanied Gandhi to Pretoria, wrote: "There can be no doubt that during the days that followed the influence of Miss Hobhouse with the Boer leaders did much to pave the way to a reconciliation. While we were in Pretoria she wrote again and again both to Mr. Gandhi and myself. She thus kept herself in touch with the whole negotiations and took part in them."5
5 C.F. Andrews, "Mr. Gandhi at Phoenix" in Modern Review, Calcutta, May 1914
6 Gandhi said in a speech in Kimberley on July 2, 1914: “General Botha, it must be admitted, has done much for us, seeing that, for the sake of a community as docile as the Indians, he threatened to resign if the Bill was not passed.”
Gandhi was surprised to see a great change in the attitude of General Smuts. Negotiations were delayed by a railway strike but soon after it ended, a provisional agreement was reached quickly and signed on 22 January.
Gandhi and Kasturba went to Cape Town in mid-February to bid farewell to C.F. Andrews and to follow the developments on the Indian question. Kasturba's condition deteriorated and gave cause for grave concern.
Miss Molteno and Miss Greene frequently visited the Gandhis at the home of Dr. A.H. Gool where they stayed and enquired about her health. Miss Moletno introduced Gandhi to many influential personalities. She arranged for the Gandhis to meet Miss Hobhouse who was staying at Groote Schuur, the residence of Prime Minister Louis Botha. There they met Mrs. Botha, as well as Mrs. Gladstone, wife of the Governor-General, who were both friendly and considerate.
Gandhi had written many times to General Botha for an interview but without success. But a few days after meeting the Gandhis, Miss Hobhouse invited Gandhi again for a discussion at Groote Schuur - and General and Mrs. Botha joined them.
When the Indian Relief Bill came before Parliament it was reported that Prime Minister Botha threatened to resign if the Bill was not passed.6 Why did he take the adoption of a bill to end injustices to a small, voteless and vulnerable community as a matter of vital importance? Was he thinking of Miss Hobhouse and the meeting with Gandhi which arose out of the “silent suffering” of Kasturba?
When Miss Hobhouse died, Gandhi wrote in an obituary in Young India on July 15, 1926:
"She played no mean part at the settlement of 1914...
"Let the women of India treasure the memory of this great Englishwoman."
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KASTURBA GANDHI AND THE SATYAGRAHA IN SOUTH AFRICA
E. S. Reddy
Kasturba Gandhi, by her “silent suffering” as a prisoner sentenced in 1913 to three months rigorous imprisonment, made a crucial contribution to the success of the satyagraha in South Africa, but this is little known.
In early 1913, when satyagraha in the Transvaal had been suspended, Justice Malcolm Searle of the Cape Supreme Court ruled that marriages performed according to a religion which allowed polygamy – that is, all Mahomedan and Hindu marriages - would not be recognised in South Africa. If this ruling had prevailed, almost all married Indian women would have been reduced legally to the status of concubines and their children treated as illegitimate. The women and children would have lost the right of inheritance and the right to enter South Africa. The government ignored repeated appeals from the community for legislation to remedy the situation.
Gandhi consulted his associates in the Transvaal about renewing the satyagraha with two principal demands: recognition of the status of Indian marriages and the abolition of an onerous tax of three pounds imposed on former indentured labourers, their wives and children to force them to re-indenture or leave South Africa. They agreed that women should be invited to join the satyagraha as the honour of Indian womanhood was involved.
In the Transvaal many wives of satyagrahis volunteered. They had been anxious for years to join their husbands in resistance and share the suffering for the honour of India. It was decided that they would court arrest by hawking without permit and, if they were not arrested, go to Newcastle in Natal to persuade the mine workers to strike.
Gandhi then went to Phoenix and spoke to the inmates. Kasturba, his wife, was the first to volunteer, despite her poor health.1 Indian Opinion (October 1, 1913) reported:
1 Gandhi made an error in Satyagraha in South Africa, written from memory in prison many years later, in stating that he had spoken to Kasturba after other women in Phoenix had agreed to court imprisonment. He wrote to Gokhale on April 19, 1913: “Mrs. Gandhi made the offer on her own initiative…” Raojibhai M. Patel, an inmate of the Ashram and a member of the first batch of satyagrahis from Phoenix, was present during the conversation between Gandhi and Katsurba. He wrote in Gandhiji ki Sadhana (second edition) that he had pointed out the error to Gandhi and that Gandhi agreed, after consulting Kasturba, to correct the text.
“The ladies [in Phoenix] were allowed to join the struggle after great effort was made by them to take part in it. When Mrs. Gandhi understood the marriage difficulty, she was incensed and said to Mr. Gandhi: ‘Then I am not you wife, according to the laws of this country.’ Mr. Gandhi replied that that was so and added that their children were not their heirs. ‘Then,’ she said, ‘let us go to India.’ Mr. Gandhi replied that that would be cowardly and that it would not solve the difficulty. ‘Could I not, then, join the struggle and be imprisoned myself?’ Mr. Gandhi told her that she could but that it was not a small matter. Her health was not good, she had not known that type of hardship and it would be disgraceful if, after her joining the struggle, she weakened. But Mrs. Gandhi was not to be moved. The other ladies, so closely related and living on the Settlement, would not be gainsaid. They insisted that, apart from their own convictions, just as strong as Mrs. Gandhi’s, they could not possibly remain out and allow Mrs. Gandhi to go to jail.”
The first batch of satyagrahis – 12 men and 4 women - went from Phoenix to the Transvaal border on 15 September 1913; they were arrested for crossing the provincial border without permits. Three of the women - Mrs. Kasturba Gandhi, Mrs. Chhaganlal Gandhi and Mrs. Maganlal Gandhi – were from the Gandhi family and the fourth, Ms. Jayakunwar Mehta, was the daughter of Pranjivan Mehta, a friend of Gandhi in London. They were sentenced on 23 September to three months with hard labour.
Twelve women, with six babies in arms, crossed the border from the Transvaal to Free State at the end of the month and were not arrested. They returned to Vereeniging in the Transvaal without permits and hawked but were again not arrested. They then proceeded to Newcastle in Natal according to plan. Thambi Naidoo, the veteran satyagrahi, led them on their mission to persuade workers to strike. The twelve women included the wife and mother-in law of Thambi Naidoo and the sister-in law of Mrs. Thambi Naidoo. All of them were Tamils, except for Mrs. Bhawani Dayal.
Thambi Naidoo took them around the railway barracks and the coal mines to exhort the Indian workers to strike. He addressed thousands of people at meetings in the coal-mining area..
The strike was in full swing when Gandhi rushed to Newcastle on 20 October. “The appearance of the brave ladies simply acts like a charm and the men obey the advice given them without any great argument being required,” reported Indian Opinion on 22 October. The workers had already heard of the imprisonment of Kasturba and other members of the Gandhi family. The strike spread like wildfire after Gandhi arrived.
The Transvaal women were charged on 21 October under the Vagrancy Act. They admitted that they had come to Newcastle to advise the mine workers to suspend work until the government promised to repeal the three pound tax. They were sentenced on the same day to three months with hard labour, and taken to the jail in Maritzburg where the Phoenix women were incarcerated.
A second batch of women – includingValliamma, the teenage martyr of the satyagraha – followed early in December. They too were sentenced to three months rigorous imprisonment.
The brutal treatment of the striking workers and the harsh sentences on the women outraged public opinion in India. Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, “the lion of Bombay” who had not supported the satyagraha until then, roared after the arrest of the women that “his blood boiled at the thought of these women lying in jail herded with ordinary criminals, and India could not sleep over the matter any longer.” There were demands for an impartial investigation into the treatment of the striking workers and the satyagrahis. Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy, in an unusual move, publicly expressed his sympathy with the satyagrahis and conveyed to the South African and British Governments the strength of feeling in India. To appease Britain and to divide the Indian community, the South African Government set up an Indian Grievances Commission on 11 December. Sir William Solomon, a respected judge, was appointed Chairman. The two other members were Ewald Esselen and J.S. Wylie, two prominent advocates, who were both well known as anti-Indian. The Indian community, at meetings all over the country, protested against the composition of the Commission and called for the addition of two members acceptable to the Indians.
On the recommendation of the Commission, Gandhi was released from prison on 18 December. He addressed mass meetings in Johannesburg and Durban which decided on a boycott of the Commission unless it was expanded and all passive resisters in prison released. It was agreed that if these requests were rejected, the Indian community would resume passive resistance with a march on 1 January. Gandhi expected that the 5,000 people would join the march and their ranks may swell to 20,000.2
2 Cable to Gokhale, 26 December 1913.
3 C.F. Andrews, who had been sent by Gokhale to South Africa to assist the Indians, informed Gandhi that Europeans had told him: “If the Indians go out again, there will be shooting.” C .F. Andrews, “Mr. Gandhi and the Commission” in Modern Review, Calcutta, July 1914.
The requests of the community were rejected by General Smuts.
Lord Ampthill from London and Gopal Krishna Gokhale from India strongly urged Gandhi
not to boycott the Commission and to abandon the renewal of passive resistance. Gandhi informed them that the mass of the people were so indignant that if any attempt was made to advise acceptance of the present Commission, they would kill the leaders. Gokhale appreciated Gandhi’s position and, though ill, was almost in daily contact with Gandhi while pressing Lord Hardinge, the Viceroy for appropriate action.
Gandhi was faced with a dilemma. Abandoning the march would be resented by the Indian community while proceeding with it would alienate sympathy in Britain and India which he had cultivated over many years. Moreover, there was likelihood of violence by Europeans and the government if resistance was resumed.
In the midst of these events, Kasturba and her party of satyagrahis were released from prison on 22 December. The Indian community had planned a huge procession in Durban to welcome them. But that had to be abandoned as Kasturba came out emaciated.
Describing the heroism of the women satyagrahis, Gandhi wrote in Satyagraha in South Africa:
“The women’s bravery was beyond words. They were all kept in Maritzburg jail, where they were considerably harassed. Their food was of the worst quality and they were given laundry work as their task. No food was permitted to be given them from outside nearly till the end of their term. One sister was under a religious vow to restrict herself to a particular diet. After great difficulty the jail authorities allowed her that diet, but the food supplied was unfit for human consumption. The sister badly needed olive oil. She did not get it at first, and when she got it, it was old and rancid. She offered to get it at her own expense but was told that jail was no hotel, and she must take what food was given her. When this sister was released she was a mere skeleton and her life was saved only by a great effort…” The “sister” was obviously none other than Kasturba. Gandhi had to deal with the critical stage of the satyagraha while nursing Kasturba who was hanging between life and death.
On 27 December, he received two messages which provided a solution for his dilemma. One was a message from Gokhale that Lord Hardinge was sending a senior civil servant, Sir Benjamin Robertson, to South Africa to assist the Indians and was asking the British Government to secure adjournment of the meetings of the Commission. The other was a surprise: a telegram from Miss Emily Hobhouse appealing to him as a "humble woman" to postpone the march for fifteen days.
Miss Hobhouse had opposed the war against the Boers, and went to the concentration camps where Boer women and children were kept in such deplorable conditions that 27,000 women and children died. Her courageous campaign against the war, braving denunciation that she was a traitor, had much to do with the end of the war and the efforts at reconciliation between the British and the Boers. For Gandhi, who had been seeking support of persons with influence on the Boers, her message was a godsend. He wrote in Satyagraha in South Africa: “The Boers looked up to her with great respect and affection. She was very intimate with General Botha…”
According to Raojibhai Patel, Gandhi consulted his colleagues on the appeal of Miss Hobhouse and decided to postpone the march by fifteen days. Whether it was due to the appeal of Miss Hobhouse or the telegram from Gokhale or both, a crisis was averted. Gandhi was able to announce at a public meeting in Maritzburg on the same day that important negotiations were proceeding in connection with the grievances of the Indians and that the march might not take place until 15 January.
The papers of Miss Elizabeth Molteno in the archives of the University of Cape Town explain the intervention of Miss Hobhouse.4
4 . Sanchar Publishing House, New Delhi, 1995. It may be accessed at http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/Gandhijis_vision_of_free_south_africa-.pdf
Miss Molteno, a member of one of the most prominent families in the Cape, had also opposed the Anglo-Boer War and went to live in London for several years. She became a friend of Emily Hobhouse and met Gandhi during his visit to London in 1909.
Returning to South Africa, she bought a cottage in Ohlange, near Phoenix, and took a keen interest in the Indian struggle. She went to see Kasturba on her release and spent a long time with her enquiring about her health and the conditions in prison. She sent a message, through her friend Alice Greene, to Emily Hobhouse who had come to South Africa to attend the unveiling of a memorial to Boer women in Bloemfontein but had to remain in Cape Town because of illness.
This is how Alice Greene described the origin of the telegram to Gandhi:
"She (Miss Hobhouse) was sitting up on her couch... I told her I had sent off a telegram to Gandhi and that you had suggested her sending one too. She instantly took pencil and paper and wrote down a long telegram which I sent off... She sent it to Maritzburg to catch him at the mass meeting this afternoon. It was to the effect that her personal sympathy was intense but that she would venture to advise patience. It would not do to alienate sympathy and even endanger the very cause itself. Could he not wait until the meeting of Parliament before having recourse to further resistance? Even yet English women had not achieved full freedom. She used much gentler language than this, but that was the gist of it. She told him also that everything was being followed with much sympathy and feeling."
When Gandhi agreed to the postponement of the march, Miss Hobhouse wrote a long letter to General Smuts recalling her special connection with India through her uncle. She said that as a woman without a vote, she sympathised with other voteless folk as the Indians. She then pressed him to meet and talk to Gandhi:
"You see January 15 is the date now proposed for another march. Before then some way should be found of giving private assurance to the leaders that satisfaction is coming to them. Their grievance is really moral... never will governmental physical force prevail against a great moral and spiritual upheaval. Wasted time and wasted energy, dear Oom Jannie..."
General Smuts could not possibly ignore an appeal from her. On his invitation, Gandhi went to Pretoria on 9 January. C.F. Andrews, who accompanied Gandhi to Pretoria, wrote: "There can be no doubt that during the days that followed the influence of Miss Hobhouse with the Boer leaders did much to pave the way to a reconciliation. While we were in Pretoria she wrote again and again both to Mr. Gandhi and myself. She thus kept herself in touch with the whole negotiations and took part in them."5
5 C.F. Andrews, "Mr. Gandhi at Phoenix" in Modern Review, Calcutta, May 1914
6 Gandhi said in a speech in Kimberley on July 2, 1914: “General Botha, it must be admitted, has done much for us, seeing that, for the sake of a community as docile as the Indians, he threatened to resign if the Bill was not passed.”
Gandhi was surprised to see a great change in the attitude of General Smuts. Negotiations were delayed by a railway strike but soon after it ended, a provisional agreement was reached quickly and signed on 22 January.
Gandhi and Kasturba went to Cape Town in mid-February to bid farewell to C.F. Andrews and to follow the developments on the Indian question. Kasturba's condition deteriorated and gave cause for grave concern.
Miss Molteno and Miss Greene frequently visited the Gandhis at the home of Dr. A.H. Gool where they stayed and enquired about her health. Miss Moletno introduced Gandhi to many influential personalities. She arranged for the Gandhis to meet Miss Hobhouse who was staying at Groote Schuur, the residence of Prime Minister Louis Botha. There they met Mrs. Botha, as well as Mrs. Gladstone, wife of the Governor-General, who were both friendly and considerate.
Gandhi had written many times to General Botha for an interview but without success. But a few days after meeting the Gandhis, Miss Hobhouse invited Gandhi again for a discussion at Groote Schuur - and General and Mrs. Botha joined them.
When the Indian Relief Bill came before Parliament it was reported that Prime Minister Botha threatened to resign if the Bill was not passed.6 Why did he take the adoption of a bill to end injustices to a small, voteless and vulnerable community as a matter of vital importance? Was he thinking of Miss Hobhouse and the meeting with Gandhi which arose out of the “silent suffering” of Kasturba?
When Miss Hobhouse died, Gandhi wrote in an obituary in Young India on July 15, 1926:
"She played no mean part at the settlement of 1914...
"Let the women of India treasure the memory of this great Englishwoman."
Kasturba, whose “silent suffering” persuaded Miss Hobhouse to intervene equally deserves the gratitude of the people of India and Indians in South Africa. | 3,760 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The statues of Easter Island did not give us all their secrets. In fact, it is difficult even to affirm the purpose of their edification because the indigenous people, the Rapa Nui (also called " Matamua " or " Haumaka " ), were simply exterminated at the end of the nineteenth century, reduced to slavery . Those who remained submitted their cultures through oral tradition and have undergone the cultural mix and organic by the massive arrival, always in the late nineteenth century, a strong Polynesian community Christianized then E uropéens. Nowadays there are several thousand people, but none have the secrets of these statues.
Moais of Easter Island
The estimated reasons for their constructions
However archeology informs us quite well since this science teaches us that the people having landed on Easter Island, around 1200 AD, practiced the ancestor worship. This worship consists in venerating not a god but the ancestors of a community. It is obvious then that the Moaïs symbolize the ancestors.
Their provisions on the island confirm this fact. They are all, with the exception of one, placed on the coast and turned towards the interior of the island, where the inhabitants lived, a little as if they were watching them. If they had had a protective role they would have been shot most likely to the ocean.
Their symbolic roles at the time of the god Make-make
Once the cult of ancestors abandoned the Moais no longer symbolized the past, but where other civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians, did not hesitate to destroy the relics that preceded them, the Rapa Nui decided to keep. Perhaps also because of the difficulty that would have had to put them down, but that was probably not the reason. Some of these statues are now lying on the ground, including and among them some that are not in the quarry, so not under construction or transportation. We can see them as a desire to shoot them down, but it makes more sense to see the effect of a natural disaster. If it seems hard to believe, just imagine that in 400 years of abandonment, many statues were buried at least until the shoulders, when they were complete before. It means weather, precipitation, wind and from a more general point of view the climate is capable of profoundly modifying the surface of the island. It is therefore not absurd to think that some statues could be lying naturally.
That said, if there was no desire to tear down the statues once the cult of ancestors abandoned, the fact remains that the quarry was also abandoned, and that the statues that were in the process of trimming were covered, apparently voluntarily, with debris. One can see there a will to mark the change of worship.
Their roles from European explorers
When the island was discovered, from the late seventeenth century, and until the late nineteenth, the statues of Easter Island were basically seen as its symbol, but nothing more. Curiosity in their regard was not even very strong, the Europeans were not interested in these great statues at the end of the world or at least if he did, their remoteness made them less interesting. It must be said that at the time, and until the twentieth century, civilizations other than those of Europe were mostly seen as curiosities to be analyzed. | <urn:uuid:faef298b-be9d-472e-b2f2-b4d722863cb2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Statues-of-Easter-island/Symbolism-of-the-statues-of-Easter-island.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00255.warc.gz | en | 0.985282 | 667 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.64836657047... | 7 | The statues of Easter Island did not give us all their secrets. In fact, it is difficult even to affirm the purpose of their edification because the indigenous people, the Rapa Nui (also called " Matamua " or " Haumaka " ), were simply exterminated at the end of the nineteenth century, reduced to slavery . Those who remained submitted their cultures through oral tradition and have undergone the cultural mix and organic by the massive arrival, always in the late nineteenth century, a strong Polynesian community Christianized then E uropéens. Nowadays there are several thousand people, but none have the secrets of these statues.
Moais of Easter Island
The estimated reasons for their constructions
However archeology informs us quite well since this science teaches us that the people having landed on Easter Island, around 1200 AD, practiced the ancestor worship. This worship consists in venerating not a god but the ancestors of a community. It is obvious then that the Moaïs symbolize the ancestors.
Their provisions on the island confirm this fact. They are all, with the exception of one, placed on the coast and turned towards the interior of the island, where the inhabitants lived, a little as if they were watching them. If they had had a protective role they would have been shot most likely to the ocean.
Their symbolic roles at the time of the god Make-make
Once the cult of ancestors abandoned the Moais no longer symbolized the past, but where other civilizations, such as the ancient Egyptians, did not hesitate to destroy the relics that preceded them, the Rapa Nui decided to keep. Perhaps also because of the difficulty that would have had to put them down, but that was probably not the reason. Some of these statues are now lying on the ground, including and among them some that are not in the quarry, so not under construction or transportation. We can see them as a desire to shoot them down, but it makes more sense to see the effect of a natural disaster. If it seems hard to believe, just imagine that in 400 years of abandonment, many statues were buried at least until the shoulders, when they were complete before. It means weather, precipitation, wind and from a more general point of view the climate is capable of profoundly modifying the surface of the island. It is therefore not absurd to think that some statues could be lying naturally.
That said, if there was no desire to tear down the statues once the cult of ancestors abandoned, the fact remains that the quarry was also abandoned, and that the statues that were in the process of trimming were covered, apparently voluntarily, with debris. One can see there a will to mark the change of worship.
Their roles from European explorers
When the island was discovered, from the late seventeenth century, and until the late nineteenth, the statues of Easter Island were basically seen as its symbol, but nothing more. Curiosity in their regard was not even very strong, the Europeans were not interested in these great statues at the end of the world or at least if he did, their remoteness made them less interesting. It must be said that at the time, and until the twentieth century, civilizations other than those of Europe were mostly seen as curiosities to be analyzed. | 666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Douglass’s book, Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass- An American Slave, provides the best evidence about American slavery. In the book, Douglass gives vivid evidence that he was once a slave; a fact that was doubted by many critics due to his oration skills and impeccable language (Douglass 11).He also gives solid evidence of the inhumanity that was characteristic of this institution.
Douglss begins the book by giving a detailed description of his childhood life and the effects that slavery had on him as a child. He then goes on to give a detailed description of the brutality that was perpetrated against American slaves during his time as a slave. The book is filled with names, scenes and events which evidence its truthfulness. This paper is a description of the brutality that Douglas witnessed as a slave (Douglass 4).
American slavery was characterized with many acts of inhumanity. Slaves were denied their rights to literacy, severely beaten, overworked in farms, provided with poor living conditions, abused sexually, separated from their families, killed, tortured psychologically and emotionally, dehumanized, etc. Let us have a look at the evidence of these acts of inhumanity portrayed in Douglass’s book.
The most portrayed act of inhumanity is the frequent beatings that were perpetrated on slaves. After Aunt Hester had gone out, she was severely beaten and caused to bleed profusely. All this was done because she was not there when the master “desired her presence” (Douglass 14).
This is an act of inhumanity because it appears that the slaves were “tethered” like livestock and were not free to attend their needs. Before the beating, she was stripped from her neck to the waist and then whipped severely. This can be seen as an indication that her master, Captain Anthony, was abusing her sexually. This claim is substantiated by the fact that Aunt Hester had gone out to see a male neighbor named Ned Roberts.
Captain Anthony was calling her a “b – – – – -b b – – – -h” (Douglass 14) as he whipped her. Captain Anthony got his name, presumably, from having sailed at Chesapeake Bay. Another evidence of beatings perpetrated on slaves is seen when Douglass is taken to the custody of Mr. Covey. He says that he was whipped every week until one day he collapsed while working in the farm. However, one day as Covey wanted to tie him for his weekly routine, Douglass protested and put up a fight. They fought for two hours until Douglass won the fight.
This can be seen as one of the things that encouraged Douglass to relentlessly fight against the institution of slavery. It is also the beginning of Douglass’s confidence in his manhood. This is because after the fight, he was never beaten again. Douglass also explains how his mother received frequent whippings for not being in the farm at sunrise since she travelled at night to see him (Douglass 12).
If a slave committed major misdemeanors, tried to escape or opposed the authority of the overseers in the farms, he/she was exposed to severe beatings before being sold. There is also a woman who was whipped in the presence of her children, who were crying begging the overseer to stop whipping their mother. The woman is said to have been whipped by Mr. Severe in front of her children until her blood ran for almost thirty minutes (Douglas 17).
There is substantial evidence of psychological and emotional torture perpetrated on slaves by their masters. First of all, the separating of infants from their mothers before they were one year old amounts to emotional torture on both the mothers and their children. Douglass explains how his mother walked a distance of about twelve miles night after night to see him. This was after she was separated from him during his infancy (Douglass 12).
When his mother was sick and during her death, Douglass was not allowed to go and see her. Even when she died, he was not allowed to attend her burial. He says that his separation from his mother made him have no emotions for her such that her death hit him like the death of a stranger (Douglass 12). This is emotional torture perpetrated on Douglass. There is also the stated incidence in which a woman was whipped in front of her children (Douglass 17). This is emotional torture on the children.
An example of how slave-holders psychologically tortured their slaves is seen when Colonel Lloyd meets one of his slaves who speaks ill of him. After the incident, Colonel Lloyd postpones the punishment for this act until two weeks later. The delay of punishment can be seen as psychological torture on the slave (Douglass 34).
Although Douglass does not give much evidence about sexual abuse, the reader is left to make his/her conclusions about this issue. First of all, Douglass’s father is said to be an unknown white man who is suspected to be his master. The fact that his father is unknown is a clear indication that his mother was sexually abused during his conception.
This is also evidenced by the fact that his master was the chief suspect. Since masters were never good to their slaves. It is apparent that Douglass’s mother was forced into having sex with the man who bore Douglass. Another evidence of sexual abuse perpetrated on slaves is seen when Aunt Hester is whipped. There was also the rule that children who were born by black women belonging to white fathers were to be regarded as slaves (Douglass 13).
This is enough evidence that the whites (masters) were sexually abusing slaves since for them to develop such a rule, there must have been several cases of children born by white men and black women. The rule is an indication that they had, kind of, legalized this behavior. It was also an evidence of the inhumanity that the masters had if they could send their own children to experience the woes of slavery.
The slaves were provided with very poor living conditions. After a very busy day with whippings, slaves had limited time for household chores and thus they lacked enough time to sleep. They all slept on cold floors covered with very poor blankets. Slaves were provided with clothes annually. This meant that when a slave missed clothes, he/she could stay with tatters for two years.
The clothes provided include two linen shirts, two linen trousers, one jacket, and another trouser for winter, a pair of shoes and stockings. Food was given on a monthly basis. Children of both sexes between the ages seven years and ten years were always naked. These were the characteristics of the “Great House Farm” (Douglass 17) which was the prestigious “workplace” of the slaves (Douglass 17). One wonders what the conditions of other lesser farms were.
There are many cases of dehumanization in Douglass’s book. First of all, the slaves were overworked in the field and they received severe beatings while working. The effect of this can be seen when Douglass was taken to Mr. Covey. He was overworked and whipped routinely until he lost consciousness while carrying out his duties in the field. Another evidence of dehumanization of slaves is seen when Douglass’s master dies. His death is followed by the inheritance of slaves along with livestock and other property (Douglass 16).
Other acts of inhumanity in the book include the jailing of Douglass and his friends after an attempted escape. Additionally, while Douglass was working as a Caulker in Baltimore, all his wages were given to his master, Auld. The slaves were also denied their rights to literacy.
However, Douglass beat the system and found his ways of attaining literacy. His literacy contributed greatly to his fight against slavery (Douglass 15). There is evidence that some slaves were killed for no apparent reason. This is evidenced in the description of the character of one of the overseers of Douglass’s master named Mr. Plummer. He is said to have been beheading women slaves (Douglass 13).
Many people doubted that Douglass was a slave due to his language skills but his book gave the proof that he was actually a slave. His description of the events and the environments of American slavery is filled with a lot of evidence of truthfulness inform of names.
Among the names of places that are repeatedly mentioned in this book are the “Great House Farm” (Douglass 17), the Chesapeake Bay, the Baltimore, etc. On the other hand, events that are highlighted in this book are all meant to show the suffering of the slaves. These events include the singing of the slaves, who worked in the “Great House Farm” (Douglass 17) and events during which slaves were tortured or mistreated.
The latter include the whipping of Aunt Hester, the whipping of a woman in front of her kids, the collapsing of Douglass while working on the field and his subsequent fight with Mr. Covey, the whipping of Douglass’s mother in the morning after failing to make it to the farm by sunrise etc (Douglass 12-17). All these events are meant to show the brutality that was perpetrated against American slaves.
Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass-An American Slave. U.S: Yale University, 2001. Print. | <urn:uuid:87fd0eb9-883f-4c92-9293-b2483e24fcd2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/douglass-book/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00302.warc.gz | en | 0.99106 | 1,934 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3391501... | 1 | Douglass’s book, Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass- An American Slave, provides the best evidence about American slavery. In the book, Douglass gives vivid evidence that he was once a slave; a fact that was doubted by many critics due to his oration skills and impeccable language (Douglass 11).He also gives solid evidence of the inhumanity that was characteristic of this institution.
Douglss begins the book by giving a detailed description of his childhood life and the effects that slavery had on him as a child. He then goes on to give a detailed description of the brutality that was perpetrated against American slaves during his time as a slave. The book is filled with names, scenes and events which evidence its truthfulness. This paper is a description of the brutality that Douglas witnessed as a slave (Douglass 4).
American slavery was characterized with many acts of inhumanity. Slaves were denied their rights to literacy, severely beaten, overworked in farms, provided with poor living conditions, abused sexually, separated from their families, killed, tortured psychologically and emotionally, dehumanized, etc. Let us have a look at the evidence of these acts of inhumanity portrayed in Douglass’s book.
The most portrayed act of inhumanity is the frequent beatings that were perpetrated on slaves. After Aunt Hester had gone out, she was severely beaten and caused to bleed profusely. All this was done because she was not there when the master “desired her presence” (Douglass 14).
This is an act of inhumanity because it appears that the slaves were “tethered” like livestock and were not free to attend their needs. Before the beating, she was stripped from her neck to the waist and then whipped severely. This can be seen as an indication that her master, Captain Anthony, was abusing her sexually. This claim is substantiated by the fact that Aunt Hester had gone out to see a male neighbor named Ned Roberts.
Captain Anthony was calling her a “b – – – – -b b – – – -h” (Douglass 14) as he whipped her. Captain Anthony got his name, presumably, from having sailed at Chesapeake Bay. Another evidence of beatings perpetrated on slaves is seen when Douglass is taken to the custody of Mr. Covey. He says that he was whipped every week until one day he collapsed while working in the farm. However, one day as Covey wanted to tie him for his weekly routine, Douglass protested and put up a fight. They fought for two hours until Douglass won the fight.
This can be seen as one of the things that encouraged Douglass to relentlessly fight against the institution of slavery. It is also the beginning of Douglass’s confidence in his manhood. This is because after the fight, he was never beaten again. Douglass also explains how his mother received frequent whippings for not being in the farm at sunrise since she travelled at night to see him (Douglass 12).
If a slave committed major misdemeanors, tried to escape or opposed the authority of the overseers in the farms, he/she was exposed to severe beatings before being sold. There is also a woman who was whipped in the presence of her children, who were crying begging the overseer to stop whipping their mother. The woman is said to have been whipped by Mr. Severe in front of her children until her blood ran for almost thirty minutes (Douglas 17).
There is substantial evidence of psychological and emotional torture perpetrated on slaves by their masters. First of all, the separating of infants from their mothers before they were one year old amounts to emotional torture on both the mothers and their children. Douglass explains how his mother walked a distance of about twelve miles night after night to see him. This was after she was separated from him during his infancy (Douglass 12).
When his mother was sick and during her death, Douglass was not allowed to go and see her. Even when she died, he was not allowed to attend her burial. He says that his separation from his mother made him have no emotions for her such that her death hit him like the death of a stranger (Douglass 12). This is emotional torture perpetrated on Douglass. There is also the stated incidence in which a woman was whipped in front of her children (Douglass 17). This is emotional torture on the children.
An example of how slave-holders psychologically tortured their slaves is seen when Colonel Lloyd meets one of his slaves who speaks ill of him. After the incident, Colonel Lloyd postpones the punishment for this act until two weeks later. The delay of punishment can be seen as psychological torture on the slave (Douglass 34).
Although Douglass does not give much evidence about sexual abuse, the reader is left to make his/her conclusions about this issue. First of all, Douglass’s father is said to be an unknown white man who is suspected to be his master. The fact that his father is unknown is a clear indication that his mother was sexually abused during his conception.
This is also evidenced by the fact that his master was the chief suspect. Since masters were never good to their slaves. It is apparent that Douglass’s mother was forced into having sex with the man who bore Douglass. Another evidence of sexual abuse perpetrated on slaves is seen when Aunt Hester is whipped. There was also the rule that children who were born by black women belonging to white fathers were to be regarded as slaves (Douglass 13).
This is enough evidence that the whites (masters) were sexually abusing slaves since for them to develop such a rule, there must have been several cases of children born by white men and black women. The rule is an indication that they had, kind of, legalized this behavior. It was also an evidence of the inhumanity that the masters had if they could send their own children to experience the woes of slavery.
The slaves were provided with very poor living conditions. After a very busy day with whippings, slaves had limited time for household chores and thus they lacked enough time to sleep. They all slept on cold floors covered with very poor blankets. Slaves were provided with clothes annually. This meant that when a slave missed clothes, he/she could stay with tatters for two years.
The clothes provided include two linen shirts, two linen trousers, one jacket, and another trouser for winter, a pair of shoes and stockings. Food was given on a monthly basis. Children of both sexes between the ages seven years and ten years were always naked. These were the characteristics of the “Great House Farm” (Douglass 17) which was the prestigious “workplace” of the slaves (Douglass 17). One wonders what the conditions of other lesser farms were.
There are many cases of dehumanization in Douglass’s book. First of all, the slaves were overworked in the field and they received severe beatings while working. The effect of this can be seen when Douglass was taken to Mr. Covey. He was overworked and whipped routinely until he lost consciousness while carrying out his duties in the field. Another evidence of dehumanization of slaves is seen when Douglass’s master dies. His death is followed by the inheritance of slaves along with livestock and other property (Douglass 16).
Other acts of inhumanity in the book include the jailing of Douglass and his friends after an attempted escape. Additionally, while Douglass was working as a Caulker in Baltimore, all his wages were given to his master, Auld. The slaves were also denied their rights to literacy.
However, Douglass beat the system and found his ways of attaining literacy. His literacy contributed greatly to his fight against slavery (Douglass 15). There is evidence that some slaves were killed for no apparent reason. This is evidenced in the description of the character of one of the overseers of Douglass’s master named Mr. Plummer. He is said to have been beheading women slaves (Douglass 13).
Many people doubted that Douglass was a slave due to his language skills but his book gave the proof that he was actually a slave. His description of the events and the environments of American slavery is filled with a lot of evidence of truthfulness inform of names.
Among the names of places that are repeatedly mentioned in this book are the “Great House Farm” (Douglass 17), the Chesapeake Bay, the Baltimore, etc. On the other hand, events that are highlighted in this book are all meant to show the suffering of the slaves. These events include the singing of the slaves, who worked in the “Great House Farm” (Douglass 17) and events during which slaves were tortured or mistreated.
The latter include the whipping of Aunt Hester, the whipping of a woman in front of her kids, the collapsing of Douglass while working on the field and his subsequent fight with Mr. Covey, the whipping of Douglass’s mother in the morning after failing to make it to the farm by sunrise etc (Douglass 12-17). All these events are meant to show the brutality that was perpetrated against American slaves.
Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass-An American Slave. U.S: Yale University, 2001. Print. | 1,920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slow and wise: Test shows that animals – which are postcards of islands in the Pacific and the Indian – remember events that occurred until ten years ago.
13 Dec 2019, 12:09
Giant tortoises like the one in the picture above were one of the sailors' favorite meals until the 19th century. They were not easy prey because they were not prey at all: no need to kill them during capture. Just take a portion of the live animals on the ship and kill them one by one before preparing lunch. Far better than eating rotten meat after weeks stored without refrigeration.
Thanks to these and others, these chubby reptiles have earned a reputation for being slow and dumb. But not every ship carried hungry sailors. Some also carried shy playboys on track. This was the case of the British Charles Darwin. During the voyage of the HMS Beagle, he realized that turtles in the Galapagos archipelago traveled long distances between places where they slept, ate and bathed in mud – a sign that they had an effective memory of guiding them daily through the geography of the islands.
The crew themselves were not fools, and they became fond of the bugs. It was possible to train them like dogs to stay in one place without moving.
Ten years ago, Tamar Gutnick, then a master's student at Hebrew University, began working with the giant tortoises from the Vienna Zoo in Austria, which comes from the Galapagos and also from the Aldabra Atoll in the Indian Ocean. “When I first met the turtles, I immediately fell in love with them,” said Gutnick in a statement. “It was clear to me that they had distinct personalities – they were often bold.”
To test the turtles' memory, the first step was to train them to catch a colorful ball with their mouths. The ball stuck in the end of a toothpick. Then the ball was placed one or two meters away from the animal, and he was encouraged to move to bite it. Finally, Gutnick chose a different ball color for each turtle – and taught them to choose, when various options were offered, just the correct color ball.
Three months later, the turtles successfully performed the first two tasks. In the third task, five out of six remembered which color to bite faster than they had taken in the original training. Sign that there is at least one memory residue. Some turtles were tested nine years after the dressage section and were still successfully biting the balls. For those who live more than 150 years, nine seems to be little. | <urn:uuid:ffa9c397-b7d4-4e46-bd6c-9666af9bc298> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.webmarketshop.com/the-reptile-elephant-giant-tortoises-have-exceptional-memory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.984388 | 530 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.6303796172142029... | 2 | Slow and wise: Test shows that animals – which are postcards of islands in the Pacific and the Indian – remember events that occurred until ten years ago.
13 Dec 2019, 12:09
Giant tortoises like the one in the picture above were one of the sailors' favorite meals until the 19th century. They were not easy prey because they were not prey at all: no need to kill them during capture. Just take a portion of the live animals on the ship and kill them one by one before preparing lunch. Far better than eating rotten meat after weeks stored without refrigeration.
Thanks to these and others, these chubby reptiles have earned a reputation for being slow and dumb. But not every ship carried hungry sailors. Some also carried shy playboys on track. This was the case of the British Charles Darwin. During the voyage of the HMS Beagle, he realized that turtles in the Galapagos archipelago traveled long distances between places where they slept, ate and bathed in mud – a sign that they had an effective memory of guiding them daily through the geography of the islands.
The crew themselves were not fools, and they became fond of the bugs. It was possible to train them like dogs to stay in one place without moving.
Ten years ago, Tamar Gutnick, then a master's student at Hebrew University, began working with the giant tortoises from the Vienna Zoo in Austria, which comes from the Galapagos and also from the Aldabra Atoll in the Indian Ocean. “When I first met the turtles, I immediately fell in love with them,” said Gutnick in a statement. “It was clear to me that they had distinct personalities – they were often bold.”
To test the turtles' memory, the first step was to train them to catch a colorful ball with their mouths. The ball stuck in the end of a toothpick. Then the ball was placed one or two meters away from the animal, and he was encouraged to move to bite it. Finally, Gutnick chose a different ball color for each turtle – and taught them to choose, when various options were offered, just the correct color ball.
Three months later, the turtles successfully performed the first two tasks. In the third task, five out of six remembered which color to bite faster than they had taken in the original training. Sign that there is at least one memory residue. Some turtles were tested nine years after the dressage section and were still successfully biting the balls. For those who live more than 150 years, nine seems to be little. | 530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Climate Change Action
Phase 1: Raising Awareness
By Lily Poletto Age 14
The Global Week of Climate Action took place from September 23 to 29, and since we are so passionate about our Earth and our futures, the middle school class decided to participate! We developed three phases to our project: raising awareness, implementing waste reduction at school, and bringing the parents on board. Soon, one week of climate action turned into one month, and each week we had something special to offer to the school and the community.
In the first week, we wanted to raise more awareness about climate change. Most people at the school knew a bit about it but we wanted to educate them further. We decided as a class that we would make protest signs that would bring attention to the subject. We did research and found inspiration online that helped us make our signs. We met as a class to fine tune our messages and then we split into groups and began to sketch out our designs. We decided we would put them on the road in front of the school so the parents driving their kids to school, and the people passing by could see how much we care and want to work together to help take care of our planet! Once we finished creating the signs, we stapled them onto posts and stuck them into the ground. Some of the signs were funny like “Climate change is not a joke! Seriously scientists aren’t that funny!” While others asked people to step up, “If climate can change, why can’t we?” or “We can climate together!”
We wanted to educate in a way that the students and teachers could better understand the impact of waste and be inspired to reduce it. The middle school class brainstormed ideas about how we could help enlighten others as to how we were hurting the earth, and we decided to make a play. We talked about what we wanted to cover in the play and a couple of the students took the time to write the play. The next day the class practiced the script and made a couple of changes to it, and the same day we made our costumes and memorized our lines. We made and memorized an entire play in two days and headed out to perform for each of the school’s classrooms.
The play was about creating less waste. We had good characters like Metal Water Bottle and Recycling Can but we also had bad characters like Plastic Water Bottle and Plastic Bag. We showed how when people don’t recycle or compost, it affects the environment, from the air we breath to the animals in the oceans. We had a part in the play where a human threw food into the recycling and a reusable container into the trash. Since this is something that a lot of people still do, we had the bins talk about how frustrated they were at being misused. Once a helpful human came and moved the misplaced waste into the right bins, they felt much better!
Friday, September 20 was an international climate strike day. Our school is already very passionate about protecting the environment, so walking out didn’t make that much sense. Instead, we decided to act. In just six days, our class brainstormed ideas on how we could promote awareness on factors of climate change, especially relating to waste. We made a plan, created and posted signs, brainstormed a play, wrote the play, and performed it in just two days (we performed it six times, once in each classroom!)
It was a lot of work, but it was worth it! It felt amazing to be able to teach the little children about how we can make the Earth a better place, because if they know this at an early age then they can begin making a difference now. Even though climate week was wrapping up as we finished performing, we decided there was still more we wanted to do. During the next phase, we worked on creating less waste in each classroom at the Homestead, so there is still more to come!
Stay up to date with what's happening at The Homestead!
Subscribe to our mailing list to get the latest posts to your inbox.
Thank you for subscribing.
Something went wrong. | <urn:uuid:f3b34787-0dad-4316-937b-ac65f698e749> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://homesteadschool.com/how-the-homestead-middle-school-reduced-waste-by-2500-pounds/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.9831 | 853 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.440150380... | 1 | Climate Change Action
Phase 1: Raising Awareness
By Lily Poletto Age 14
The Global Week of Climate Action took place from September 23 to 29, and since we are so passionate about our Earth and our futures, the middle school class decided to participate! We developed three phases to our project: raising awareness, implementing waste reduction at school, and bringing the parents on board. Soon, one week of climate action turned into one month, and each week we had something special to offer to the school and the community.
In the first week, we wanted to raise more awareness about climate change. Most people at the school knew a bit about it but we wanted to educate them further. We decided as a class that we would make protest signs that would bring attention to the subject. We did research and found inspiration online that helped us make our signs. We met as a class to fine tune our messages and then we split into groups and began to sketch out our designs. We decided we would put them on the road in front of the school so the parents driving their kids to school, and the people passing by could see how much we care and want to work together to help take care of our planet! Once we finished creating the signs, we stapled them onto posts and stuck them into the ground. Some of the signs were funny like “Climate change is not a joke! Seriously scientists aren’t that funny!” While others asked people to step up, “If climate can change, why can’t we?” or “We can climate together!”
We wanted to educate in a way that the students and teachers could better understand the impact of waste and be inspired to reduce it. The middle school class brainstormed ideas about how we could help enlighten others as to how we were hurting the earth, and we decided to make a play. We talked about what we wanted to cover in the play and a couple of the students took the time to write the play. The next day the class practiced the script and made a couple of changes to it, and the same day we made our costumes and memorized our lines. We made and memorized an entire play in two days and headed out to perform for each of the school’s classrooms.
The play was about creating less waste. We had good characters like Metal Water Bottle and Recycling Can but we also had bad characters like Plastic Water Bottle and Plastic Bag. We showed how when people don’t recycle or compost, it affects the environment, from the air we breath to the animals in the oceans. We had a part in the play where a human threw food into the recycling and a reusable container into the trash. Since this is something that a lot of people still do, we had the bins talk about how frustrated they were at being misused. Once a helpful human came and moved the misplaced waste into the right bins, they felt much better!
Friday, September 20 was an international climate strike day. Our school is already very passionate about protecting the environment, so walking out didn’t make that much sense. Instead, we decided to act. In just six days, our class brainstormed ideas on how we could promote awareness on factors of climate change, especially relating to waste. We made a plan, created and posted signs, brainstormed a play, wrote the play, and performed it in just two days (we performed it six times, once in each classroom!)
It was a lot of work, but it was worth it! It felt amazing to be able to teach the little children about how we can make the Earth a better place, because if they know this at an early age then they can begin making a difference now. Even though climate week was wrapping up as we finished performing, we decided there was still more we wanted to do. During the next phase, we worked on creating less waste in each classroom at the Homestead, so there is still more to come!
Stay up to date with what's happening at The Homestead!
Subscribe to our mailing list to get the latest posts to your inbox.
Thank you for subscribing.
Something went wrong. | 833 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Capital punishment in the United Kingdom was used from the creation of the state in 1707 until the practice was abolished in the 20th century. The last executions in the United Kingdom, by hanging, took place in 1964, prior to capital punishment being abolished for murder (in 1965 in Great Britain and in 1973 in Northern Ireland). Although not applied since, the death penalty was abolished in all circumstances in 1998. In 2004 the 13th Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights became binding on the United Kingdom, prohibiting the restoration of the death penalty for as long as the UK is a party to the Convention
Hanging has been the principal form of execution in Britain since the 5th Century, although other methods such as drowning, burial alive, hurling from cliffs, beheading, boiling alive, burning at the stake and shooting have been used at various times
At the beginning of the 19th century you could still be hanged in Britain for offences such as stealing a sheep or shooting a rabbit. Even children as young as seven were sent to the gallows.
Sir Samuel Romilly, speaking to the House of Commons on capital punishment in 1810, declared that “[there is] no country on the face of the earth in which there [have] been so many different offences according to law to be punished with death as in England.” Known as the “Bloody Code“, at its height the criminal law included some 220 crimes punishable by death, including “being in the company of Gypsies for one month”, “strong evidence of malice in a child aged 7–14 years of age” and “blacking the face or using a disguise whilst committing a crime”. Many of these offences had been introduced to protect the property of the wealthy classes that emerged during the first half of the 18th century, a notable example being the Black Act of 1723, which created 50 capital offences for various acts of theft and poaching
Whilst executions for murder, burglary and robbery were common, the death sentences for minor offenders were often not carried out. A sentence of death could be commuted or respited (permanently postponed) for reasons such as benefit of clergy, official pardons, pregnancy of the offender or performance of military or naval duty. Between 1770 and 1830, 35,000 death sentences were handed down in England and Wales, but only 7000 executions were carried out
32 of the 375 women executed between 1735 and 1799 were burnt at the stake.
Between 1900 and 1949, 621 men and 11 women were executed in England and Wales. Ten German agents were executed during the First World War under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, and 16 spies were executed during the Second World War under the Treachery Act 1940
Execution by firing squad in the United Kingdom
Pte. Thomas Highgate was the first British soldier to be convicted of desertion and executed by firing squad during the First World War. In October 1916 Pte. Harry Farr was shot for cowardice, which was later suspected to be acoustic shock. Particularly since the 1960s, there has been some controversy concerning the 346 British and Imperial troops — including 25 Canadians, 22 Irish and 5 New Zealanders — who were shot for desertion, murder, cowardice and other offences during the war, some of whom are now thought to have been suffering from combat stress reaction or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (“shell-shock”, as it was then known). This led to organisations such as the Shot at Dawn Campaign being set up in later years to try to uncover just why these soldiers were executed. The Shot at Dawn Memorial was erected to honour these soldiers.
Last executions (Hanging)
England and in the United Kingdom: on 13 August 1964, Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, were executed for the murder of John Alan West on 7 April that year.
Evans (left), Allen (right)
Scotland: Henry John Burnett, 21, on 15 August 1963 in Craiginches Prison, Aberdeen, for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan. on the morning of 15 August 1963 the 21-year old was executed on the UK’s newest gallows (built in 1962 to Home Office approved specifications) as a crowd of 200 people gathered outside the jail. Shortly after the execution, Burnett’s body was buried in an unmarked grave within the walls of the prison, as was customary
Northern Ireland: Robert McGladdery, 25, on 20 December 1961 in Crumlin Road Gaol, Belfast. He was convicted of the murder of Pearl Gamble, aged 19, whom he had battered, strangled and stabbed to death on 28 January 1961, and left her body at Upper Damolly, near Newry,County Down. It transpired the murderer and victim were distant cousins. McGladdery pleaded his innocence but was found guilty and sentenced to death on 16 October 1961. The evening before his execution he allegedly made a full confession of the murder.
Wales: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea on 6 May 1958, for the murder of William Williams, sub-postmaster of Fforestfach Post Office.
Last woman in UK: In 1955, 12 July: Ruth Ellis, aged 28, the last woman to be hanged in Britain. She was the 15th and youngest woman hanged in the 20th century.
On Easter Sunday 1955, Ellis shot Blakely dead outside the Magdala public house in Hampstead, and immediately gave herself up to the police. At her trial, she took full responsibility for the murder and her courtesy and composure, both in court and in the cells, was noted in the press. She was hanged at Holloway Prison, London, by Albert Pierrepoint.
The case attracted controversy as the anti-hanging debate was gathering momentum and she might have won a reprieve had she taken advice to tone down her look. The picture of the attractive blonde murderess remains one of the iconic images of 1950s London.
Thirty seconds before 9 am on Wednesday 13 July, the official hangman, Albert Pierrepoint, and his assistant, Royston Rickard, entered the condemned cell and escorted Ruth 15 feet (4.6 m) to the execution room next door. She had been weighed at 103 pounds (47 kg) the previous day and a drop of 8 ft 4in was set. Pierrepoint carried out the execution in just 12 seconds and her body was left hanging for an hour.
Last death sentences ordered but not acted upon
Northern Ireland and in the United Kingdom: Liam Holden in 1973 in Northern Ireland, for the capital murder of a British soldier during the Troubles. Holden was removed from the death cell in May 1973. In 2012 his conviction was quashed on appeal.
Liam Holden, now aged 58, was convicted and sentenced to hang for the murder of Private Frank Bell, an 18-year-old who had been a member of the regiment for just six weeks when he was shot in the head on patrol in West Belfast 40 years ago. Mr Holden says he confessed under duress after being held by members of the Parachute Regiment for nearly six hours who subjected him to water torture, hooded him and had a gun put to his head. His death sentence was commuted to life in prison by then Northern Ireland Secretary William Whitelaw and he served 17 years behind bars before being released on licence in 1989. The death penalty for murder was abolished in Northern Ireland in 1973, four years after the rest of the UK.
England: David Chapman, who was sentenced to hang in November 1965 for the murder of a swimming pool nightwatchman in Scarborough. He was released from prison in 1979 and later died in a car accident.
Scotland: Patrick McCarron in 1964 for shooting his wife. He hanged himself in prison in 1970.
Wales: Edgar Black, who was reprieved on 6 November 1963. He had shot his wife’s lover in Cardiff.
Public support for reintroduction of capital punishment
Since the death penalty’s abolition in 1965, there have been continued public and media calls for its reintroduction, particularly prompted by high-profile murder cases.
At the same time, there have been a number of miscarriages of justice since 1965 where someone convicted of murder has later had their conviction quashed on appeal and been released from prison, strengthening the argument of those who oppose the death penalty’s reintroduction. These include the Birmingham Six (cleared in 1991 of planting an IRA bomb which killed 21 people in 1974), the Guildford Four (cleared in 1989 of murdering five people in another 1974 IRA bombing), Stephen Downing (a Derbyshire man who was freed in 2001 after serving 27 years for the murder of a woman in a churchyard) and Barry George (who was freed in 2007 when his conviction for the 1999 murder of TV presenter Jill Dando was quashed on appeal).
Perhaps the first high-profile murder case which sparked widespread calls for a return of the death penalty was the Moors Murders trial in 1966, the year after the death penalty’s abolition, in which Ian Brady and Myra Hindley were sentenced to life imprisonment for the murders of two children and a teenager in the Manchester area (they later confessed to a further two murders). Later in 1966, the murder of three policemen in West London also attracted widespread public support for the death penalty’s return. Other subsequent high-profile cases to have sparked widespread media and public calls for the death penalty’s return include “Yorkshire Ripper” Peter Sutcliffe, convicted in 1981 of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in the north of England, Roy Whiting, who murdered a seven-year-old girl in West Sussex in 2000, and Ian Huntley, a Cambridgeshire school caretaker who killed two 10-year-old girls in 2002
A November 2009 television survey showed that 70% favoured reinstating the death penalty for at least one of the following crimes: armed robbery, rape, crimes related to paedophilia, terrorism, adult murder, child murder, child rape, treason, child abuse, or kidnapping. However, respondents only favoured capital punishment for adult murder, the polling question asked by other organisations such as Gallup, by small majorities or pluralities: overall, 51% favoured the death penalty for adult murder, while 56% in Wales did, 55% in Scotland, and only 49% in England.
In August 2011, the Internet blogger Paul Staines—who writes a political blog as Guido Fawkes and heads the Restore Justice Campaign—launched an e-petition on the Downing Street website calling for the restoration of the death penalty for those convicted of the murder of children and police officers. The petition was one of several in support or opposition of capital punishment to be published by the government with the launch of its e-petitions website. Petitions attracting 100,000 signatures would prompt a parliamentary debate on a particular topic, but not necessarily lead to any Parliamentary Bills being put forward. When the petition closed on 4 February 2012 it had received 26,351 signatures in support of restoring capital punishment, but a counter-petition calling to retain the ban on capital punishment received 33,455 signatures during the same time period.
Also in August 2011, a representative survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion showed that 65% of Britons support reinstating the death penalty for murder in Great Britain, while 28% oppose this course of action. Men and respondents aged over 35 are more likely to endorse the change
Notable executions in the United Kingdom (Last 100 years)
1914, 8 September: Private Thomas Highgate was executed by firing squad, the first British soldier to be executed for desertion during World War I.
1915, 13 August: George Joseph Smith was hanged in Maidstone Prison for the pattern of serial killings known as the “Brides in the Bath Murders”.
1916, 3 August: Roger Casement was hanged at Pentonville for treason, based on his attempt to smuggle German weapons into Ireland in support of the unsuccessful Irish Easter Rising.
1920, 2 November: Private James Daly of the Connaught Rangers was shot for mutiny in India, the last member of the British Armed Forces to be executed for mutiny.
1923, 9 January: Edith Thompson and Frederick Bywaters, in London’s Holloway and Pentonville Prisons respectively, for the murder of Thompson’s husband. The case was controversial because, although the two lovers had discussed the possible elimination of her husband in advance, Thompson did not directly participate in the murder for which she was hanged.
1931, 3 January: Victor Betts for murder committed during the course of a robbery. The case had established that a person need not be present when a crime is committed to be regarded as an accessory after the fact.
1940, 31 July: Udham Singh, an Indian independence activist, at Pentonville Prison. He had assassinated the Indian administrator Sir Michael O’Dwyer.
1941, 15 August: Josef Jakobs, a German spy, was executed by firing squad, the last execution in the Tower of London.
1946, 3 January: William Joyce, better known as “Lord Haw-Haw“, for treason in London’s Wandsworth Prison. He was an American citizen, but was convicted of treason because, as the holder of a British passport (albeit fraudulently obtained), he was held to have owed allegiance to the British sovereign. Theodore Schurch, hanged for treachery the next day, was the last person to be executed for an offence other than murder; he was executed at Pentonville. As a member of the armed forces he had been tried by court-martial.
1947, 27 February: Walter Rowland in Manchester for the murder of Olive Balchin despite maintaining his innocence. While he had been awaiting execution, another man confessed to the crime. A Home Office report dismissed the latter’s confession as a fake, but in 1951 he attacked another woman and was found guilty but insane.
1949, 12 January: Margaret Allen, aged 43, for killing a 70-year-old woman in the course of a robbery, the first woman to be hanged in Britain for 12 years.
1949, 10 August: John George Haigh, the “acid-bath murderer”, at Wandsworth.
1950, 9 March: Timothy Evans at Pentonville for the murder of his baby daughter Geraldine at 10 Rillington Place, North West London. He initially claimed to have killed his wife, but later withdrew the claim. A fellow inhabitant at the same address, John Christie, later found to be a sexual serial killer, gave key evidence against Evans. Christie was executed in 1953 for the murder of his own wife. Evans received a posthumous pardon in 1966. In 2004 the Court of Appeal refused to consider overturning the conviction due to the costs and resources that would be involved. See John Christie (murderer).
1950, 28 March: George Kelly at Liverpool for murder, but had his conviction quashed posthumously by the Court of Appeal in June 2003.
1952, 25 April: Edward Devlin and Alfred Burns, for killing a woman during a robbery in Liverpool. They claimed that they had been doing a different burglary in Manchester, and others involved in the crime supported this. A Home Office report rejected this evidence. Huge crowds gathered outside Liverpool’s Walton Prison as they were executed.
1952, 3 September: Mahmood Hussein Mattan, a Somali seaman, in Cardiff for murder. The Court of Appeal quashed his conviction posthumously in 1998 after hearing that crucial evidence implicating another Somali was withheld at his trial.
1953, 28 January: Derek Bentley at Wandsworth Prison as an accomplice to the murder of a police officer by his 16-year-old friend Christopher Craig. Craig, a minor, was not executed and instead served 10 years. Bentley was granted a posthumous pardon on 29 July 1993, and the Court of Appeal overturned his conviction on 30 July 1998.
1953, 15 July: John Reginald Halliday Christie at Pentonville for the murder of his wife Ethel. Christie was a serial killer and had murdered at least six other women (see also entry on Timothy Evans above).
1954, 13 December: Styllou Christofi, aged 53, penultimate woman executed in Britain.
1955, 12 July: Ruth Ellis, aged 28, the last woman to be hanged in Britain. She was the 15th and youngest woman hanged in the 20th century.
1958, 6 May: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea, the last person to be executed in Wales.
1958, 11 July: Peter Manuel, aged 31, second to last person to be hanged in HM Prison Barlinnie and the third to last to be hanged in Scotland.
1959, 9 October: Francis Joseph Huchet, 31, in St Helier, Jersey, the last person to be executed in the Channel Islands.
1959, 5 November: Guenther Podola, the last person to be hanged for the murder of a policeman.
1960, 10 November: Francis Forsyth, the last 18-year-old to be executed in Britain.
1960, 22 December: Anthony Miller, 19, in Glasgow‘s Barlinnie Prison, the last teenager to be executed in Britain.
1961, 20 December: Robert McGladdery, 25, in Crumlin Road Gaol in Belfast, the last person to be executed in Northern Ireland, for the murder of Pearl Gamble in Newry.
1962, 4 April: James Hanratty at Bedford after a controversial rape-murder trial. In 2002 Hanratty’s body was exhumed and the Court of Appeal upheld his conviction after Hanratty’s DNA was linked to crime scene samples.
1963, 15 August: Henry Burnett, aged 21, at Craiginches Prison in Aberdeen for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan, the last hanging in Scotland.
1964, 13 August: Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester for the murder of John Alan West, the last people executed in Britain
Albert Pierrepoint – Hangman
Albert Pierrepoint (30 March 1905 – 10 July 1992) was a long-serving hangman in England. He executed at least 400 people, about half of them war criminals, including William Joyce (one of the men dubbed “Lord Haw-Haw“), and John Amery, whom he considered the bravest man he had ever hanged.
Pierrepoint was often dubbed the Official Executioner, despite there being no such job or title. The office of executioner had traditionally been performed by the local sheriff, who increasingly delegated the task to a person of suitable character, employed and paid only when required. Pierrepoint continued to work for years in a grocery near Bradford after qualifying as an Assistant Executioner in 1932 and a Chief Executioner in 1941, in the steps of his father and uncle.
Following his retirement in 1956, the Home Office acknowledged Pierrepoint as the most efficient executioner in British history. He subsequently became a publican in Lancashire and wrote his memoirs, in which he sensationally concluded that capital punishment was not a deterrent.
There is no official tally of his hangings, which some have estimated at more than 600; the most commonly accepted figure is 435.
Pierrepoint allegedly became an opponent of capital punishment. The reason for this seems to be a combination of the experiences of his father, his uncle, and himself, whereupon reprieves were granted in accordance with political expediency or public fancy, and had little to do with the merits of the case in question. He had also hanged a slight acquaintance, James Corbitt, on 28 November 1950; Corbitt was a regular in his pub, and had sung “Danny Boy” as a duet with Pierrepoint on the night he murdered his girlfriend in a fit of jealousy because she would not give up a second boyfriend. This incident, in particular, made Pierrepoint feel that hanging was no deterrent, particularly when most of the people he was executing had killed in the heat of the moment rather than with premeditation or in furtherance of a robbery.
Pierrepoint kept his opinions to himself on the topic until his 1974 autobiography, Executioner: Pierrepoint, in which he wrote:
It is said to be a deterrent. I cannot agree. There have been murders since the beginning of time, and we shall go on looking for deterrents until the end of time. If death were a deterrent, I might be expected to know. It is I who have faced them last, young men and girls, working men, grandmothers. I have been amazed to see the courage with which they take that walk into the unknown. It did not deter them then, and it had not deterred them when they committed what they were convicted for. All the men and women whom I have faced at that final moment convince me that in what I have done I have not prevented a single murder. | <urn:uuid:f82972f8-9329-4317-b008-426075ca4643> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theukdatabase.net/uk-child-abusers-named-and-shamed/calls-for-change-in-law/raise-the-stakes-against-all-paedophiles/history-of-capital-punishment-in-uk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.980719 | 4,405 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.0608169... | 15 | Capital punishment in the United Kingdom was used from the creation of the state in 1707 until the practice was abolished in the 20th century. The last executions in the United Kingdom, by hanging, took place in 1964, prior to capital punishment being abolished for murder (in 1965 in Great Britain and in 1973 in Northern Ireland). Although not applied since, the death penalty was abolished in all circumstances in 1998. In 2004 the 13th Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights became binding on the United Kingdom, prohibiting the restoration of the death penalty for as long as the UK is a party to the Convention
Hanging has been the principal form of execution in Britain since the 5th Century, although other methods such as drowning, burial alive, hurling from cliffs, beheading, boiling alive, burning at the stake and shooting have been used at various times
At the beginning of the 19th century you could still be hanged in Britain for offences such as stealing a sheep or shooting a rabbit. Even children as young as seven were sent to the gallows.
Sir Samuel Romilly, speaking to the House of Commons on capital punishment in 1810, declared that “[there is] no country on the face of the earth in which there [have] been so many different offences according to law to be punished with death as in England.” Known as the “Bloody Code“, at its height the criminal law included some 220 crimes punishable by death, including “being in the company of Gypsies for one month”, “strong evidence of malice in a child aged 7–14 years of age” and “blacking the face or using a disguise whilst committing a crime”. Many of these offences had been introduced to protect the property of the wealthy classes that emerged during the first half of the 18th century, a notable example being the Black Act of 1723, which created 50 capital offences for various acts of theft and poaching
Whilst executions for murder, burglary and robbery were common, the death sentences for minor offenders were often not carried out. A sentence of death could be commuted or respited (permanently postponed) for reasons such as benefit of clergy, official pardons, pregnancy of the offender or performance of military or naval duty. Between 1770 and 1830, 35,000 death sentences were handed down in England and Wales, but only 7000 executions were carried out
32 of the 375 women executed between 1735 and 1799 were burnt at the stake.
Between 1900 and 1949, 621 men and 11 women were executed in England and Wales. Ten German agents were executed during the First World War under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914, and 16 spies were executed during the Second World War under the Treachery Act 1940
Execution by firing squad in the United Kingdom
Pte. Thomas Highgate was the first British soldier to be convicted of desertion and executed by firing squad during the First World War. In October 1916 Pte. Harry Farr was shot for cowardice, which was later suspected to be acoustic shock. Particularly since the 1960s, there has been some controversy concerning the 346 British and Imperial troops — including 25 Canadians, 22 Irish and 5 New Zealanders — who were shot for desertion, murder, cowardice and other offences during the war, some of whom are now thought to have been suffering from combat stress reaction or Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (“shell-shock”, as it was then known). This led to organisations such as the Shot at Dawn Campaign being set up in later years to try to uncover just why these soldiers were executed. The Shot at Dawn Memorial was erected to honour these soldiers.
Last executions (Hanging)
England and in the United Kingdom: on 13 August 1964, Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester, were executed for the murder of John Alan West on 7 April that year.
Evans (left), Allen (right)
Scotland: Henry John Burnett, 21, on 15 August 1963 in Craiginches Prison, Aberdeen, for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan. on the morning of 15 August 1963 the 21-year old was executed on the UK’s newest gallows (built in 1962 to Home Office approved specifications) as a crowd of 200 people gathered outside the jail. Shortly after the execution, Burnett’s body was buried in an unmarked grave within the walls of the prison, as was customary
Northern Ireland: Robert McGladdery, 25, on 20 December 1961 in Crumlin Road Gaol, Belfast. He was convicted of the murder of Pearl Gamble, aged 19, whom he had battered, strangled and stabbed to death on 28 January 1961, and left her body at Upper Damolly, near Newry,County Down. It transpired the murderer and victim were distant cousins. McGladdery pleaded his innocence but was found guilty and sentenced to death on 16 October 1961. The evening before his execution he allegedly made a full confession of the murder.
Wales: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea on 6 May 1958, for the murder of William Williams, sub-postmaster of Fforestfach Post Office.
Last woman in UK: In 1955, 12 July: Ruth Ellis, aged 28, the last woman to be hanged in Britain. She was the 15th and youngest woman hanged in the 20th century.
On Easter Sunday 1955, Ellis shot Blakely dead outside the Magdala public house in Hampstead, and immediately gave herself up to the police. At her trial, she took full responsibility for the murder and her courtesy and composure, both in court and in the cells, was noted in the press. She was hanged at Holloway Prison, London, by Albert Pierrepoint.
The case attracted controversy as the anti-hanging debate was gathering momentum and she might have won a reprieve had she taken advice to tone down her look. The picture of the attractive blonde murderess remains one of the iconic images of 1950s London.
Thirty seconds before 9 am on Wednesday 13 July, the official hangman, Albert Pierrepoint, and his assistant, Royston Rickard, entered the condemned cell and escorted Ruth 15 feet (4.6 m) to the execution room next door. She had been weighed at 103 pounds (47 kg) the previous day and a drop of 8 ft 4in was set. Pierrepoint carried out the execution in just 12 seconds and her body was left hanging for an hour.
Last death sentences ordered but not acted upon
Northern Ireland and in the United Kingdom: Liam Holden in 1973 in Northern Ireland, for the capital murder of a British soldier during the Troubles. Holden was removed from the death cell in May 1973. In 2012 his conviction was quashed on appeal.
Liam Holden, now aged 58, was convicted and sentenced to hang for the murder of Private Frank Bell, an 18-year-old who had been a member of the regiment for just six weeks when he was shot in the head on patrol in West Belfast 40 years ago. Mr Holden says he confessed under duress after being held by members of the Parachute Regiment for nearly six hours who subjected him to water torture, hooded him and had a gun put to his head. His death sentence was commuted to life in prison by then Northern Ireland Secretary William Whitelaw and he served 17 years behind bars before being released on licence in 1989. The death penalty for murder was abolished in Northern Ireland in 1973, four years after the rest of the UK.
England: David Chapman, who was sentenced to hang in November 1965 for the murder of a swimming pool nightwatchman in Scarborough. He was released from prison in 1979 and later died in a car accident.
Scotland: Patrick McCarron in 1964 for shooting his wife. He hanged himself in prison in 1970.
Wales: Edgar Black, who was reprieved on 6 November 1963. He had shot his wife’s lover in Cardiff.
Public support for reintroduction of capital punishment
Since the death penalty’s abolition in 1965, there have been continued public and media calls for its reintroduction, particularly prompted by high-profile murder cases.
At the same time, there have been a number of miscarriages of justice since 1965 where someone convicted of murder has later had their conviction quashed on appeal and been released from prison, strengthening the argument of those who oppose the death penalty’s reintroduction. These include the Birmingham Six (cleared in 1991 of planting an IRA bomb which killed 21 people in 1974), the Guildford Four (cleared in 1989 of murdering five people in another 1974 IRA bombing), Stephen Downing (a Derbyshire man who was freed in 2001 after serving 27 years for the murder of a woman in a churchyard) and Barry George (who was freed in 2007 when his conviction for the 1999 murder of TV presenter Jill Dando was quashed on appeal).
Perhaps the first high-profile murder case which sparked widespread calls for a return of the death penalty was the Moors Murders trial in 1966, the year after the death penalty’s abolition, in which Ian Brady and Myra Hindley were sentenced to life imprisonment for the murders of two children and a teenager in the Manchester area (they later confessed to a further two murders). Later in 1966, the murder of three policemen in West London also attracted widespread public support for the death penalty’s return. Other subsequent high-profile cases to have sparked widespread media and public calls for the death penalty’s return include “Yorkshire Ripper” Peter Sutcliffe, convicted in 1981 of murdering 13 women and attacking seven others in the north of England, Roy Whiting, who murdered a seven-year-old girl in West Sussex in 2000, and Ian Huntley, a Cambridgeshire school caretaker who killed two 10-year-old girls in 2002
A November 2009 television survey showed that 70% favoured reinstating the death penalty for at least one of the following crimes: armed robbery, rape, crimes related to paedophilia, terrorism, adult murder, child murder, child rape, treason, child abuse, or kidnapping. However, respondents only favoured capital punishment for adult murder, the polling question asked by other organisations such as Gallup, by small majorities or pluralities: overall, 51% favoured the death penalty for adult murder, while 56% in Wales did, 55% in Scotland, and only 49% in England.
In August 2011, the Internet blogger Paul Staines—who writes a political blog as Guido Fawkes and heads the Restore Justice Campaign—launched an e-petition on the Downing Street website calling for the restoration of the death penalty for those convicted of the murder of children and police officers. The petition was one of several in support or opposition of capital punishment to be published by the government with the launch of its e-petitions website. Petitions attracting 100,000 signatures would prompt a parliamentary debate on a particular topic, but not necessarily lead to any Parliamentary Bills being put forward. When the petition closed on 4 February 2012 it had received 26,351 signatures in support of restoring capital punishment, but a counter-petition calling to retain the ban on capital punishment received 33,455 signatures during the same time period.
Also in August 2011, a representative survey conducted by Angus Reid Public Opinion showed that 65% of Britons support reinstating the death penalty for murder in Great Britain, while 28% oppose this course of action. Men and respondents aged over 35 are more likely to endorse the change
Notable executions in the United Kingdom (Last 100 years)
1914, 8 September: Private Thomas Highgate was executed by firing squad, the first British soldier to be executed for desertion during World War I.
1915, 13 August: George Joseph Smith was hanged in Maidstone Prison for the pattern of serial killings known as the “Brides in the Bath Murders”.
1916, 3 August: Roger Casement was hanged at Pentonville for treason, based on his attempt to smuggle German weapons into Ireland in support of the unsuccessful Irish Easter Rising.
1920, 2 November: Private James Daly of the Connaught Rangers was shot for mutiny in India, the last member of the British Armed Forces to be executed for mutiny.
1923, 9 January: Edith Thompson and Frederick Bywaters, in London’s Holloway and Pentonville Prisons respectively, for the murder of Thompson’s husband. The case was controversial because, although the two lovers had discussed the possible elimination of her husband in advance, Thompson did not directly participate in the murder for which she was hanged.
1931, 3 January: Victor Betts for murder committed during the course of a robbery. The case had established that a person need not be present when a crime is committed to be regarded as an accessory after the fact.
1940, 31 July: Udham Singh, an Indian independence activist, at Pentonville Prison. He had assassinated the Indian administrator Sir Michael O’Dwyer.
1941, 15 August: Josef Jakobs, a German spy, was executed by firing squad, the last execution in the Tower of London.
1946, 3 January: William Joyce, better known as “Lord Haw-Haw“, for treason in London’s Wandsworth Prison. He was an American citizen, but was convicted of treason because, as the holder of a British passport (albeit fraudulently obtained), he was held to have owed allegiance to the British sovereign. Theodore Schurch, hanged for treachery the next day, was the last person to be executed for an offence other than murder; he was executed at Pentonville. As a member of the armed forces he had been tried by court-martial.
1947, 27 February: Walter Rowland in Manchester for the murder of Olive Balchin despite maintaining his innocence. While he had been awaiting execution, another man confessed to the crime. A Home Office report dismissed the latter’s confession as a fake, but in 1951 he attacked another woman and was found guilty but insane.
1949, 12 January: Margaret Allen, aged 43, for killing a 70-year-old woman in the course of a robbery, the first woman to be hanged in Britain for 12 years.
1949, 10 August: John George Haigh, the “acid-bath murderer”, at Wandsworth.
1950, 9 March: Timothy Evans at Pentonville for the murder of his baby daughter Geraldine at 10 Rillington Place, North West London. He initially claimed to have killed his wife, but later withdrew the claim. A fellow inhabitant at the same address, John Christie, later found to be a sexual serial killer, gave key evidence against Evans. Christie was executed in 1953 for the murder of his own wife. Evans received a posthumous pardon in 1966. In 2004 the Court of Appeal refused to consider overturning the conviction due to the costs and resources that would be involved. See John Christie (murderer).
1950, 28 March: George Kelly at Liverpool for murder, but had his conviction quashed posthumously by the Court of Appeal in June 2003.
1952, 25 April: Edward Devlin and Alfred Burns, for killing a woman during a robbery in Liverpool. They claimed that they had been doing a different burglary in Manchester, and others involved in the crime supported this. A Home Office report rejected this evidence. Huge crowds gathered outside Liverpool’s Walton Prison as they were executed.
1952, 3 September: Mahmood Hussein Mattan, a Somali seaman, in Cardiff for murder. The Court of Appeal quashed his conviction posthumously in 1998 after hearing that crucial evidence implicating another Somali was withheld at his trial.
1953, 28 January: Derek Bentley at Wandsworth Prison as an accomplice to the murder of a police officer by his 16-year-old friend Christopher Craig. Craig, a minor, was not executed and instead served 10 years. Bentley was granted a posthumous pardon on 29 July 1993, and the Court of Appeal overturned his conviction on 30 July 1998.
1953, 15 July: John Reginald Halliday Christie at Pentonville for the murder of his wife Ethel. Christie was a serial killer and had murdered at least six other women (see also entry on Timothy Evans above).
1954, 13 December: Styllou Christofi, aged 53, penultimate woman executed in Britain.
1955, 12 July: Ruth Ellis, aged 28, the last woman to be hanged in Britain. She was the 15th and youngest woman hanged in the 20th century.
1958, 6 May: Vivian Teed, 24, in Swansea, the last person to be executed in Wales.
1958, 11 July: Peter Manuel, aged 31, second to last person to be hanged in HM Prison Barlinnie and the third to last to be hanged in Scotland.
1959, 9 October: Francis Joseph Huchet, 31, in St Helier, Jersey, the last person to be executed in the Channel Islands.
1959, 5 November: Guenther Podola, the last person to be hanged for the murder of a policeman.
1960, 10 November: Francis Forsyth, the last 18-year-old to be executed in Britain.
1960, 22 December: Anthony Miller, 19, in Glasgow‘s Barlinnie Prison, the last teenager to be executed in Britain.
1961, 20 December: Robert McGladdery, 25, in Crumlin Road Gaol in Belfast, the last person to be executed in Northern Ireland, for the murder of Pearl Gamble in Newry.
1962, 4 April: James Hanratty at Bedford after a controversial rape-murder trial. In 2002 Hanratty’s body was exhumed and the Court of Appeal upheld his conviction after Hanratty’s DNA was linked to crime scene samples.
1963, 15 August: Henry Burnett, aged 21, at Craiginches Prison in Aberdeen for the murder of seaman Thomas Guyan, the last hanging in Scotland.
1964, 13 August: Peter Anthony Allen, at Walton Prison in Liverpool, and Gwynne Owen Evans, at Strangeways Prison in Manchester for the murder of John Alan West, the last people executed in Britain
Albert Pierrepoint – Hangman
Albert Pierrepoint (30 March 1905 – 10 July 1992) was a long-serving hangman in England. He executed at least 400 people, about half of them war criminals, including William Joyce (one of the men dubbed “Lord Haw-Haw“), and John Amery, whom he considered the bravest man he had ever hanged.
Pierrepoint was often dubbed the Official Executioner, despite there being no such job or title. The office of executioner had traditionally been performed by the local sheriff, who increasingly delegated the task to a person of suitable character, employed and paid only when required. Pierrepoint continued to work for years in a grocery near Bradford after qualifying as an Assistant Executioner in 1932 and a Chief Executioner in 1941, in the steps of his father and uncle.
Following his retirement in 1956, the Home Office acknowledged Pierrepoint as the most efficient executioner in British history. He subsequently became a publican in Lancashire and wrote his memoirs, in which he sensationally concluded that capital punishment was not a deterrent.
There is no official tally of his hangings, which some have estimated at more than 600; the most commonly accepted figure is 435.
Pierrepoint allegedly became an opponent of capital punishment. The reason for this seems to be a combination of the experiences of his father, his uncle, and himself, whereupon reprieves were granted in accordance with political expediency or public fancy, and had little to do with the merits of the case in question. He had also hanged a slight acquaintance, James Corbitt, on 28 November 1950; Corbitt was a regular in his pub, and had sung “Danny Boy” as a duet with Pierrepoint on the night he murdered his girlfriend in a fit of jealousy because she would not give up a second boyfriend. This incident, in particular, made Pierrepoint feel that hanging was no deterrent, particularly when most of the people he was executing had killed in the heat of the moment rather than with premeditation or in furtherance of a robbery.
Pierrepoint kept his opinions to himself on the topic until his 1974 autobiography, Executioner: Pierrepoint, in which he wrote:
It is said to be a deterrent. I cannot agree. There have been murders since the beginning of time, and we shall go on looking for deterrents until the end of time. If death were a deterrent, I might be expected to know. It is I who have faced them last, young men and girls, working men, grandmothers. I have been amazed to see the courage with which they take that walk into the unknown. It did not deter them then, and it had not deterred them when they committed what they were convicted for. All the men and women whom I have faced at that final moment convince me that in what I have done I have not prevented a single murder. | 4,884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Arizona's military history: Fort Verde
For a place that's still standing after nearly 150 years, Fort Verde had a most inauspicious beginning. It was nearly done in by mosquitos and payroll problems.
In the mid-1800s, settlers had moved into the Verde Valley. They grew crops to sell to nearby miners and in Prescott, the territorial capital. But their arrival disrupted the people who were already there.
"The Yavapais and Apaches had been living here as hunters and gatherers. When the farmers moved in, you had a clash of these two cultures," says Sheila Stubler, manager of Fort Verde State Historic Park. "When the Indians were hungry, it seemed only natural for them to raid the farmers' crops."
PHOTOS: Fort Verde military history
The settlers requested military protection. In August 1865, 20 soldiers were sent from Fort Whipple, near Prescott, and they formed a small outpost to protect farms along West Clear Creek. A few months later, Capt. H.S. Washburn arrived with Company E, 1st Arizona Volunteers. They established Camp Lincoln.
But it was plagued by problems. The camp lacked supplies and the men were poorly fed and housed. Many refused to follow orders after months of not being paid. Disease ran rampant, with nearly half of the volunteers contracting malaria. Company E was deactivated in November 1866.
The first regular U.S. troops arrived in September 1866 under the command of Capt. George Downey. Order was restored and the post was renamed Camp Verde. But that, too, was short-lived. The site was abandoned in April 1871 when a new, and final fort, was constructed at the present site.
That year famed Indian fighter Lt. Col. George Crook was named commander of the Military Department of Arizona. He had waged successful campaigns against the Shoshone, Nez Perce and others in Oregon and California. Crook respected his adversaries and was always willing to negotiate, but he was a fierce and relentless fighter once a battle began.
"When they were pushed beyond endurance and would go on the warpath, we had to fight when our sympathies were with the Indians," Crook later wrote.
Crook believed it would take Apaches to find Apaches, so he hired Indian scouts. He paid his Apache scouts the same as the White scouts. Many of his superiors were skeptical, but Crook's instincts were correct. Indian scouts from Fort Verde were awarded 11 Medals of Honor.
His next step was to build a military road tracing the high escarpment of the Mogollon Rim from Fort Apache in eastern Arizona to Fort Verde and on to Fort Whipple. This provided a more direct supply route, allowed quick access into the Tonto Basin and helped seal off escape for Apaches fleeing north.
The 236-mile route became one of the first major roads in Arizona. Decades later, a portion of it was renovated by the Forest Service to become Forest Road 300. Also known as the Rim Road, this popular scenic drive leads backcountry enthusiasts to spectacular vistas and pristine camping.
Camp Verde served as a staging base for military operations in the surrounding countryside. Crook launched his campaign in November 1872, saturating the Tonto Basin with columns of troops and pursuing Indians relentlessly during the winter months. As each band surrendered, they were relocated to a reservation. In 1873, the Tonto Apache leader Chalipun and 300 followers traveled to Camp Verde to surrender to Crook on the porch of the commanding officer's quarters.
From 1873 to 1875, nearly 1,500 Indians from various tribes were placed on the Rio Verde Reservation near present-day Cottonwood. The Indians were assured that this would be their home as long as "the rivers run, the grass grows and hills endure." With the Army's help, irrigation ditches were dug and crops were planted in the fertile valley.
But in February 1877, the Indians were moved to the San Carlos Reservation near Globe. Nearly 100 of them died during the brutal 180-mile march.
When the hostilities ended, President Ulysses Grant promoted Crook to brigadier general. He remained in the Arizona Territory until 1874. He continued to build roads, repair forts and became an outspoken advocate for the humane treatment of Indians.
Camp Verde was renamed Fort Verde in 1878 to give it an air of permanence, but with the end of Indian raids the post was no longer needed. The last bugle sounded in 1891 as the troops pulled out. Eight years later, the Department of the Interior divided the site into small parcels and sold them at public auction.
The enlisted men's barracks were dismantled for lumber. A two-story adobe building on Officers Row was converted to a barn. Some of the interior walls were removed to make room for livestock, causing the structure to collapse during a heavy snow. Yet four of the original buildings survived, occupied for decades as homes and apartments.
"We still have people who come in and say, 'I was born in that building there,' " Stubler says. "We had someone donate a table made from the wood of one of the barracks. All the people who were here, they're part of the history of the fort, too."
Today, Fort Verde State Historic Park is the best-preserved example of an Indian Wars fort in Arizona. Three buildings line Officers Row: the commanding officer's quarters, the surgeon's quarters and the bachelor officers' quarters.
"The 144-year-old buildings are constructed of adobe with walls as thick as 22 inches and are a French colonial design with Mansard-style roof. This style disguises the second floor by extending the line of the roof down. The roofs are covered with cedar shingles," Stubler says.
Each building has been converted to a museum-quality exhibit, furnished in the style of the times and stocked with original artifacts and memorabilia. Visitors who study the decor will gain an appreciation of life on the frontier for these soldiers, the hardships they faced and the comforts they sought. A glimpse at the crude surgical instruments will make everyone grateful for advancements in medical technology.
The visitor center originally was the fort's administration building. It now serves as a museum, containing exhibits on weaponry, uniforms and the crucial role played by Indian scouts. Visitors can dress in period clothing and have their photos taken by the staff.
Move slowly through the grounds. Notice the details. Picnic tables make it a perfect spot to relax and unleash your imagination. A bugle peals throughout the day. If you listen closely you might hear the faint echoes of whinnying horses and the rhythmic march of soldiers drilling on the parade grounds. It wasn't so long ago.
Find the reporter at www.rogernaylor.com.
Arizona's military history
Conflict has shaped the Southwest since colonizers arrived in the late 1600s. From the earliest presidios to a modern-day Army base, fighting near and far has caused communities to thrive and fall.
Each month this year in Explore Arizona, Roger Naylor will feature a destination or episode in which military events shaped the state.
In July: During World War II, Japanese diplomats were detained at Triangle T Ranch near Dragoon.
Fort Verde State Historic Park
The largest feature of the park is the parade grounds. Three original buildings remain: the living quarters for the commanding officer, surgeon and bachelor officers. Rooms are furnished in the style of the times, and some of the decor is original. The park also has a visitor center, museum and picnic areas.
Details: 9 a.m.-5 p.m. daily. 125 E. Hollamon St., Camp Verde. $5, $2 for ages 7-13. 928-567-3275, azstateparks.com/parks/fove.
Camp Verde's annual Cornfest celebration takes place July 17-18 at the Community Center, 385 S. Main St., next to Fort Verde. Admission is free and there will be music, food, games, kids activities and plenty of sweet corn. On July 18, a vintage baseball game will be played on the parade grounds of Fort Verde, with old-fashioned uniforms and rules. The park's admission fee will be waived on this day.
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0.193023368716239... | 3 | Arizona's military history: Fort Verde
For a place that's still standing after nearly 150 years, Fort Verde had a most inauspicious beginning. It was nearly done in by mosquitos and payroll problems.
In the mid-1800s, settlers had moved into the Verde Valley. They grew crops to sell to nearby miners and in Prescott, the territorial capital. But their arrival disrupted the people who were already there.
"The Yavapais and Apaches had been living here as hunters and gatherers. When the farmers moved in, you had a clash of these two cultures," says Sheila Stubler, manager of Fort Verde State Historic Park. "When the Indians were hungry, it seemed only natural for them to raid the farmers' crops."
PHOTOS: Fort Verde military history
The settlers requested military protection. In August 1865, 20 soldiers were sent from Fort Whipple, near Prescott, and they formed a small outpost to protect farms along West Clear Creek. A few months later, Capt. H.S. Washburn arrived with Company E, 1st Arizona Volunteers. They established Camp Lincoln.
But it was plagued by problems. The camp lacked supplies and the men were poorly fed and housed. Many refused to follow orders after months of not being paid. Disease ran rampant, with nearly half of the volunteers contracting malaria. Company E was deactivated in November 1866.
The first regular U.S. troops arrived in September 1866 under the command of Capt. George Downey. Order was restored and the post was renamed Camp Verde. But that, too, was short-lived. The site was abandoned in April 1871 when a new, and final fort, was constructed at the present site.
That year famed Indian fighter Lt. Col. George Crook was named commander of the Military Department of Arizona. He had waged successful campaigns against the Shoshone, Nez Perce and others in Oregon and California. Crook respected his adversaries and was always willing to negotiate, but he was a fierce and relentless fighter once a battle began.
"When they were pushed beyond endurance and would go on the warpath, we had to fight when our sympathies were with the Indians," Crook later wrote.
Crook believed it would take Apaches to find Apaches, so he hired Indian scouts. He paid his Apache scouts the same as the White scouts. Many of his superiors were skeptical, but Crook's instincts were correct. Indian scouts from Fort Verde were awarded 11 Medals of Honor.
His next step was to build a military road tracing the high escarpment of the Mogollon Rim from Fort Apache in eastern Arizona to Fort Verde and on to Fort Whipple. This provided a more direct supply route, allowed quick access into the Tonto Basin and helped seal off escape for Apaches fleeing north.
The 236-mile route became one of the first major roads in Arizona. Decades later, a portion of it was renovated by the Forest Service to become Forest Road 300. Also known as the Rim Road, this popular scenic drive leads backcountry enthusiasts to spectacular vistas and pristine camping.
Camp Verde served as a staging base for military operations in the surrounding countryside. Crook launched his campaign in November 1872, saturating the Tonto Basin with columns of troops and pursuing Indians relentlessly during the winter months. As each band surrendered, they were relocated to a reservation. In 1873, the Tonto Apache leader Chalipun and 300 followers traveled to Camp Verde to surrender to Crook on the porch of the commanding officer's quarters.
From 1873 to 1875, nearly 1,500 Indians from various tribes were placed on the Rio Verde Reservation near present-day Cottonwood. The Indians were assured that this would be their home as long as "the rivers run, the grass grows and hills endure." With the Army's help, irrigation ditches were dug and crops were planted in the fertile valley.
But in February 1877, the Indians were moved to the San Carlos Reservation near Globe. Nearly 100 of them died during the brutal 180-mile march.
When the hostilities ended, President Ulysses Grant promoted Crook to brigadier general. He remained in the Arizona Territory until 1874. He continued to build roads, repair forts and became an outspoken advocate for the humane treatment of Indians.
Camp Verde was renamed Fort Verde in 1878 to give it an air of permanence, but with the end of Indian raids the post was no longer needed. The last bugle sounded in 1891 as the troops pulled out. Eight years later, the Department of the Interior divided the site into small parcels and sold them at public auction.
The enlisted men's barracks were dismantled for lumber. A two-story adobe building on Officers Row was converted to a barn. Some of the interior walls were removed to make room for livestock, causing the structure to collapse during a heavy snow. Yet four of the original buildings survived, occupied for decades as homes and apartments.
"We still have people who come in and say, 'I was born in that building there,' " Stubler says. "We had someone donate a table made from the wood of one of the barracks. All the people who were here, they're part of the history of the fort, too."
Today, Fort Verde State Historic Park is the best-preserved example of an Indian Wars fort in Arizona. Three buildings line Officers Row: the commanding officer's quarters, the surgeon's quarters and the bachelor officers' quarters.
"The 144-year-old buildings are constructed of adobe with walls as thick as 22 inches and are a French colonial design with Mansard-style roof. This style disguises the second floor by extending the line of the roof down. The roofs are covered with cedar shingles," Stubler says.
Each building has been converted to a museum-quality exhibit, furnished in the style of the times and stocked with original artifacts and memorabilia. Visitors who study the decor will gain an appreciation of life on the frontier for these soldiers, the hardships they faced and the comforts they sought. A glimpse at the crude surgical instruments will make everyone grateful for advancements in medical technology.
The visitor center originally was the fort's administration building. It now serves as a museum, containing exhibits on weaponry, uniforms and the crucial role played by Indian scouts. Visitors can dress in period clothing and have their photos taken by the staff.
Move slowly through the grounds. Notice the details. Picnic tables make it a perfect spot to relax and unleash your imagination. A bugle peals throughout the day. If you listen closely you might hear the faint echoes of whinnying horses and the rhythmic march of soldiers drilling on the parade grounds. It wasn't so long ago.
Find the reporter at www.rogernaylor.com.
Arizona's military history
Conflict has shaped the Southwest since colonizers arrived in the late 1600s. From the earliest presidios to a modern-day Army base, fighting near and far has caused communities to thrive and fall.
Each month this year in Explore Arizona, Roger Naylor will feature a destination or episode in which military events shaped the state.
In July: During World War II, Japanese diplomats were detained at Triangle T Ranch near Dragoon.
Fort Verde State Historic Park
The largest feature of the park is the parade grounds. Three original buildings remain: the living quarters for the commanding officer, surgeon and bachelor officers. Rooms are furnished in the style of the times, and some of the decor is original. The park also has a visitor center, museum and picnic areas.
Details: 9 a.m.-5 p.m. daily. 125 E. Hollamon St., Camp Verde. $5, $2 for ages 7-13. 928-567-3275, azstateparks.com/parks/fove.
Camp Verde's annual Cornfest celebration takes place July 17-18 at the Community Center, 385 S. Main St., next to Fort Verde. Admission is free and there will be music, food, games, kids activities and plenty of sweet corn. On July 18, a vintage baseball game will be played on the parade grounds of Fort Verde, with old-fashioned uniforms and rules. The park's admission fee will be waived on this day.
Details: 928-301-0922, www.campverdepromotions.org. | 1,779 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are two poets that helped shape the way we think about poetry. While their backgrounds and writing styles were quite different, both Dickinson and Whitman challenged accepted forms of writing and are regarded today as important poets. Dickinson and Whitman had very different upbringings. Dickinson was raised in Amherst, Massachusetts, and had two siblings. She was always put in the best schools and even received a college education at Mount Holyoke. Her family was relatively wealthy, and she did not have to work in order to help them.
In contrast to Dickinson’s privileged upbringing, Whitman came from a very poor family. He had eight siblings, which made money for his family very tight. Since he was the second oldest child, he stopped going to school when he turned eleven and began working to support his family. Whitman worked all of his life, including jobs as a journalist, teacher, government clerk, and nurse in the Civil War. In terms of poetry, both writers had a unique style. Dickinson had a huge body of work, over 800 brief poems, but only about a dozen were published during her lifetime. Along with her intriguing content, she is widely remembered for her odd use of dashes and capital letters. For example, she would often end lines with dashes and use capital letters in the middle of sentences. Her lines were also inconsistent in length. Sometimes she would follow a two-syllable line with an eight-syllable line. In addition, Dickinson also avoided traditional full rhymes, like ball and tall. She used mostly slant rhyme (words that look like they rhyme, but they do not, such as can’t and want). Dickinson also believed that punctuation could completely change the meaning of a sentence. So, instead of commas, she would use a line break. Her poetry was untitled and focused heavily on nature, joy, love, and death.
Walt Whitman also had a unique writing style. However, in
contrast to Dickinson’s large body of work, Whitman...
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0.011283133178... | 1 | Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman are two poets that helped shape the way we think about poetry. While their backgrounds and writing styles were quite different, both Dickinson and Whitman challenged accepted forms of writing and are regarded today as important poets. Dickinson and Whitman had very different upbringings. Dickinson was raised in Amherst, Massachusetts, and had two siblings. She was always put in the best schools and even received a college education at Mount Holyoke. Her family was relatively wealthy, and she did not have to work in order to help them.
In contrast to Dickinson’s privileged upbringing, Whitman came from a very poor family. He had eight siblings, which made money for his family very tight. Since he was the second oldest child, he stopped going to school when he turned eleven and began working to support his family. Whitman worked all of his life, including jobs as a journalist, teacher, government clerk, and nurse in the Civil War. In terms of poetry, both writers had a unique style. Dickinson had a huge body of work, over 800 brief poems, but only about a dozen were published during her lifetime. Along with her intriguing content, she is widely remembered for her odd use of dashes and capital letters. For example, she would often end lines with dashes and use capital letters in the middle of sentences. Her lines were also inconsistent in length. Sometimes she would follow a two-syllable line with an eight-syllable line. In addition, Dickinson also avoided traditional full rhymes, like ball and tall. She used mostly slant rhyme (words that look like they rhyme, but they do not, such as can’t and want). Dickinson also believed that punctuation could completely change the meaning of a sentence. So, instead of commas, she would use a line break. Her poetry was untitled and focused heavily on nature, joy, love, and death.
Walt Whitman also had a unique writing style. However, in
contrast to Dickinson’s large body of work, Whitman...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Published in History Today (/archive/history-today/latest) Volume: 44 Issue: 12
What did medieval contemporaries think of military orders such as the Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights? Helen Nicholson investigates.
In October 1307, by order of Philip IV of France, all the Knights Templar within the French domains were arrested. In November, Pope Clement V sent out orders for the arrest of the Templars throughout Europe. The brothers were accused of a variety of crimes, which were said to be longestablished in the order. There were, it was claimed, serious abuses in the admission ceremony, where the brothers denied their faith in Christ. The order encouraged homosexual activity between brothers. The brothers worshipped idols. Chapter meetings were held in secret. The brothers did not believe in the mass or other sacraments of the church and did not carry these out properly, defrauding patrons of the order who had given money for masses to be said for their families' souls.
What was more, it was alleged that the Templars did not make charitable gifts or give hospitality as a religious order should. The order encouraged brothers to acquire property fraudulently, and to win profit for the order by any means possible. During the trial of the Templars witnesses claimed that the order's abuses had been notorious far many years and under interrogation, including torture, many brothers confessed to at least some of these crimes. In March 1312, Pope Clement dissolved the Order of' the Temple, giving its property of the Order of the Hospital, and assigning the surviving brothers to other religious orders. Despite this, the question of the order's guilt has never been settled. Just what were the accusations made against the Templars before 1300, and were these related to the trial? What did contemporaries think about the other military orders, such as the Knights Hospitaller and the Teutonic Knights? The Order of the Temple was a military order, a type of religious order. It had been founded in the early twelfth century, in the wake of the Catholic conquest of the Holy Land, to protect pilgrims travelling to the holy places against bandits. This role soon grew to protecting Christian territory in Spain as well as the Holy Land. The order gained its name because the King of Jerusalem had given the brothers his palace in the al-Aqsa masque, which the Christians called 'the Temple of Solomon', to be their headquarters. In Europe the members' lifestyle was much like that of ordinary monks. The order's rule laid down a strict regime on clothing, diet, charitable giving and other living arrangements. In theory only men could join the order, but in practice some women were also admitted.
The Order of the Temple was the first military order, but others soon followed. The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem had been founded as a hospice for pilgrims in the eleventh century, but by the 1130s the Hospital was employing mercenaries to protect pilgrims from bandits, and was soon involved in the defence of the frontiers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem alongside the Order of the Temple. These brothers became known as the Hospitallers. The Hospital of St Mary of the Teutons was set up at the siege of Acre during the Third Crusade (1189-92) to care for German pilgrims and was then relaunched in 1198 as a military order. The brothers were known as the Teutonic Knights. These were the most famous of the international military orders, but the concept was so popular that others were founded wherever Christians confronted non-Christians: in Spain, where the Muslim frontier was slowly retreating, and in the Baltic and Prussia where pagan tribes threatened Christian settlements and converts. From the 1230s onwards the Teutonic order became prominent in the Baltic area. The concept of the military order was a natural development from the concept of the crusade. Rather than taking up weapons for a short period to defend Christ's people, the members of a military order did so for life. In return, they expected to receive pardon for their sins and immediate entry into heaven if they died in action against the enemies of their faith. In western Europe, far from the battlefield, some of the clergy were doubtful whether a military order could be a valid religious order. Around 1150, the Abbot of Cluny wrote to Pope Eugenius III that he and many of his monks regarded the brothers of the Temple as only knights, not monks, and believed that fighting the Muslims overseas was less important than suppressing bandits at home. Letters written to encourage the early Templars also hint at this sort of opposition. But the bulk of the surviving evidence is warmly in praise of the Templars, and clergy and knightly classes alike welcomed the new order with generous donations. In fact the Hospital of St John seems to have attracted more donations as it became more of a military order. By 1200 the military orders had become part of the religious establishment and criticism of the concept ceased.
However, other criticism arose which tended to fluctuate with events. During a crusade, while crusaders wrote home with accounts of the military orders' courage and self-sacrifice, criticism was overlooked. Between crusades, as Europeans received news of territorial losses to the Muslims, they forgot the military orders' heroism and concluded that. these defeats were God's punishment for sin. For surely God would not. allow godly men to suffer such set- backs. Political views also shaped criticism, especially during the period. 1229-50, while pope and emperor were at loggerheads. The Temple, and to a lesser degree the Hospital, supported the pope, while the Teutonic order supported the emperor. So observers sympathetic to the emperor's policies in the Holy Land. such as Matthew Paris, chronicler of St Albans abbey, criticised the Templars and Hospitallers. Yet there was praise from those who opposed the emperor in the Holy Land, such as Philip of Novara and the powerful Ibelin family of Cyprus who were Philip's lords. Chroniclers tended to be critical, for they wished to draw a moral from contemporary events for the edification of future generations. In other forms of literature, romance, epic or. farce, the Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights appeared as brave knights of Christ combating the Muslim menace, or as helpers of lovers, or as good monks. It is interesting that although monks and parish priests came under heavy criticism for their immorality in the 'fables' or farces, the military orders were not criticised. Obviously they were not regarded as womanisers. Between the Second and Third Crusades of 1148-49 and 1189, the generous donations of money and privileges to the Templars and Hospitallers became a major cause of resentment. This was hardly surprising. All religious orders aroused complaints about their privileges, and the Templars and Hospitallers never attracted such severe criticism as the Cistercians and friars.
But the Templars and the Hospitallers caused particular annoyance because their houses were so widely scattered. Their legal privileges were especially resented. In 1236 Pope Gregory IX wrote to the Templars and Hospitallers in western France ordering them not to abuse the privileges granted to them by the papal see. The brothers had been summoning their legal opponents to courts in far-off places which they had no hope of reaching by the specified day, so that they were then fined for failing to appear. The brothers had also been taking annual payments from clergy and laity in return for allowing them to share their legal privileges. Forty years later, when Edward I's commissioners were conducting the Hundred Roll inquiries to establish where royal rights had been usurped in each locality, there were similar protests. Some people who had no proper connection with the Templars and Hospitallers were claiming their privileges, in Warwickshire and Derbyshire there were complaints that the orders' privileges 'impede and subvert all common justice and excessively oppress the people', while the burghers of Totnes and Grimsby had been summoned to courts in the four corners of England by the Hospitallers and Templars respectively. Despite their extensive possessions, the Templars and Hospitallers were always claiming to be poverty- stricken. They sent out alms-collectors on a regular basis, to collect money from lay-people and clergy for their work in the Holy Land. Matthew Paris was probably expressing a widely-felt discontent when he wrote around 1245:
"The Templars and Hospitallers receive so much income from the whole of Christendom, and, only for defending the Holy Land, swallow down such great revenues as if they sink them into the gulf of the abyss ..."
Whatever did they do with all their wealth? Some Europeans concluded that they must be using their resources very inefficiently. The orders were not only wealthy and privileged, they were proud and treacherous. Pride, the first of the seven deadly sins, was already the military orders' most infamous vice by the 1160s. As the years passed it became a stock complaint against the Templars and Hospitallers, as if it was 'their' sin. Pride made the orders jealous of each other and of other Christians, so that they fought each other instead of fighting the Saracens. The Templars and Hospitallers' quarrels became notorious, although in fact the orders went to great lengths to ensure peaceful relations. The troubadour, Daspol, writing in around 1270, neatly summed up the problem: because the Templars and Hospitallers had become proud and greedy and did evil instead of good, they were unable or unwilling to defend the Holy Land against the Saracens. In 1289 a Flemish satirist, Jacquemart Giélée, depicted the Templars' and Hospitallers' bitter quarrels in his satire, Renart le Nouvel, the new Renart, based on the old theme of the unscrupulous fox. A Hospitaller is shown denigrating the Templars in order to win Renart for his order. After the final loss of Acre in 1291, Pope Nicholas IV suggested that the military orders' quarrels had been a contributory factor in the defeat, and many chroniclers and churchmen agreed. The charge that the Order of the Temple encouraged the brothers to acquire property fraudulently and to win profit by all possible means clearly reflects these complaints against the Templars and Hospitallers. For at least 150 years contemporaries had accused the military orders of lying and cheating because of their greed for wealth. In 1312 the same old criticisms against the Hospitallers arose again at the Council of Vienne, as the pope planned to bestow on them the former property of the Templars.
Interestingly, no critic before 1300 accused the Templars of immorality. In the mid-thirteenth century an English poet, writing in Anglo-Norman French, surveyed the whole of society and accused most of the clergy of womanising, even dropping hints about the Hospitallers. But he exempted the Templars, who were too busy making money to have time for sex:
"The Templars are most doughty men and they certainly know how to look after themselves, but they love pennies ton much; when prices are high they sell their wheat instead of giving it to their dependants. Nor do the lords of the Hospital, have any desire for buying women's services, if they have their palfreys and horses, I don't say it for any evil ..."
A more explicit charge of immorality against the Hospitallers appeared in March 1238, when a French crusade was preparing to depart for the Holy Land. Pope Gregory IX wrote a letter of rebuke to the Hospitallers in Acre. He had heard that the brothers kept harlots in their villages, had been cheating the dying into bequeathing their property to them and (among other crimes) that several of the brothers were guilty of heresy. As for the Templars, he only complained that they were not keeping the roads safe for pilgrims! Although the Templars were not accused of immorality, they were linked with traditional romantic love. A late thirteenth-century French verse romance, Sone de Nausay, depicts the Master of the Temple in Ireland as the go-between in a love affair, while a French Arthurian romance of the same period, Claris et Laris, depicts the Templars as friends to lovers. But this was a wholly sympathetic view, and saw the Templars as servants of lovers rather than as lovers themselves. None of the military orders were accused of sodomy, although such accusations were occasionally made against ordinary monks. There were many other complaints against the military orders before 1300. Perhaps the most significant were the divided opinions over their record of fighting the Muslims (and other non-Christians). Many complained that they were not sufficiently enthusiastic about defending Christendom and winning back lost territory, while others complained that they were too eager to fight those who could be won to Christ by peaceful means. Some contemporaries alleged that the military orders were unwilling to fight the Muslims because they were secretly in alliance with them. The military orders certainly did make alliances with Muslim rulers on various occasions, but these alliances were intended to promote the Christian cause, not to hinder it. The chroniclers also alleged that the Muslims exploited the brothers' greed. There was a legend in circulation which recounted how the Christians had failed to capture a Muslim fortress because some of the Christian leaders had been bribed by- Muslim gold to raise the siege. This gold subsequently turned out to be cop- per.
This story appeared in various forms and with various parties in the role of dupe from the mid-twelfth century onwards. By the early thirteenth century the Templars had become the dupes, and by the mid- thirteenth century the Hospitallers had joined them. The fortress also changed identity several times! In fact this is a very old story, and versions of it appear in Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks, written in the sixth century, and in the collection of ancient Welsh legends known as the Mabinogion. Many accusations that the military orders were unwilling. to attack the Muslims arose from a misunderstanding of the true situation in the Holy Land.
The Templars were criticised for refusing to help the Third Crusade besiege Jerusalem in 1191-92, but the brothers believed that the city could not be held after the crusaders had returned home, and that the security of the holy places was better served by attacking Egypt. In 1250, during the crusade of Louis IX of France, Count Robert of Artois decided to lead the vanguard of the crusading army to attack the Muslims in Mansourah. The Templars and Hospitallers advised against this, where- upon the count accused them of laziness and trying to impede the Christian cause and advanced. Anxious not to be accused of cowardice, the military orders accompanied him and, as they had predicted, the Christian army was cut to pieces. This was a terrible defeat, but something of a propaganda coup for the military orders, who had fearlessly died for Christ against hopeless odds. Other critics felt that the military orders were too eager to fight. Thirteenth- century literature depicted the ideal knight as one who only fought when necessary. The military orders' self-sacrifice for Christ seemed rash and irrational. Some of the clergy believed that the orders' love of violence and domination impeded or prevented conversions. This accusation was made against the Templars in the 1180s by Walter Map, Archdeacon of Oxford, and against the Teutonic order by some unknown critics and around 1266-68 by Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan friar imprisoned in Paris for his unorthodox views. The unknown critics may have been the Polish princes who opposed the expansion of the Teutonic order's power in Prussia. In 1258, letters were sent to Pope Alexander lV from the order's friends in Poland and Prussia, defending them against various accusations. Apparently the brothers had been accused of forbid- ding the preaching of Christianity to the pagan Prussians, preventing the establishment of churches, destroying old churches, impeding the sacraments and enslaving new converts. Roger Bacon's criticisms echoed these: the Teutonic order wanted to subjugate the Prussians and reduce them to slavery, and refused to stop attacking them in order to allow peaceful preaching. He added that the order had deceived the Roman Church for many years as to its true motives in Prussia. The peak of criticism of the military orders came around 1250. After this they faded from the chronicles and critical writings. Many critics of the church omitted them. Others showed little actual knowledge of them. Although there was a vast number of newsletters coming from the Holy Land, so that chroniclers could hardly have been short of information on events, they seem to have chosen to ignore this. News was almost invariably bad, and chroniclers probably believed that the loss of the Holy Land was only a matter of time.
There were many crises closer to home to occupy their pens. As a result, after 1250, the image of the military orders expressed in the chronicles and other writing shows a relative improvement. Day-to-day relations between the military orders and their neighbours and the authorities were usually peaceful. Bishops' registers, royal administrative records, and the records of the nobility where these survive, show that although there were disputes generally the military orders were obedient subjects and reliable servants. As Walter Map had remarked, whatever the Templars did in the Holy Land, in England they lived peacefully enough. Despite the sorry state of the Latin Christian settlement in the Holy Land, after 1250 the military orders were still well regarded in Europe. Donations to the orders had fallen in most areas, but all religious orders were suffering in this respect. Some commentators, while agreeing that even the Templars had declined in spirituality along with all other religious orders, depicted them as having previously been among the most spiritual of the religious orders. This was a far cry from their original foundation, when some had doubted that the order could have a spiritual dimension at all!
So, how far were the Templars' accusers of 1307 justified in their case against the order? Contemporaries would certainly have agreed with the charge that they lied and cheated in order to satisfy their greed. Yet there is no hint before 1500 that the Templars did not carry out the sacraments; although the Teutonic order were accused of impeding the sacraments in Prussia. It was true that the proceedings of the order's chapter meetings were kept secret, but this was the custom among military orders. The accusation that the order did not practice charity and hospitality may have sprung from the rivalry between the Temple and the Hospital. The Hospitallers were always at pains to emphasise their dual hospitable-military role, in contrast to the solely military role of the Templars. A few contemporaries were struck by the difference: a German pilgrim, John of Würzburg, remarked dismissively in around 1170 that the Temple's charitable giving was not a tenth of the Hospital's. Of course, the Order of the Temple did practise charity, as it was obliged to do under its religious rule, but most contemporaries seemed to have regarded the defence of pilgrims as charity in itself. There is no indication before 1300 of public scandal over the order abusing admission procedures, or of heresy, idolatry or homosexuality within the order. Only the Hospital was accused of heresy. Interestingly, the Teutonic Knights' rivals in Livonia were accusing them of pagan practices and witchcraft by 1306. This suggests that such charges were politically motivated, rather than based on fact. The accusations of denial of Christ, sodomy and idolatry had been standard accusations against heretics for centuries, most recently against the Waldensians and the Cathars. Therefore, to accuse a rival of such. crimes was to accuse them of heresy. Orthodox Christian belief was believed to be essential for the health of society and to ensure God's favour. Heresy was seen as a disease which must be eradicated before it overcame the whole Christian body. Powerful political rivals could use the charge of heresy with devastating effect against their opponents: it had been deployed by Pope Innocent IV against the emperor Frederick Il during the 1240s, and from 1303 by Philip IV's government against Pope Boniface Vlll, who had infuriated Philip by asserting the supremacy of the church over secular rulers. Boniface was accused of heresy, sodomy, witchcraft and magic.
Later Guichard, Bishop of Troyes, and Louis of Nevers, son of the Count of Flanders, were accused of similar crimes after incurring Philip's enmity. Certainly any wealthy, privileged religious order with close ties to the papacy, such as the Cistercians, Friars, Hospitallers or Templars, was likely to incur a monarch's enmity. Yet the Templars were no more disliked than other military orders, and less criticised than some other religious orders. They had a long history of faithful service to the French crown. So why were they singled out for attack? The Templars had a special position in the defence of the Holy land. According to Jacquemart Giélée, the brothers claimed to be sole 'Defenders of the Holy Church'. They were depicted as principal defenders of the Holy Land by the Parisian poet Rutebuef in 1277, Templars were mentioned in chronicles and literature in general more than other military orders. They were invariably listed first whenever anyone thought about military orders. They had been the first military order, and were one of the richest and most far-flung. Yet this particular prominence also left them particularly vulnerable when they failed in their duty.
When the city of Acre finally fell to the Muslims in May 1291, several reports of the disaster depicted the Templars as chiefly responsible for the defence of the city. The chronicler of Erfurt, writing in the summer of 1291, depicted the Templars dying like true knights of Christ, fighting to the last. Thaddeo of Naples, a priest, praised the courage of the brothers of the military orders who died, and portrayed the death of the master of the Temple, William of Beaujeu, as the decisive blow which led to the loss of the Holy Land. For after Acre fell, the remaining Latin Christian possessions in the East surrendered to the Muslims.
But the order's prominence could also be its undoing. The most popular account of the defeat, which was reproduced in many chronicles, dismissed the Templars as totally ineffective and only concerned to save their treasure. The true hero of the tragedy was now Brother Matthew of Claremont, marshal of the Hospital, who was 'a faithful warrior, knight of Christ', and died a martyr's death. Ricoldo of Monte Cruce, a Dominican Friar who was on a preaching mission in the Middle East when he heard of the disaster, compared William of Beaujeu to the notorious King Ahab, husband of Queen Jezebel and the worst king of Israel in the Old Testament. Certainly he was an excellent soldier, but God rejected him because of his sins. The loss of Acre was not mentioned. among the charges brought against the Templars in 1307, but it was understood that the brothers' alleged abuses were responsible for the disaster.
From the evidence, the famous, shocking charges brought against the Templars in 1307 were unknown before 1300. The order was certainly guilty of Fraud and unscrupulous greed, but so too were other religious orders. The brothers' real crime was their failure to protect the Holy Land after claiming to be solely responsible for its defence. | <urn:uuid:ea4d8ebd-c216-4cd6-b548-9b37e3aeb681> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.knighttemplar.org/single-post/2019/12/09/Saints-or-Sinners-The-Knights-Templar-in-Medieval-Europe | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.984055 | 4,900 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.248881012201... | 4 | Published in History Today (/archive/history-today/latest) Volume: 44 Issue: 12
What did medieval contemporaries think of military orders such as the Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights? Helen Nicholson investigates.
In October 1307, by order of Philip IV of France, all the Knights Templar within the French domains were arrested. In November, Pope Clement V sent out orders for the arrest of the Templars throughout Europe. The brothers were accused of a variety of crimes, which were said to be longestablished in the order. There were, it was claimed, serious abuses in the admission ceremony, where the brothers denied their faith in Christ. The order encouraged homosexual activity between brothers. The brothers worshipped idols. Chapter meetings were held in secret. The brothers did not believe in the mass or other sacraments of the church and did not carry these out properly, defrauding patrons of the order who had given money for masses to be said for their families' souls.
What was more, it was alleged that the Templars did not make charitable gifts or give hospitality as a religious order should. The order encouraged brothers to acquire property fraudulently, and to win profit for the order by any means possible. During the trial of the Templars witnesses claimed that the order's abuses had been notorious far many years and under interrogation, including torture, many brothers confessed to at least some of these crimes. In March 1312, Pope Clement dissolved the Order of' the Temple, giving its property of the Order of the Hospital, and assigning the surviving brothers to other religious orders. Despite this, the question of the order's guilt has never been settled. Just what were the accusations made against the Templars before 1300, and were these related to the trial? What did contemporaries think about the other military orders, such as the Knights Hospitaller and the Teutonic Knights? The Order of the Temple was a military order, a type of religious order. It had been founded in the early twelfth century, in the wake of the Catholic conquest of the Holy Land, to protect pilgrims travelling to the holy places against bandits. This role soon grew to protecting Christian territory in Spain as well as the Holy Land. The order gained its name because the King of Jerusalem had given the brothers his palace in the al-Aqsa masque, which the Christians called 'the Temple of Solomon', to be their headquarters. In Europe the members' lifestyle was much like that of ordinary monks. The order's rule laid down a strict regime on clothing, diet, charitable giving and other living arrangements. In theory only men could join the order, but in practice some women were also admitted.
The Order of the Temple was the first military order, but others soon followed. The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem had been founded as a hospice for pilgrims in the eleventh century, but by the 1130s the Hospital was employing mercenaries to protect pilgrims from bandits, and was soon involved in the defence of the frontiers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem alongside the Order of the Temple. These brothers became known as the Hospitallers. The Hospital of St Mary of the Teutons was set up at the siege of Acre during the Third Crusade (1189-92) to care for German pilgrims and was then relaunched in 1198 as a military order. The brothers were known as the Teutonic Knights. These were the most famous of the international military orders, but the concept was so popular that others were founded wherever Christians confronted non-Christians: in Spain, where the Muslim frontier was slowly retreating, and in the Baltic and Prussia where pagan tribes threatened Christian settlements and converts. From the 1230s onwards the Teutonic order became prominent in the Baltic area. The concept of the military order was a natural development from the concept of the crusade. Rather than taking up weapons for a short period to defend Christ's people, the members of a military order did so for life. In return, they expected to receive pardon for their sins and immediate entry into heaven if they died in action against the enemies of their faith. In western Europe, far from the battlefield, some of the clergy were doubtful whether a military order could be a valid religious order. Around 1150, the Abbot of Cluny wrote to Pope Eugenius III that he and many of his monks regarded the brothers of the Temple as only knights, not monks, and believed that fighting the Muslims overseas was less important than suppressing bandits at home. Letters written to encourage the early Templars also hint at this sort of opposition. But the bulk of the surviving evidence is warmly in praise of the Templars, and clergy and knightly classes alike welcomed the new order with generous donations. In fact the Hospital of St John seems to have attracted more donations as it became more of a military order. By 1200 the military orders had become part of the religious establishment and criticism of the concept ceased.
However, other criticism arose which tended to fluctuate with events. During a crusade, while crusaders wrote home with accounts of the military orders' courage and self-sacrifice, criticism was overlooked. Between crusades, as Europeans received news of territorial losses to the Muslims, they forgot the military orders' heroism and concluded that. these defeats were God's punishment for sin. For surely God would not. allow godly men to suffer such set- backs. Political views also shaped criticism, especially during the period. 1229-50, while pope and emperor were at loggerheads. The Temple, and to a lesser degree the Hospital, supported the pope, while the Teutonic order supported the emperor. So observers sympathetic to the emperor's policies in the Holy Land. such as Matthew Paris, chronicler of St Albans abbey, criticised the Templars and Hospitallers. Yet there was praise from those who opposed the emperor in the Holy Land, such as Philip of Novara and the powerful Ibelin family of Cyprus who were Philip's lords. Chroniclers tended to be critical, for they wished to draw a moral from contemporary events for the edification of future generations. In other forms of literature, romance, epic or. farce, the Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights appeared as brave knights of Christ combating the Muslim menace, or as helpers of lovers, or as good monks. It is interesting that although monks and parish priests came under heavy criticism for their immorality in the 'fables' or farces, the military orders were not criticised. Obviously they were not regarded as womanisers. Between the Second and Third Crusades of 1148-49 and 1189, the generous donations of money and privileges to the Templars and Hospitallers became a major cause of resentment. This was hardly surprising. All religious orders aroused complaints about their privileges, and the Templars and Hospitallers never attracted such severe criticism as the Cistercians and friars.
But the Templars and the Hospitallers caused particular annoyance because their houses were so widely scattered. Their legal privileges were especially resented. In 1236 Pope Gregory IX wrote to the Templars and Hospitallers in western France ordering them not to abuse the privileges granted to them by the papal see. The brothers had been summoning their legal opponents to courts in far-off places which they had no hope of reaching by the specified day, so that they were then fined for failing to appear. The brothers had also been taking annual payments from clergy and laity in return for allowing them to share their legal privileges. Forty years later, when Edward I's commissioners were conducting the Hundred Roll inquiries to establish where royal rights had been usurped in each locality, there were similar protests. Some people who had no proper connection with the Templars and Hospitallers were claiming their privileges, in Warwickshire and Derbyshire there were complaints that the orders' privileges 'impede and subvert all common justice and excessively oppress the people', while the burghers of Totnes and Grimsby had been summoned to courts in the four corners of England by the Hospitallers and Templars respectively. Despite their extensive possessions, the Templars and Hospitallers were always claiming to be poverty- stricken. They sent out alms-collectors on a regular basis, to collect money from lay-people and clergy for their work in the Holy Land. Matthew Paris was probably expressing a widely-felt discontent when he wrote around 1245:
"The Templars and Hospitallers receive so much income from the whole of Christendom, and, only for defending the Holy Land, swallow down such great revenues as if they sink them into the gulf of the abyss ..."
Whatever did they do with all their wealth? Some Europeans concluded that they must be using their resources very inefficiently. The orders were not only wealthy and privileged, they were proud and treacherous. Pride, the first of the seven deadly sins, was already the military orders' most infamous vice by the 1160s. As the years passed it became a stock complaint against the Templars and Hospitallers, as if it was 'their' sin. Pride made the orders jealous of each other and of other Christians, so that they fought each other instead of fighting the Saracens. The Templars and Hospitallers' quarrels became notorious, although in fact the orders went to great lengths to ensure peaceful relations. The troubadour, Daspol, writing in around 1270, neatly summed up the problem: because the Templars and Hospitallers had become proud and greedy and did evil instead of good, they were unable or unwilling to defend the Holy Land against the Saracens. In 1289 a Flemish satirist, Jacquemart Giélée, depicted the Templars' and Hospitallers' bitter quarrels in his satire, Renart le Nouvel, the new Renart, based on the old theme of the unscrupulous fox. A Hospitaller is shown denigrating the Templars in order to win Renart for his order. After the final loss of Acre in 1291, Pope Nicholas IV suggested that the military orders' quarrels had been a contributory factor in the defeat, and many chroniclers and churchmen agreed. The charge that the Order of the Temple encouraged the brothers to acquire property fraudulently and to win profit by all possible means clearly reflects these complaints against the Templars and Hospitallers. For at least 150 years contemporaries had accused the military orders of lying and cheating because of their greed for wealth. In 1312 the same old criticisms against the Hospitallers arose again at the Council of Vienne, as the pope planned to bestow on them the former property of the Templars.
Interestingly, no critic before 1300 accused the Templars of immorality. In the mid-thirteenth century an English poet, writing in Anglo-Norman French, surveyed the whole of society and accused most of the clergy of womanising, even dropping hints about the Hospitallers. But he exempted the Templars, who were too busy making money to have time for sex:
"The Templars are most doughty men and they certainly know how to look after themselves, but they love pennies ton much; when prices are high they sell their wheat instead of giving it to their dependants. Nor do the lords of the Hospital, have any desire for buying women's services, if they have their palfreys and horses, I don't say it for any evil ..."
A more explicit charge of immorality against the Hospitallers appeared in March 1238, when a French crusade was preparing to depart for the Holy Land. Pope Gregory IX wrote a letter of rebuke to the Hospitallers in Acre. He had heard that the brothers kept harlots in their villages, had been cheating the dying into bequeathing their property to them and (among other crimes) that several of the brothers were guilty of heresy. As for the Templars, he only complained that they were not keeping the roads safe for pilgrims! Although the Templars were not accused of immorality, they were linked with traditional romantic love. A late thirteenth-century French verse romance, Sone de Nausay, depicts the Master of the Temple in Ireland as the go-between in a love affair, while a French Arthurian romance of the same period, Claris et Laris, depicts the Templars as friends to lovers. But this was a wholly sympathetic view, and saw the Templars as servants of lovers rather than as lovers themselves. None of the military orders were accused of sodomy, although such accusations were occasionally made against ordinary monks. There were many other complaints against the military orders before 1300. Perhaps the most significant were the divided opinions over their record of fighting the Muslims (and other non-Christians). Many complained that they were not sufficiently enthusiastic about defending Christendom and winning back lost territory, while others complained that they were too eager to fight those who could be won to Christ by peaceful means. Some contemporaries alleged that the military orders were unwilling to fight the Muslims because they were secretly in alliance with them. The military orders certainly did make alliances with Muslim rulers on various occasions, but these alliances were intended to promote the Christian cause, not to hinder it. The chroniclers also alleged that the Muslims exploited the brothers' greed. There was a legend in circulation which recounted how the Christians had failed to capture a Muslim fortress because some of the Christian leaders had been bribed by- Muslim gold to raise the siege. This gold subsequently turned out to be cop- per.
This story appeared in various forms and with various parties in the role of dupe from the mid-twelfth century onwards. By the early thirteenth century the Templars had become the dupes, and by the mid- thirteenth century the Hospitallers had joined them. The fortress also changed identity several times! In fact this is a very old story, and versions of it appear in Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks, written in the sixth century, and in the collection of ancient Welsh legends known as the Mabinogion. Many accusations that the military orders were unwilling. to attack the Muslims arose from a misunderstanding of the true situation in the Holy Land.
The Templars were criticised for refusing to help the Third Crusade besiege Jerusalem in 1191-92, but the brothers believed that the city could not be held after the crusaders had returned home, and that the security of the holy places was better served by attacking Egypt. In 1250, during the crusade of Louis IX of France, Count Robert of Artois decided to lead the vanguard of the crusading army to attack the Muslims in Mansourah. The Templars and Hospitallers advised against this, where- upon the count accused them of laziness and trying to impede the Christian cause and advanced. Anxious not to be accused of cowardice, the military orders accompanied him and, as they had predicted, the Christian army was cut to pieces. This was a terrible defeat, but something of a propaganda coup for the military orders, who had fearlessly died for Christ against hopeless odds. Other critics felt that the military orders were too eager to fight. Thirteenth- century literature depicted the ideal knight as one who only fought when necessary. The military orders' self-sacrifice for Christ seemed rash and irrational. Some of the clergy believed that the orders' love of violence and domination impeded or prevented conversions. This accusation was made against the Templars in the 1180s by Walter Map, Archdeacon of Oxford, and against the Teutonic order by some unknown critics and around 1266-68 by Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan friar imprisoned in Paris for his unorthodox views. The unknown critics may have been the Polish princes who opposed the expansion of the Teutonic order's power in Prussia. In 1258, letters were sent to Pope Alexander lV from the order's friends in Poland and Prussia, defending them against various accusations. Apparently the brothers had been accused of forbid- ding the preaching of Christianity to the pagan Prussians, preventing the establishment of churches, destroying old churches, impeding the sacraments and enslaving new converts. Roger Bacon's criticisms echoed these: the Teutonic order wanted to subjugate the Prussians and reduce them to slavery, and refused to stop attacking them in order to allow peaceful preaching. He added that the order had deceived the Roman Church for many years as to its true motives in Prussia. The peak of criticism of the military orders came around 1250. After this they faded from the chronicles and critical writings. Many critics of the church omitted them. Others showed little actual knowledge of them. Although there was a vast number of newsletters coming from the Holy Land, so that chroniclers could hardly have been short of information on events, they seem to have chosen to ignore this. News was almost invariably bad, and chroniclers probably believed that the loss of the Holy Land was only a matter of time.
There were many crises closer to home to occupy their pens. As a result, after 1250, the image of the military orders expressed in the chronicles and other writing shows a relative improvement. Day-to-day relations between the military orders and their neighbours and the authorities were usually peaceful. Bishops' registers, royal administrative records, and the records of the nobility where these survive, show that although there were disputes generally the military orders were obedient subjects and reliable servants. As Walter Map had remarked, whatever the Templars did in the Holy Land, in England they lived peacefully enough. Despite the sorry state of the Latin Christian settlement in the Holy Land, after 1250 the military orders were still well regarded in Europe. Donations to the orders had fallen in most areas, but all religious orders were suffering in this respect. Some commentators, while agreeing that even the Templars had declined in spirituality along with all other religious orders, depicted them as having previously been among the most spiritual of the religious orders. This was a far cry from their original foundation, when some had doubted that the order could have a spiritual dimension at all!
So, how far were the Templars' accusers of 1307 justified in their case against the order? Contemporaries would certainly have agreed with the charge that they lied and cheated in order to satisfy their greed. Yet there is no hint before 1500 that the Templars did not carry out the sacraments; although the Teutonic order were accused of impeding the sacraments in Prussia. It was true that the proceedings of the order's chapter meetings were kept secret, but this was the custom among military orders. The accusation that the order did not practice charity and hospitality may have sprung from the rivalry between the Temple and the Hospital. The Hospitallers were always at pains to emphasise their dual hospitable-military role, in contrast to the solely military role of the Templars. A few contemporaries were struck by the difference: a German pilgrim, John of Würzburg, remarked dismissively in around 1170 that the Temple's charitable giving was not a tenth of the Hospital's. Of course, the Order of the Temple did practise charity, as it was obliged to do under its religious rule, but most contemporaries seemed to have regarded the defence of pilgrims as charity in itself. There is no indication before 1300 of public scandal over the order abusing admission procedures, or of heresy, idolatry or homosexuality within the order. Only the Hospital was accused of heresy. Interestingly, the Teutonic Knights' rivals in Livonia were accusing them of pagan practices and witchcraft by 1306. This suggests that such charges were politically motivated, rather than based on fact. The accusations of denial of Christ, sodomy and idolatry had been standard accusations against heretics for centuries, most recently against the Waldensians and the Cathars. Therefore, to accuse a rival of such. crimes was to accuse them of heresy. Orthodox Christian belief was believed to be essential for the health of society and to ensure God's favour. Heresy was seen as a disease which must be eradicated before it overcame the whole Christian body. Powerful political rivals could use the charge of heresy with devastating effect against their opponents: it had been deployed by Pope Innocent IV against the emperor Frederick Il during the 1240s, and from 1303 by Philip IV's government against Pope Boniface Vlll, who had infuriated Philip by asserting the supremacy of the church over secular rulers. Boniface was accused of heresy, sodomy, witchcraft and magic.
Later Guichard, Bishop of Troyes, and Louis of Nevers, son of the Count of Flanders, were accused of similar crimes after incurring Philip's enmity. Certainly any wealthy, privileged religious order with close ties to the papacy, such as the Cistercians, Friars, Hospitallers or Templars, was likely to incur a monarch's enmity. Yet the Templars were no more disliked than other military orders, and less criticised than some other religious orders. They had a long history of faithful service to the French crown. So why were they singled out for attack? The Templars had a special position in the defence of the Holy land. According to Jacquemart Giélée, the brothers claimed to be sole 'Defenders of the Holy Church'. They were depicted as principal defenders of the Holy Land by the Parisian poet Rutebuef in 1277, Templars were mentioned in chronicles and literature in general more than other military orders. They were invariably listed first whenever anyone thought about military orders. They had been the first military order, and were one of the richest and most far-flung. Yet this particular prominence also left them particularly vulnerable when they failed in their duty.
When the city of Acre finally fell to the Muslims in May 1291, several reports of the disaster depicted the Templars as chiefly responsible for the defence of the city. The chronicler of Erfurt, writing in the summer of 1291, depicted the Templars dying like true knights of Christ, fighting to the last. Thaddeo of Naples, a priest, praised the courage of the brothers of the military orders who died, and portrayed the death of the master of the Temple, William of Beaujeu, as the decisive blow which led to the loss of the Holy Land. For after Acre fell, the remaining Latin Christian possessions in the East surrendered to the Muslims.
But the order's prominence could also be its undoing. The most popular account of the defeat, which was reproduced in many chronicles, dismissed the Templars as totally ineffective and only concerned to save their treasure. The true hero of the tragedy was now Brother Matthew of Claremont, marshal of the Hospital, who was 'a faithful warrior, knight of Christ', and died a martyr's death. Ricoldo of Monte Cruce, a Dominican Friar who was on a preaching mission in the Middle East when he heard of the disaster, compared William of Beaujeu to the notorious King Ahab, husband of Queen Jezebel and the worst king of Israel in the Old Testament. Certainly he was an excellent soldier, but God rejected him because of his sins. The loss of Acre was not mentioned. among the charges brought against the Templars in 1307, but it was understood that the brothers' alleged abuses were responsible for the disaster.
From the evidence, the famous, shocking charges brought against the Templars in 1307 were unknown before 1300. The order was certainly guilty of Fraud and unscrupulous greed, but so too were other religious orders. The brothers' real crime was their failure to protect the Holy Land after claiming to be solely responsible for its defence. | 5,048 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ships during the Civil War
The American Civil War is not generally thought of as a naval war, but Civil War ships of both sides played a significant role in the conflict. The role of the Federal and Confederate Civil War naval ships in the war is all the more remarkable when you consider the scarcity of battle worthy vessels owned by either side at the start of the war.
The Confederacy had no navy at all in 1860 and the Union Navy was in dismal shape. In 1861 Gideon Welles was appointed as Secretary of the Navy and was ordered by Lincoln to quell the rebellion with an enormous naval blockade of the Southern coast and both the blockade and gaining control of the Mississippi would be keys to the Union‘s victory.
The Union’s first truly significant victory, Grant’s capture of Fort Donelson and Fort Henry in 1862 was enabled by Civil War ships and Civil War marines.
Lincoln’s order of a naval blockade struck some of his staff as impractical. Most of the Navy’s vessels were on duty in foreign waters and only three or four ships were available for active duty.
The North also had available the USS Constitution but this ship was wind powered in an age of steam power so it was regulated to training duty.
Yet an effective blockade of the southern coast would have to cover three thousand miles. Legally, other nations were not bound to honor the blockade unless it was effective. The Union Navy Department hastened to buy commercial vessels and adapt them for warfare and commission the building of other vessels. Because the war had seriously hampered northern shipping business, owners of several large steamers pressured the government to buy them, but these ships were too large and unwieldy to patrol the shallow coast.
Also available to the Union Navy were several Civil War ships laid up in dry dock for repair, but most of these would take from two weeks to a month to repair. Fortunately, the North had both the resources and manpower to quickly build ships. With two exceptions, all of the United States Navy shipyards were in the northern states.
Although many of the navy’s Civil War ships were either on duty in foreign waters or awaiting repairs, the U.S. Navy had been improving its fleet with steam powered vessels for nearly two decades. The steam frigates Colorado, Merrimac, Minnesota, Niagara, Roanoke, and Wabash and the steam sloops-of-war Brooklyn, Dacotah, Hartford, Iroquois, Lancaster, Michigan, Narragansett, Pawnee, Pensacola, Seminole and Wyoming were relatively new ships, having been built since 1855.
Of these ships, the Brooklyn was the only one available for active duty when Lincoln first ordered the blockade. The Niagara was far away, on special duty off the coast of Japan and the Dacotah was also in Asian waters. Despite signs of an impending conflict in the months before South Carolina seceded, the Naval department had not sufficiently prepared the fleet. Naval officers who were southerners had been resigning in large numbers since South Carolina’s secession in December 1860 and classes at the Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland were hampered by this shortage. A newly graduated class was called to active duty to make up for the vacancies.
However, there were still 1457 officers and 7600 seamen in the federal navy; by war’s end this number would increase to 7500 officers and 51,500 seamen. These men would man an extraordinary fleet of ships built up by the Union, including the new ironclads, which would change the face of maritime warfare. By repairing available ships, building new ones, and adapting commercial vessels the Union Navy had 212 seaworthy vessels in January 1862.
The Confederate Navy had a far more difficult time in creating Civil War naval ships, for at the beginning of the war it owned no Civil War ships at all.
Norfolk and Pensacola were its only navy shipyards, although several small private firms made vessels suitable for navigating shallow river waters. Although it had no shortage of wood with which to make wooden ships, the South lacked both iron and the facilities to construct efficient steam engines.
Despite these obstacles, the Confederates managed to build up a small fleet of Civil War ships. Like the North’s flotilla, some of their vessels were converted commercial ships, hastily outfitted with guns. A few ships were captured from the North and used in the Confederate Navy. Small shipyards constructed vessels able to patrol the river waters. In May 1861, a representative from the Confederacy sailed to England in an attempt to commission the building of warships. Building warships would violate Britain’s stance as a neutral country, so the South’s representative had the ships built in his own name as merchant vessels and outfitted for war only after they sailed out of British waters. Getting a blockade runner back through the Union blockade was also difficult and grew more difficult as the Union Navy increased in size.
The Confederate fleet would never grow as large as the Union Navy, but it was slightly ahead of the North in building the first ironclad. Federal troops had evacuated the Norfolk shipyard when it became apparent that Virginia would secede. Before they left, they set fire to the seven Civil War ships left at the yard, attempting to make them unusable to the enemy. Fire destroyed six ships, but the U.S.S. Merrimac was rescued by the Confederates before it was entirely destroyed. The Confederate Naval department hastened to have it re-outfitted as a Civil War ironclad ship, an armor plated ship and re-christened it the CSS Virginia.
The Union Navy department learned of the Merrimac’s impending resurrection though spies and hastened the building of the USS Monitor, a Union ironclad commissioned at the war’s onset. The Monitor was an entirely new ship, built after a design by John Ericsson. It was technically superior to the Merrimac, being twice as fast and featuring a revolving gun turret. The Merrimac was well armored, but slow and difficult to maneuver. The Federals planned to use the Monitor to attack Merrimac while it was still in dry dock, but the quick construction of the Confederate project changed their plans.
On March 8, 1862, the newly re-christened Virginia attacked five Union ships in the harbor at Hampton Roads. It ran one aground and destroyed two others.
The next day, the Monitor arrived and the two Civil War ships shelled each other, as the Monitor circled the Virginia. The battle was a draw, but the incident marked the switch to modern naval warfare; ironclads made wooden ship obsolete.
The picture to the left shows battle damage to the USS Galena which was a type of ironclad that proved to be ineffective in combat.
The Union and Confederate Navies had many other important clashes including the first successful submarine attack made by the CSS Hunley.
The Confederate ships however were most successful in attacking Union merchant Civil War ships outside of U.S. waters, in places such as the West Indies. The general procedure was to rescue the merchant crew, but to destroy their ship. In one incident, CSS Alabama, a successful destroyer of merchant ships, clashed with the USS Kearsarge off the coast of France; this time the Union ship won.
Naval forces were essential to the Union’s victory. In April 1862, Union General Benjamin Butler was able to occupy New Orleans only because of the actions of Admiral David Farragut, his fleet and Civil War marines. The occupation of New Orleans for the rest of the war, allowed the Union to control most of the Mississippi. The fall of Vicksburg in July 1863 completed the Union control of the mighty river. The Union victory at Vicksburg was accomplished with the help of Admiral David Porter and his gunboats.
The Naval Mine also played a role during the Civil War, sinking a few ships.
A new type of gunboat, called a “double-ender” allowed the Union to manipulate shallow river waters much easier than more unwieldy Confederate ships. The “double-ender” could go backward as well as forward in the rivers, without having to turn about. The “double-enders” were made of wood, so they could be quickly constructed; however, this advantage was also a disadvantage, since wooden ships could be easily destroyed.
The need for easily manipulated Civil War ships and for ships that could not be easily destroyed prompted much technological growth during the war. The conflict was the last one in which wooden ships would be used. Although the Civil War ironclad ships were unwieldy and flawed, they ushered in the age of the modern steel warship. After the success of the Monitor and the Virginia, navies around the world began to build armored warships. The war also saw the first use of submarines and torpedoes. For a conflict not known for its naval battles, the American Civil War had made an unforgettable impact on future navies. The war was also remembered for one of the greatest maritime disasters in American history, the sinking of the Sultana in 1865.
The sinking of the Sultana was the largest naval disaster during the entire war. | <urn:uuid:977f604f-a227-4036-a210-38e2e1660c6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.civilwaracademy.com/category/ships | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.982569 | 1,900 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.52450597286... | 2 | Ships during the Civil War
The American Civil War is not generally thought of as a naval war, but Civil War ships of both sides played a significant role in the conflict. The role of the Federal and Confederate Civil War naval ships in the war is all the more remarkable when you consider the scarcity of battle worthy vessels owned by either side at the start of the war.
The Confederacy had no navy at all in 1860 and the Union Navy was in dismal shape. In 1861 Gideon Welles was appointed as Secretary of the Navy and was ordered by Lincoln to quell the rebellion with an enormous naval blockade of the Southern coast and both the blockade and gaining control of the Mississippi would be keys to the Union‘s victory.
The Union’s first truly significant victory, Grant’s capture of Fort Donelson and Fort Henry in 1862 was enabled by Civil War ships and Civil War marines.
Lincoln’s order of a naval blockade struck some of his staff as impractical. Most of the Navy’s vessels were on duty in foreign waters and only three or four ships were available for active duty.
The North also had available the USS Constitution but this ship was wind powered in an age of steam power so it was regulated to training duty.
Yet an effective blockade of the southern coast would have to cover three thousand miles. Legally, other nations were not bound to honor the blockade unless it was effective. The Union Navy Department hastened to buy commercial vessels and adapt them for warfare and commission the building of other vessels. Because the war had seriously hampered northern shipping business, owners of several large steamers pressured the government to buy them, but these ships were too large and unwieldy to patrol the shallow coast.
Also available to the Union Navy were several Civil War ships laid up in dry dock for repair, but most of these would take from two weeks to a month to repair. Fortunately, the North had both the resources and manpower to quickly build ships. With two exceptions, all of the United States Navy shipyards were in the northern states.
Although many of the navy’s Civil War ships were either on duty in foreign waters or awaiting repairs, the U.S. Navy had been improving its fleet with steam powered vessels for nearly two decades. The steam frigates Colorado, Merrimac, Minnesota, Niagara, Roanoke, and Wabash and the steam sloops-of-war Brooklyn, Dacotah, Hartford, Iroquois, Lancaster, Michigan, Narragansett, Pawnee, Pensacola, Seminole and Wyoming were relatively new ships, having been built since 1855.
Of these ships, the Brooklyn was the only one available for active duty when Lincoln first ordered the blockade. The Niagara was far away, on special duty off the coast of Japan and the Dacotah was also in Asian waters. Despite signs of an impending conflict in the months before South Carolina seceded, the Naval department had not sufficiently prepared the fleet. Naval officers who were southerners had been resigning in large numbers since South Carolina’s secession in December 1860 and classes at the Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland were hampered by this shortage. A newly graduated class was called to active duty to make up for the vacancies.
However, there were still 1457 officers and 7600 seamen in the federal navy; by war’s end this number would increase to 7500 officers and 51,500 seamen. These men would man an extraordinary fleet of ships built up by the Union, including the new ironclads, which would change the face of maritime warfare. By repairing available ships, building new ones, and adapting commercial vessels the Union Navy had 212 seaworthy vessels in January 1862.
The Confederate Navy had a far more difficult time in creating Civil War naval ships, for at the beginning of the war it owned no Civil War ships at all.
Norfolk and Pensacola were its only navy shipyards, although several small private firms made vessels suitable for navigating shallow river waters. Although it had no shortage of wood with which to make wooden ships, the South lacked both iron and the facilities to construct efficient steam engines.
Despite these obstacles, the Confederates managed to build up a small fleet of Civil War ships. Like the North’s flotilla, some of their vessels were converted commercial ships, hastily outfitted with guns. A few ships were captured from the North and used in the Confederate Navy. Small shipyards constructed vessels able to patrol the river waters. In May 1861, a representative from the Confederacy sailed to England in an attempt to commission the building of warships. Building warships would violate Britain’s stance as a neutral country, so the South’s representative had the ships built in his own name as merchant vessels and outfitted for war only after they sailed out of British waters. Getting a blockade runner back through the Union blockade was also difficult and grew more difficult as the Union Navy increased in size.
The Confederate fleet would never grow as large as the Union Navy, but it was slightly ahead of the North in building the first ironclad. Federal troops had evacuated the Norfolk shipyard when it became apparent that Virginia would secede. Before they left, they set fire to the seven Civil War ships left at the yard, attempting to make them unusable to the enemy. Fire destroyed six ships, but the U.S.S. Merrimac was rescued by the Confederates before it was entirely destroyed. The Confederate Naval department hastened to have it re-outfitted as a Civil War ironclad ship, an armor plated ship and re-christened it the CSS Virginia.
The Union Navy department learned of the Merrimac’s impending resurrection though spies and hastened the building of the USS Monitor, a Union ironclad commissioned at the war’s onset. The Monitor was an entirely new ship, built after a design by John Ericsson. It was technically superior to the Merrimac, being twice as fast and featuring a revolving gun turret. The Merrimac was well armored, but slow and difficult to maneuver. The Federals planned to use the Monitor to attack Merrimac while it was still in dry dock, but the quick construction of the Confederate project changed their plans.
On March 8, 1862, the newly re-christened Virginia attacked five Union ships in the harbor at Hampton Roads. It ran one aground and destroyed two others.
The next day, the Monitor arrived and the two Civil War ships shelled each other, as the Monitor circled the Virginia. The battle was a draw, but the incident marked the switch to modern naval warfare; ironclads made wooden ship obsolete.
The picture to the left shows battle damage to the USS Galena which was a type of ironclad that proved to be ineffective in combat.
The Union and Confederate Navies had many other important clashes including the first successful submarine attack made by the CSS Hunley.
The Confederate ships however were most successful in attacking Union merchant Civil War ships outside of U.S. waters, in places such as the West Indies. The general procedure was to rescue the merchant crew, but to destroy their ship. In one incident, CSS Alabama, a successful destroyer of merchant ships, clashed with the USS Kearsarge off the coast of France; this time the Union ship won.
Naval forces were essential to the Union’s victory. In April 1862, Union General Benjamin Butler was able to occupy New Orleans only because of the actions of Admiral David Farragut, his fleet and Civil War marines. The occupation of New Orleans for the rest of the war, allowed the Union to control most of the Mississippi. The fall of Vicksburg in July 1863 completed the Union control of the mighty river. The Union victory at Vicksburg was accomplished with the help of Admiral David Porter and his gunboats.
The Naval Mine also played a role during the Civil War, sinking a few ships.
A new type of gunboat, called a “double-ender” allowed the Union to manipulate shallow river waters much easier than more unwieldy Confederate ships. The “double-ender” could go backward as well as forward in the rivers, without having to turn about. The “double-enders” were made of wood, so they could be quickly constructed; however, this advantage was also a disadvantage, since wooden ships could be easily destroyed.
The need for easily manipulated Civil War ships and for ships that could not be easily destroyed prompted much technological growth during the war. The conflict was the last one in which wooden ships would be used. Although the Civil War ironclad ships were unwieldy and flawed, they ushered in the age of the modern steel warship. After the success of the Monitor and the Virginia, navies around the world began to build armored warships. The war also saw the first use of submarines and torpedoes. For a conflict not known for its naval battles, the American Civil War had made an unforgettable impact on future navies. The war was also remembered for one of the greatest maritime disasters in American history, the sinking of the Sultana in 1865.
The sinking of the Sultana was the largest naval disaster during the entire war. | 1,916 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We Made Our Own Fun
Editor: Norah L. Lewis (CA)
“When we were children we made our own fun” is a frequent comment from those who were children in pre-television times. But what games, activities and amusements did children enjoy prior to the mid-1950s? Recollections of older Canadians, selections from writings by Canadian authors and letters written to the children’s pages of agricultural publications indicate that for most children play was then, as now, an essential part of childhood. Through play, youngsters developed the physical, mental and emotional skills that helped them cope with life and taught them to get along with other children. In both rural and urban settings, children were generally free to explore their environment. They were sent outdoors to play by both parents and teachers. Their games were generally self-organized and physically active, with domestic animals acting as important companions and playmates. Children frequently made their own toys and equipment, and, since playing rather than winning was important, most children were included in games. Special days, holidays and organizations for children and youth provided welcome breaks from daily routines. Their lives were busy, but there was always time for play, always time for fun. Norah Lewis has provided an entertaining view of the toys, games and activities in Canada and pre-confederate Newfoundland from approximately 1900 through 1955. Her book will be of interest to historians, educators and sociologists, as well as anyone who lived through, or wants to know more about,those early years in Canada, and the games children used to play.
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0.236343756318... | 2 | We Made Our Own Fun
Editor: Norah L. Lewis (CA)
“When we were children we made our own fun” is a frequent comment from those who were children in pre-television times. But what games, activities and amusements did children enjoy prior to the mid-1950s? Recollections of older Canadians, selections from writings by Canadian authors and letters written to the children’s pages of agricultural publications indicate that for most children play was then, as now, an essential part of childhood. Through play, youngsters developed the physical, mental and emotional skills that helped them cope with life and taught them to get along with other children. In both rural and urban settings, children were generally free to explore their environment. They were sent outdoors to play by both parents and teachers. Their games were generally self-organized and physically active, with domestic animals acting as important companions and playmates. Children frequently made their own toys and equipment, and, since playing rather than winning was important, most children were included in games. Special days, holidays and organizations for children and youth provided welcome breaks from daily routines. Their lives were busy, but there was always time for play, always time for fun. Norah Lewis has provided an entertaining view of the toys, games and activities in Canada and pre-confederate Newfoundland from approximately 1900 through 1955. Her book will be of interest to historians, educators and sociologists, as well as anyone who lived through, or wants to know more about,those early years in Canada, and the games children used to play.
|Date||ISBN||BISAC Code||Thema||Rights available|
|10/03/2002||9780889204065||SOCIAL SCIENCE / Sociology / General|
|English||Paperback / softback||6 in x 9 in||C$32.95||224| | 403 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Case (open): 11.9 x 19.1 x 1.3cm (4 11/16 x 7 1/2 x 1/2")
Born near Easton, Maryland
In the years following his escape from bondage in 1838, Frederick Douglass emerged as a powerful and persuasive spokesman for the cause of abolition. His effectiveness as an antislavery advocate was due in large measure to his firsthand experience with the evils of slavery and his extraordinary skill as an orator. His "glowing logic, biting irony, melting appeals, and electrifying eloquence" astonished and enthralled his audiences. As this ambrotype suggests, Douglass’s power was also rooted in the sheer impressiveness of his bearing, which abolitionist and activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton likened to that of "an African prince, majestic in his wrath." | <urn:uuid:1cf8b459-1f2e-4df3-8b41-3e98dd37a59c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.collections.si.edu/search/detail/edanmdm:npg_NPG.74.75?q=%22Frederick+Douglass%3A+American%5C%5CAfrican+American%22&record=16&hlterm=%26quot%3BFrederick%2BDouglass%3A%2BAmerican%5C%5CAfrican%2BAmerican%26quot%3B | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00554.warc.gz | en | 0.98007 | 172 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Born near Easton, Maryland
In the years following his escape from bondage in 1838, Frederick Douglass emerged as a powerful and persuasive spokesman for the cause of abolition. His effectiveness as an antislavery advocate was due in large measure to his firsthand experience with the evils of slavery and his extraordinary skill as an orator. His "glowing logic, biting irony, melting appeals, and electrifying eloquence" astonished and enthralled his audiences. As this ambrotype suggests, Douglass’s power was also rooted in the sheer impressiveness of his bearing, which abolitionist and activist Elizabeth Cady Stanton likened to that of "an African prince, majestic in his wrath." | 184 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Polynesian Voyagers. The Maori as a Deep-sea Navigator, Explorer, and Colonizer
Vessels and Methods
Vessels and Methods.
We have scant information as to the size of trees suitable for canoe-making in the various islands of the Pacific. Ellis mentions a tree called by him the apape, used in canoe-making by Tahitians, that produced a branchless trunk of 40 ft. to 50 ft. in length and 2 ft. or 3 ft. in diameter. Given a log 50 ft. in length, 3 ft. in diameter at the smaller end, no doubt a fair-sized hull might be hewn from it. This writer states that the Tahitians made the keels of their larger canoes of the tamanu tree, the trunk of which was often 4 ft. in diameter, while the purau furnished timber for planks and paddles. The breadfruit-tree page 36 is also used in canoe-making. We also know that these natives constructed canoes having small, low sided hulls to which a series of side boards or starkes were attached. Thus a comparatively small tree might furnish the hull-piece for a large canoe.
“We have good evidence.” says John Williams, “that formerly the Society-Islanders had canoes far superior to those now in use, in which they performed some extraordinary voyages; and a traditionary account states that one of their ancestors visited all the Friendly Islands, and even Rotuna, which is about two thousand miles west of Tahiti.” Again, he writes: “I have traditions of the natives upon almost every subject, especially of their former navigators, wherein every island which has subsequently been discovered within two thousand miles is named.” In his paper on “The Geographical Knowledge of the Polynesians” Mr. Percy Smith gives much interesting information concerning Polynesian navigation of former times. In speaking of the long voyages made by Polynesians in long-past centuries he remarks: “We are too apt to forget that in former times they had a class of canoe, in most islands called a pahi, which was immensely superior to those of the present day, and capable of containing a large number of people and abundant provisions. The great double canoe with its platform extending from vessel to vessel, on which was erected a house, was also suitable for performing long voyages. It was in canoes such as these that the Maoris made the long voyage from the Pacific islands to New Zealand… The Maori traditions make special mention of these double canoes, and further state that one, the ‘Arawa,’ has three masts… The canoe in which Karika, of Rarotonga, made his several voyages of discovery is said to have had two masts, and to have been able to carry one hundred and seventy men … he made eight different voyages between Samoa, Rarotonga, and other islands.”
In a work entitled Revings in the Pacific from 1837 to 1849. published at London in 1851, occurs some account of a sojourn at Rotuma, a small island north of Fiji. The natives of this isle were formely noted as daring voyagers, and the writer of the above work explains that, owing to the small size of the island, the surplus population was compelled periodically to seek new homes across seas. In most cases such parties were never again heard of; some, doubtless, would succeed in their quest, while others would perish at sea or at the hands of hostile peoples of some land reached by them. The description given of the vessels employed by Rotuma natives for deep-sea voyages is interesting. They were double canoes, the larger of which was from 80 ft. to 90 ft. in length, and the smaller one 50 ft. to 60 ft. The two hulls were about 6 ft. apart, and were connected by crossbeams, on which planks were secured so as to form a platform deck some 14 ft. to 16 ft. in width. The fact that both hulls were covered, with but small sliding hatchways, supports the statement that the crew lived in a house built on the platform deck, and that the hulls accommodated page 37 sea stores only. The sails used were of the common Polynesian form, triangular, and set with apex downward. They were made of a form of rush, and the author remarks that they resembled the canoe-sails seen at New Zealand.
Mr. Smith continues: “One of the captains of the Union Steamship Company told me that he had seen in Fiji a rude chart used in their nagvigation in which the constant movements of the seas driven before the trade-winds were shown by parallel strings stretched on a frame, and on these the positions of numbers of islands were indicated in their relative positions by little pieces of wood. The routes from island to island in many of the groups were well known, and the starting-points had characteristic names…. In the Sandwich Isles, on the little island of Kahoolawa, is a place called Ke-ala-i-Kahiki (The Road to Tahiti), from which the ancient voyagers started on their long journeys of 2,380 miles to the latter island. In a short paper written by S. M. Kamakau, a learned native historian of the Sandwich Islands, is a code of instructions for the study of the stars, from which I quote the following extract: ‘If you sail for Kahiki (Tahiti Island) vou will discover new constellations and strange stars over the deep ocean. When you arrive at the Piko-o-wakea (Equator) you will lose sight of Hoku-paa (the North Star), and Newe will be the southern guiding-star, and the constellation of Humu will stand as a guide above you.’ The well-authenticated voyages between the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti, a distance of 2,380 miles, as related by Fornander, show also the extent to which this people were masters of the sea.”
This writer also mentions the voyage of Tukuiho and his people of Rapa Island some twenty-four generations ago, who went to Easter Island against the trade-winds, a distance of about 2,520 miles, and there settled.
It is not clear as to why Fijians shouhl possess such a chart as that above mentioned, as they were not deep-sea voyagers, save occasionally when they made short trips to the Tongan Group, and then always in vessels managed by Tongans. As to the so-called chart, a well-known early missionary, the Rev. S. Ella, has cast doubts on its existence or use, but a similar contrivance was employed by Marshall-Islanders.
Mr. Smith speaks of the golden age of navigation and seamanship among Polynesians as having extended from about thirty to twenty generations ago. So far as we know, the voyages from Polynesia to New Zealand seem to have ceased about four or five hundred years ago, though several vessels left here for Polynesia long since that date. But there was a good deal of inter-island voyaging done throughout Polynesia down to late times. In like manner the backward limit of thirty generations takes us to a period when the Polynesians were pretty well all over the eastern Pacific Ocean, apparently, They were then occupying the various islands of the Society Group, and it was about that time that Toi made his famous voyage from that group to Samoa, and thence to Rarotonga and New Zealand, whither he was soon followed by the expeditions of Whatonga, Manaia, and Nukutamaroro. page 38 It seems to us that most of the voyages made by Polynesians twenty to thirty generations ago must necessarily have been made to islands and groups already known, and, in most cases, probably already occupied by members of the farspread Polynesian race. The true voyages of discovery of the Polynesians, the true golden age, must have commenced long prior to the thirty-generations limit. It must have been long before that time that Kupe braved the great open ocean of the south and discovered New Zealand, which was probably one of the later voyages of discovery. He is said to have found New Zealand uninhabited by man, whereas when Toi arrived here, some thirty generations ago, most of the North Island was occupied by the Mouriuri people, descendants of the crews of three canoes that had reached these shores since the arrival of Kupe. From my own point of view I would feel inclined to place the true golden age of Polynesian navigation at a period long prior to thirty generations ago, a period during which the ancestors of the Maori were doing true exploration work acorss vast stretches of the Pacific Ocean.
There is also another point to be considered—namely, that when Kupe, a resident of the Society Isles, came to New Zealand, the former group, as also the Cook Isles, were certainly in occupation of Polynesians, and that must have been some centuries prior to the time of Toi. We are told by Maori tradition that the particulars of the voyage of Kupe were preserved by the priests of the house of learning at Tahiti, and handed down from one generation to another. When in later times voyagers wished to make the voyage to these isles they obtained from the wise men of the house of learning the necessary directions as to the course to be taken, &c., as taught by Kupe on his return from the “mist-enshrouded land of Aotea-roa.” | <urn:uuid:a92c1518-eb49-4287-ab99-dbda37d225c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-BesPoly-t1-body-d1-d19.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00185.warc.gz | en | 0.982621 | 2,030 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.56760489940643... | 4 | Polynesian Voyagers. The Maori as a Deep-sea Navigator, Explorer, and Colonizer
Vessels and Methods
Vessels and Methods.
We have scant information as to the size of trees suitable for canoe-making in the various islands of the Pacific. Ellis mentions a tree called by him the apape, used in canoe-making by Tahitians, that produced a branchless trunk of 40 ft. to 50 ft. in length and 2 ft. or 3 ft. in diameter. Given a log 50 ft. in length, 3 ft. in diameter at the smaller end, no doubt a fair-sized hull might be hewn from it. This writer states that the Tahitians made the keels of their larger canoes of the tamanu tree, the trunk of which was often 4 ft. in diameter, while the purau furnished timber for planks and paddles. The breadfruit-tree page 36 is also used in canoe-making. We also know that these natives constructed canoes having small, low sided hulls to which a series of side boards or starkes were attached. Thus a comparatively small tree might furnish the hull-piece for a large canoe.
“We have good evidence.” says John Williams, “that formerly the Society-Islanders had canoes far superior to those now in use, in which they performed some extraordinary voyages; and a traditionary account states that one of their ancestors visited all the Friendly Islands, and even Rotuna, which is about two thousand miles west of Tahiti.” Again, he writes: “I have traditions of the natives upon almost every subject, especially of their former navigators, wherein every island which has subsequently been discovered within two thousand miles is named.” In his paper on “The Geographical Knowledge of the Polynesians” Mr. Percy Smith gives much interesting information concerning Polynesian navigation of former times. In speaking of the long voyages made by Polynesians in long-past centuries he remarks: “We are too apt to forget that in former times they had a class of canoe, in most islands called a pahi, which was immensely superior to those of the present day, and capable of containing a large number of people and abundant provisions. The great double canoe with its platform extending from vessel to vessel, on which was erected a house, was also suitable for performing long voyages. It was in canoes such as these that the Maoris made the long voyage from the Pacific islands to New Zealand… The Maori traditions make special mention of these double canoes, and further state that one, the ‘Arawa,’ has three masts… The canoe in which Karika, of Rarotonga, made his several voyages of discovery is said to have had two masts, and to have been able to carry one hundred and seventy men … he made eight different voyages between Samoa, Rarotonga, and other islands.”
In a work entitled Revings in the Pacific from 1837 to 1849. published at London in 1851, occurs some account of a sojourn at Rotuma, a small island north of Fiji. The natives of this isle were formely noted as daring voyagers, and the writer of the above work explains that, owing to the small size of the island, the surplus population was compelled periodically to seek new homes across seas. In most cases such parties were never again heard of; some, doubtless, would succeed in their quest, while others would perish at sea or at the hands of hostile peoples of some land reached by them. The description given of the vessels employed by Rotuma natives for deep-sea voyages is interesting. They were double canoes, the larger of which was from 80 ft. to 90 ft. in length, and the smaller one 50 ft. to 60 ft. The two hulls were about 6 ft. apart, and were connected by crossbeams, on which planks were secured so as to form a platform deck some 14 ft. to 16 ft. in width. The fact that both hulls were covered, with but small sliding hatchways, supports the statement that the crew lived in a house built on the platform deck, and that the hulls accommodated page 37 sea stores only. The sails used were of the common Polynesian form, triangular, and set with apex downward. They were made of a form of rush, and the author remarks that they resembled the canoe-sails seen at New Zealand.
Mr. Smith continues: “One of the captains of the Union Steamship Company told me that he had seen in Fiji a rude chart used in their nagvigation in which the constant movements of the seas driven before the trade-winds were shown by parallel strings stretched on a frame, and on these the positions of numbers of islands were indicated in their relative positions by little pieces of wood. The routes from island to island in many of the groups were well known, and the starting-points had characteristic names…. In the Sandwich Isles, on the little island of Kahoolawa, is a place called Ke-ala-i-Kahiki (The Road to Tahiti), from which the ancient voyagers started on their long journeys of 2,380 miles to the latter island. In a short paper written by S. M. Kamakau, a learned native historian of the Sandwich Islands, is a code of instructions for the study of the stars, from which I quote the following extract: ‘If you sail for Kahiki (Tahiti Island) vou will discover new constellations and strange stars over the deep ocean. When you arrive at the Piko-o-wakea (Equator) you will lose sight of Hoku-paa (the North Star), and Newe will be the southern guiding-star, and the constellation of Humu will stand as a guide above you.’ The well-authenticated voyages between the Sandwich Islands and Tahiti, a distance of 2,380 miles, as related by Fornander, show also the extent to which this people were masters of the sea.”
This writer also mentions the voyage of Tukuiho and his people of Rapa Island some twenty-four generations ago, who went to Easter Island against the trade-winds, a distance of about 2,520 miles, and there settled.
It is not clear as to why Fijians shouhl possess such a chart as that above mentioned, as they were not deep-sea voyagers, save occasionally when they made short trips to the Tongan Group, and then always in vessels managed by Tongans. As to the so-called chart, a well-known early missionary, the Rev. S. Ella, has cast doubts on its existence or use, but a similar contrivance was employed by Marshall-Islanders.
Mr. Smith speaks of the golden age of navigation and seamanship among Polynesians as having extended from about thirty to twenty generations ago. So far as we know, the voyages from Polynesia to New Zealand seem to have ceased about four or five hundred years ago, though several vessels left here for Polynesia long since that date. But there was a good deal of inter-island voyaging done throughout Polynesia down to late times. In like manner the backward limit of thirty generations takes us to a period when the Polynesians were pretty well all over the eastern Pacific Ocean, apparently, They were then occupying the various islands of the Society Group, and it was about that time that Toi made his famous voyage from that group to Samoa, and thence to Rarotonga and New Zealand, whither he was soon followed by the expeditions of Whatonga, Manaia, and Nukutamaroro. page 38 It seems to us that most of the voyages made by Polynesians twenty to thirty generations ago must necessarily have been made to islands and groups already known, and, in most cases, probably already occupied by members of the farspread Polynesian race. The true voyages of discovery of the Polynesians, the true golden age, must have commenced long prior to the thirty-generations limit. It must have been long before that time that Kupe braved the great open ocean of the south and discovered New Zealand, which was probably one of the later voyages of discovery. He is said to have found New Zealand uninhabited by man, whereas when Toi arrived here, some thirty generations ago, most of the North Island was occupied by the Mouriuri people, descendants of the crews of three canoes that had reached these shores since the arrival of Kupe. From my own point of view I would feel inclined to place the true golden age of Polynesian navigation at a period long prior to thirty generations ago, a period during which the ancestors of the Maori were doing true exploration work acorss vast stretches of the Pacific Ocean.
There is also another point to be considered—namely, that when Kupe, a resident of the Society Isles, came to New Zealand, the former group, as also the Cook Isles, were certainly in occupation of Polynesians, and that must have been some centuries prior to the time of Toi. We are told by Maori tradition that the particulars of the voyage of Kupe were preserved by the priests of the house of learning at Tahiti, and handed down from one generation to another. When in later times voyagers wished to make the voyage to these isles they obtained from the wise men of the house of learning the necessary directions as to the course to be taken, &c., as taught by Kupe on his return from the “mist-enshrouded land of Aotea-roa.” | 2,021 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ferdinand of Styria was born in 1578. Ferdinand was educated at the Jesuit College at Ingolstadt. When he became archduke of Styria, Ferdinand ruthlessly persecuted the Protestants who lived there. Any form of disaffection was suppressed.
For Catholics, he was a conscientious and benevolent ruler and one of his great triumphs was establishing schemes of care for the sick.
His two great loves were Catholicism and hunting. He hunted at least three times a week.
“The great number of his contemporaries wrote him off as a good natured simpleton wholly under the control of his chief minister Ulrich von Eggenberg….(yet) he was one of the boldest and single-minded politicians that the Habsburg dynasty had ever produced.” (Wedgwood) He ruthlessly pursued his policy of catholic reform and Habsburg advancement. He trusted Eggenberg but the polices carried out were his.
In Bohemia he upset many of his subjects there by his policy of hard Catholicism and centralisation. From 1618 there was growing unrest in Bohemia. His Spanish cousins put huge demands on him not to show any form of weakness that could encourage others in the Holy Roman Empire to rebel. The Spanish Habsburgs gave him money and troops and in return Ferdinand agreed to give them Alsace.
In August 1619, Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor. He was now emperor and king of Bohemia. The Bohemians rejected him as king and appointed Frederick of the Palatine to be their king. This was an open case of defiance. The Bohemian rebellion was ruthlessly suppressed in 1620 and Bohemia went through a decade of decline.
Why did Ferdinand treat Bohemia so ruthlessly ? Historians differ as to his intentions. It may be simply because he was angered by their defiance and felt that a suitable punishment was required. His love of Catholicism and hatred of Protestantism may have clouded his decisions. Wedgwood believes that “absolute power was his aim” and therefore any rebellion or hint of it in the Empire would not be tolerated. The Bohemian incident was an opportunity for him to re-assert the power of the emperor which had been in decline for a number of decades.
Other historians hold the view that Ferdinand was a realist and that he knew his power in Germany was on the wane and would never be recovered. He also knew that even Catholic German princes such as the Duke of Bavaria would put their independence before loyalty to Vienna. He knew that his remaining sphere of influence was in the eastern sector of his empire and that is why he could not tolerate any dissent from the Bohemians. He had to ensure that his power base – the eastern sector of the empire – remained totally loyal. This view of Ferdinand being a realist is held by historians like Dr Hughes.
His position in Europe during the Thirty Years War depended on his own military position. For the Edict of Restitution he was in a position of strength. Yet just one year later, his position was weakened by Regensberg. At the battles of Lutzen and Nordlingen he was victorious and some consider that the height of his power in Europe was reached at the Peace of Prague signed in 1635. At this meeting, the German princes agreed to accept his authority and bound themselves to him to fight the enemies of the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1636, his son was elected King of the Romans. At this time, his lands were free of heresy (though not the empire) and he had an army that was feared. | <urn:uuid:f1f735bd-98fd-48ae-b312-dfb0fee9e9b2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-thirty-years-war/ferdinand-of-styria/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.99274 | 733 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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-0.157277613878250... | 10 | Ferdinand of Styria was born in 1578. Ferdinand was educated at the Jesuit College at Ingolstadt. When he became archduke of Styria, Ferdinand ruthlessly persecuted the Protestants who lived there. Any form of disaffection was suppressed.
For Catholics, he was a conscientious and benevolent ruler and one of his great triumphs was establishing schemes of care for the sick.
His two great loves were Catholicism and hunting. He hunted at least three times a week.
“The great number of his contemporaries wrote him off as a good natured simpleton wholly under the control of his chief minister Ulrich von Eggenberg….(yet) he was one of the boldest and single-minded politicians that the Habsburg dynasty had ever produced.” (Wedgwood) He ruthlessly pursued his policy of catholic reform and Habsburg advancement. He trusted Eggenberg but the polices carried out were his.
In Bohemia he upset many of his subjects there by his policy of hard Catholicism and centralisation. From 1618 there was growing unrest in Bohemia. His Spanish cousins put huge demands on him not to show any form of weakness that could encourage others in the Holy Roman Empire to rebel. The Spanish Habsburgs gave him money and troops and in return Ferdinand agreed to give them Alsace.
In August 1619, Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor. He was now emperor and king of Bohemia. The Bohemians rejected him as king and appointed Frederick of the Palatine to be their king. This was an open case of defiance. The Bohemian rebellion was ruthlessly suppressed in 1620 and Bohemia went through a decade of decline.
Why did Ferdinand treat Bohemia so ruthlessly ? Historians differ as to his intentions. It may be simply because he was angered by their defiance and felt that a suitable punishment was required. His love of Catholicism and hatred of Protestantism may have clouded his decisions. Wedgwood believes that “absolute power was his aim” and therefore any rebellion or hint of it in the Empire would not be tolerated. The Bohemian incident was an opportunity for him to re-assert the power of the emperor which had been in decline for a number of decades.
Other historians hold the view that Ferdinand was a realist and that he knew his power in Germany was on the wane and would never be recovered. He also knew that even Catholic German princes such as the Duke of Bavaria would put their independence before loyalty to Vienna. He knew that his remaining sphere of influence was in the eastern sector of his empire and that is why he could not tolerate any dissent from the Bohemians. He had to ensure that his power base – the eastern sector of the empire – remained totally loyal. This view of Ferdinand being a realist is held by historians like Dr Hughes.
His position in Europe during the Thirty Years War depended on his own military position. For the Edict of Restitution he was in a position of strength. Yet just one year later, his position was weakened by Regensberg. At the battles of Lutzen and Nordlingen he was victorious and some consider that the height of his power in Europe was reached at the Peace of Prague signed in 1635. At this meeting, the German princes agreed to accept his authority and bound themselves to him to fight the enemies of the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1636, his son was elected King of the Romans. At this time, his lands were free of heresy (though not the empire) and he had an army that was feared. | 749 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Passover was one of three pilgrimage festivals that required attendance at the temple in Jerusalem. However, women were absolved from this requirement.
In Luke 1 we read about Jesus becoming lost in Jerusalem. At least “lost” in the sense that Mary and Joseph had no idea where he was and sought Him for several days “sorrowing.” What we focus on in the story is that His parents found Him teaching and asking questions of the elders in the temple. They realized quickly that this was no “very smart child.” His questions and answers astounded them. Jesus was vastly more intelligent than they, even though their lives had been dedicated to studying the scriptures and debating their meaning.
Jesus had essentially “come of age” according to Jewish law. At age 13 Jewish boys become Bar Mitzvah; they are sons of the covenant. They learn how to read scripture publicly in the synagogue and to expound on them. Had Jesus been younger He might not have been indulged by the elders.
We see in this story that Jesus accompanied His parents to Jerusalem for the Passover and that they were part of a “company,” which was probably made up of extended family and close friends. Passover was one of three pilgrimage festivals that required attendance at the temple in Jerusalem. However, women were absolved from this requirement. They were not expected to make the trip because of the demands of managing a home and mothering children. Children weren’t expected to make pilgrimage either.
But here we have Mary, and perhaps other women close to her, making the trek to the Holy City. while she may always have taken her children with her, this time was special because Jesus had reached maturity in the faith. This story is a glimpse into the quality of Mary’s faith.
In this story, we see that Jesus somehow didn’t get the message to His parents that He would be busy in the temple. Passover was an eight-day festival, but His tardiness kept the company from beginning their journey home when they expected. When Mary and Joseph found Jesus, according to the Bible, they pled with Him and told them how distraught they were. Jesus sounds almost dismissive in His reply (though we are sure He was loving), “Didn’t you know I have to be about my Father’s business?”
Jesus was sinless. How often have we judged others for a missed appointment or bungled communication? It’s only human that we sometimes space on an event, leave a few minutes too late, or don’t account for heavy traffic. It’s a relief to hear from this story that to err is human, but it’s not a sin. | <urn:uuid:9235a343-a57f-40d6-9283-a777c6a9f713> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jesus.christ.org/history-rituals/some-hidden-lessons-in-the-story-of-12-year-old-jesus-in-jerusalem/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.988135 | 571 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.0024115121923387... | 7 | Passover was one of three pilgrimage festivals that required attendance at the temple in Jerusalem. However, women were absolved from this requirement.
In Luke 1 we read about Jesus becoming lost in Jerusalem. At least “lost” in the sense that Mary and Joseph had no idea where he was and sought Him for several days “sorrowing.” What we focus on in the story is that His parents found Him teaching and asking questions of the elders in the temple. They realized quickly that this was no “very smart child.” His questions and answers astounded them. Jesus was vastly more intelligent than they, even though their lives had been dedicated to studying the scriptures and debating their meaning.
Jesus had essentially “come of age” according to Jewish law. At age 13 Jewish boys become Bar Mitzvah; they are sons of the covenant. They learn how to read scripture publicly in the synagogue and to expound on them. Had Jesus been younger He might not have been indulged by the elders.
We see in this story that Jesus accompanied His parents to Jerusalem for the Passover and that they were part of a “company,” which was probably made up of extended family and close friends. Passover was one of three pilgrimage festivals that required attendance at the temple in Jerusalem. However, women were absolved from this requirement. They were not expected to make the trip because of the demands of managing a home and mothering children. Children weren’t expected to make pilgrimage either.
But here we have Mary, and perhaps other women close to her, making the trek to the Holy City. while she may always have taken her children with her, this time was special because Jesus had reached maturity in the faith. This story is a glimpse into the quality of Mary’s faith.
In this story, we see that Jesus somehow didn’t get the message to His parents that He would be busy in the temple. Passover was an eight-day festival, but His tardiness kept the company from beginning their journey home when they expected. When Mary and Joseph found Jesus, according to the Bible, they pled with Him and told them how distraught they were. Jesus sounds almost dismissive in His reply (though we are sure He was loving), “Didn’t you know I have to be about my Father’s business?”
Jesus was sinless. How often have we judged others for a missed appointment or bungled communication? It’s only human that we sometimes space on an event, leave a few minutes too late, or don’t account for heavy traffic. It’s a relief to hear from this story that to err is human, but it’s not a sin. | 535 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is known today as the American Reconstruction Era took place just after the Civil War, between 1865 and 1877. The goal of the reconstruction was to rebuild the South, for the former rebel states to join the Union again and to give former slaves equal rights.
Challenges of the Reconstruction
- America had to be reunited, but tensions between the Northerners and Southerners were still running high. Northerners who moved down South were called “carpetbaggers” and accused from corruption and trying to profit from the Reconstruction. Southerners were called “scalywags.” The Ku Klux Clan movement also started in this time, resulting in a lot of violence against blacks.
- Decisions had to be made about the new status of slaves – were they to receive the same rights as whites? And what labor system was supposed to replace slavery?
- Congress was divided – President Andrew Johnson followed a very lenient reconstruction policy, in which Southerners were mostly pardoned. He wanted to allow the Southern states to decide on the treatment of the African Americans, as was the case before the war. The Radical Republicans in Congress were very much against it and passed many radical laws that gave blacks equal rights, that were vetoed by the president time and again.
- The freedom of slaves had to be enforced by military – To ensure that Southerners abide by the new laws regarding the treatment of African Americans, military presence was needed. The South was thus divided into five military districts with the Military Reconstruction Acts in 1867, and under military enforcement, blacks had the right to hold political offices, vote and fill government jobs.
Why did The American Reconstruction Fail?
After stories about widespread corruption and state spending in the South by Carpetbaggers, public opinion started to sway with regards to the Reconstruction policies. In both the North and the South, Democrat party, which was very against the Reconstruction, gained a lot of power, and in 1876 almost won the presidential electoral vote. In a bargain to elect Rutherford B. Hayes, a Republican, as president, Congress removed the Union troops from the South in 1877. This basically restored white supremacy in the South.
Would you like to learn the complete history of the Civil War? Click here for our podcast series Key Battles of the Civil War
Cite This Article"What Was the Civil War Reconstruction?" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 28, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/what-was-the-civil-war-reconstruction>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:f94005ae-f02d-47f0-8441-a39ce96ba3c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/what-was-the-civil-war-reconstruction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.980732 | 536 | 4.375 | 4 | [
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0.387445420026779... | 1 | What is known today as the American Reconstruction Era took place just after the Civil War, between 1865 and 1877. The goal of the reconstruction was to rebuild the South, for the former rebel states to join the Union again and to give former slaves equal rights.
Challenges of the Reconstruction
- America had to be reunited, but tensions between the Northerners and Southerners were still running high. Northerners who moved down South were called “carpetbaggers” and accused from corruption and trying to profit from the Reconstruction. Southerners were called “scalywags.” The Ku Klux Clan movement also started in this time, resulting in a lot of violence against blacks.
- Decisions had to be made about the new status of slaves – were they to receive the same rights as whites? And what labor system was supposed to replace slavery?
- Congress was divided – President Andrew Johnson followed a very lenient reconstruction policy, in which Southerners were mostly pardoned. He wanted to allow the Southern states to decide on the treatment of the African Americans, as was the case before the war. The Radical Republicans in Congress were very much against it and passed many radical laws that gave blacks equal rights, that were vetoed by the president time and again.
- The freedom of slaves had to be enforced by military – To ensure that Southerners abide by the new laws regarding the treatment of African Americans, military presence was needed. The South was thus divided into five military districts with the Military Reconstruction Acts in 1867, and under military enforcement, blacks had the right to hold political offices, vote and fill government jobs.
Why did The American Reconstruction Fail?
After stories about widespread corruption and state spending in the South by Carpetbaggers, public opinion started to sway with regards to the Reconstruction policies. In both the North and the South, Democrat party, which was very against the Reconstruction, gained a lot of power, and in 1876 almost won the presidential electoral vote. In a bargain to elect Rutherford B. Hayes, a Republican, as president, Congress removed the Union troops from the South in 1877. This basically restored white supremacy in the South.
Would you like to learn the complete history of the Civil War? Click here for our podcast series Key Battles of the Civil War
Cite This Article"What Was the Civil War Reconstruction?" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 28, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/what-was-the-civil-war-reconstruction>
More Citation Information. | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Specific strategies need to be adopted to address the needs of a learner.
- A learner-friendly classroom can make learning language more exciting, meaningful, and easy.
- The phonic method can be used to enhance the reading skills of students.
Socio-Economic Status of My Class:
I teach the students of the second standard, and there are twenty students in my class. Most of the students have a single parent, and some are taken care of by their grandparents. The parents of many students are uneducated, and some of them are not even aware as to which class their children study in. It is needless to say that the guardians do not check the homework or the diary work of my students.
I believe that if the parents of my students express their concern about the education of their children and cooperate with the school, their children will definitely be able to achieve success in their life.
Addressing the Needs of Learners:
As a teacher, I observe the various needs of my students, and I employ specific strategies to address such needs. I will share some of the issues that I have faced in my class and the strategies I adopted to address them in the following paragraphs.
Classroom Issue 1
Often while taking a class, I noticed that the attentiveness of my students was quite poor. The students were seldom able to answer when I posed a question in the class,. I felt that my students lacked involvement in the classroom, and they seemed to be disinterested in the things that were being taught in class.
Initially while teaching these students, I used to simply write down words from a lesson on a chart and paste it on the wall, without supplementing the words with pictures. I expected my students to read the words from the chart and learn them. Of course, I referred to these charts while dealing with the lessons. However, this strategy did not prove fruitful as the students were least interested in reading the words from the chart. This made me realize that I needed to adopt new strategies that would not only help the students to get involved in the subject and pick up language from the lessons, but it would also enhance my own teaching abilities.
Strategy Adopted—Concept-Oriented Wall Decoration:
The new strategy that I adopted involved decorating the walls of the classroom with pictures of the different characters as well as depictions of various scenes from the textbook lessons (both prose and poems). Words related to the pictures were pasted along with them.
I taught the lessons by pointing to the characters or the scenes that were pasted on the walls and related them to the text.
The introduction of a visual aid, i.e. pictures, made the students excited, and they began to show more interest in what was being taught. The students also participated actively in the different activities and were able to pick up new words from the lessons. The supplementation of the words with pictures ensured that the students were able to have a mental picture of the words, which helped them to remember their meanings. Gradually, I started introducing more words—two-letter words, three-letter words, question words, auxiliary verbs, etc.—supplementing them with pictures. The students saw these words on the wall every day, and slowly they became familiar with them. I was also able to teach them to make small sentences using these words.
Thus, the strategy of concept-oriented wall decoration made learning the language more exciting, meaningful, and easy.
Classroom Issue 2
The concept wall had its limitations. It did not cover all the words, and some students still faced difficulty in reading. So, I thought that if the students could learn the pronunciation of each letter in Tamil, they might be able to connect the letters and read a word.
I realized that the students faced some difficulty in identifying the sounds that were related to particular alphabets, which hindered their reading ability. It was not possible for them to connect the letters and read a word without knowing the pronunciation of a particular letter in a word.
Strategy Adopted—Phonic Method:
I came across an alternative method—phonic method—of teaching the sounds of the alphabets when I was attending an exhibition in another school. I decided to adopt that method in my class to help my students.
I made different charts with vowels and consonants written on them. The students were required to practice the sounds corresponding to the alphabets. Most consonants had two sounds—one occurred at the beginning of a word, and the other occurred at the end of a word. Particular alphabets and their corresponding sounds were written on the charts, and a list of words where it occurred was presented along with it. For example: ‘a’- bag, hat, rag, cat, etc., ‘e’ - pen, wet, hen, net, etc. Combinations of sounds and letters were also taken, and similar charts were made. For example, ‘ab’ - cab, dab, tab, etc. The new and difficult words from every lesson were written on charts and pasted on the wall. The students practiced the phonetic sounds and the pronunciation of the words every day, and they followed this routine even when the teacher was not there in the class.
The employment of the phonic method brought about a tremendous change in the learning abilities of my students. They were able to read words easily to the extent that are now able to read the words in the textbook on their own.
Teacher: S Sunganthi |Primary-School Teacher |GPS Nettapakkam | Zone 4, Puducherry | <urn:uuid:6f0c7f5d-0808-4533-82c8-98c2dd372faa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.azimpremjifoundationpuducherry.org/perspectives/specific-strategies-address-needs-learner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00184.warc.gz | en | 0.981648 | 1,166 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.489329576492... | 3 | - Specific strategies need to be adopted to address the needs of a learner.
- A learner-friendly classroom can make learning language more exciting, meaningful, and easy.
- The phonic method can be used to enhance the reading skills of students.
Socio-Economic Status of My Class:
I teach the students of the second standard, and there are twenty students in my class. Most of the students have a single parent, and some are taken care of by their grandparents. The parents of many students are uneducated, and some of them are not even aware as to which class their children study in. It is needless to say that the guardians do not check the homework or the diary work of my students.
I believe that if the parents of my students express their concern about the education of their children and cooperate with the school, their children will definitely be able to achieve success in their life.
Addressing the Needs of Learners:
As a teacher, I observe the various needs of my students, and I employ specific strategies to address such needs. I will share some of the issues that I have faced in my class and the strategies I adopted to address them in the following paragraphs.
Classroom Issue 1
Often while taking a class, I noticed that the attentiveness of my students was quite poor. The students were seldom able to answer when I posed a question in the class,. I felt that my students lacked involvement in the classroom, and they seemed to be disinterested in the things that were being taught in class.
Initially while teaching these students, I used to simply write down words from a lesson on a chart and paste it on the wall, without supplementing the words with pictures. I expected my students to read the words from the chart and learn them. Of course, I referred to these charts while dealing with the lessons. However, this strategy did not prove fruitful as the students were least interested in reading the words from the chart. This made me realize that I needed to adopt new strategies that would not only help the students to get involved in the subject and pick up language from the lessons, but it would also enhance my own teaching abilities.
Strategy Adopted—Concept-Oriented Wall Decoration:
The new strategy that I adopted involved decorating the walls of the classroom with pictures of the different characters as well as depictions of various scenes from the textbook lessons (both prose and poems). Words related to the pictures were pasted along with them.
I taught the lessons by pointing to the characters or the scenes that were pasted on the walls and related them to the text.
The introduction of a visual aid, i.e. pictures, made the students excited, and they began to show more interest in what was being taught. The students also participated actively in the different activities and were able to pick up new words from the lessons. The supplementation of the words with pictures ensured that the students were able to have a mental picture of the words, which helped them to remember their meanings. Gradually, I started introducing more words—two-letter words, three-letter words, question words, auxiliary verbs, etc.—supplementing them with pictures. The students saw these words on the wall every day, and slowly they became familiar with them. I was also able to teach them to make small sentences using these words.
Thus, the strategy of concept-oriented wall decoration made learning the language more exciting, meaningful, and easy.
Classroom Issue 2
The concept wall had its limitations. It did not cover all the words, and some students still faced difficulty in reading. So, I thought that if the students could learn the pronunciation of each letter in Tamil, they might be able to connect the letters and read a word.
I realized that the students faced some difficulty in identifying the sounds that were related to particular alphabets, which hindered their reading ability. It was not possible for them to connect the letters and read a word without knowing the pronunciation of a particular letter in a word.
Strategy Adopted—Phonic Method:
I came across an alternative method—phonic method—of teaching the sounds of the alphabets when I was attending an exhibition in another school. I decided to adopt that method in my class to help my students.
I made different charts with vowels and consonants written on them. The students were required to practice the sounds corresponding to the alphabets. Most consonants had two sounds—one occurred at the beginning of a word, and the other occurred at the end of a word. Particular alphabets and their corresponding sounds were written on the charts, and a list of words where it occurred was presented along with it. For example: ‘a’- bag, hat, rag, cat, etc., ‘e’ - pen, wet, hen, net, etc. Combinations of sounds and letters were also taken, and similar charts were made. For example, ‘ab’ - cab, dab, tab, etc. The new and difficult words from every lesson were written on charts and pasted on the wall. The students practiced the phonetic sounds and the pronunciation of the words every day, and they followed this routine even when the teacher was not there in the class.
The employment of the phonic method brought about a tremendous change in the learning abilities of my students. They were able to read words easily to the extent that are now able to read the words in the textbook on their own.
Teacher: S Sunganthi |Primary-School Teacher |GPS Nettapakkam | Zone 4, Puducherry | 1,121 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Category: Cultural Literacy
- Published: Monday, 19 January 2015 22:13
- Written by Brian Jaeger
- Hits: 901
Information about Emily Dickinson
Students always found it interesting that Emily lived at home and never wanted to be published.
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American poet. Born in Amherst, Massachusetts, to a successful family with strong community ties, she lived a mostly introverted and reclusive life. After she studied at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth, she spent a short time at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family's house in Amherst. Considered an eccentric by the locals, she became known for her penchant for white clothing and her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, even leave her room. Most of her friendships were therefore carried out by correspondence.
While Dickinson was a prolific private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1800 poems were published during her lifetime. The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time. Dickinson's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote; they contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation. Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends.
Although most of her acquaintances were probably aware of Dickinson's writing, it was not until after her death in 1886—when Lavinia, Dickinson's younger sister, discovered her cache of poems—that the breadth of Dickinson's work became apparent. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, both of whom heavily edited the content. A complete and mostly unaltered collection of her poetry became available for the first time in 1955 when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson. Despite some unfavorable reviews and some skepticism during the late 19th and early 20th century about Dickinson's literary prowess, Dickinson is now almost universally considered to be one of the most important American poets. | <urn:uuid:c0596a9d-b4fa-4402-b0d0-89f71fb4e383> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://educabana.com/lessons/cultural-literacy/393-dickinson-emily | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.983508 | 452 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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- Published: Monday, 19 January 2015 22:13
- Written by Brian Jaeger
- Hits: 901
Information about Emily Dickinson
Students always found it interesting that Emily lived at home and never wanted to be published.
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson (December 10, 1830 – May 15, 1886) was an American poet. Born in Amherst, Massachusetts, to a successful family with strong community ties, she lived a mostly introverted and reclusive life. After she studied at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth, she spent a short time at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family's house in Amherst. Considered an eccentric by the locals, she became known for her penchant for white clothing and her reluctance to greet guests or, later in life, even leave her room. Most of her friendships were therefore carried out by correspondence.
While Dickinson was a prolific private poet, fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1800 poems were published during her lifetime. The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time. Dickinson's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote; they contain short lines, typically lack titles, and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation. Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality, two recurring topics in letters to her friends.
Although most of her acquaintances were probably aware of Dickinson's writing, it was not until after her death in 1886—when Lavinia, Dickinson's younger sister, discovered her cache of poems—that the breadth of Dickinson's work became apparent. Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd, both of whom heavily edited the content. A complete and mostly unaltered collection of her poetry became available for the first time in 1955 when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson. Despite some unfavorable reviews and some skepticism during the late 19th and early 20th century about Dickinson's literary prowess, Dickinson is now almost universally considered to be one of the most important American poets. | 493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists Finally Crack the Code of Giza’s Great Pyramid
The Great Pyramid of Giza has proved one of the most confounding architectural achievements humans have ever created. In its heyday, it stood at a staggering 481 feet tall. For centuries, scientists have struggled to understand how it was built. Recently, they’ve unearthed a clue.
The Great Pyramid of Giza has proved one of the most confounding architectural achievements humans have ever built. In its heyday, it stood at a staggering 481-feet-tall, the largest building of its time. For centuries, scientists have struggled to understand how exactly it was built. Recently, they unearthed a clue.
This recent discovery was made by a team working out of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo. What they discovered was a small embankment where people once resurrected the pyramid’s heavy stones. But it’s the way in which they dragged these stones that has scientists — like Dr. Roland Enmarch, who helped spearhead the finding — excited.
What We Know
The three pyramids of Giza were built in succession by three different pharaohs (Khafre, Menkaure, and Khufu) around 3,800 years ago. The largest of them, the Great Pyramid, was built under the command Pharaoh Khufu. Since it was the largest, it naturally took the longest to build.
In total, it took the Egyptians around 10 to 20 years to finish each Pyramid. Considering that each held over one million limestone blocks (which weighed anywhere between two to 15 tons a pop), this was no simple feat.
To help the Egyptians complete such formidable tasks, they needed help. It’s estimated that around 10,000 people were conscripted into helping build the pyramids. Most of them didn’t do it by choice.
Of Quarries and Sledges
While the buildings of these pyramids has remained mysterious, Egyptologists and the like have not been totally dumbfounded. We know, for instance, that they had a high volume of manpower. We also know that they had the architectural prowess. (They may have been so advanced as to even had underground tunnels.) The question is whether they had the strategy.
A few of the things we know are that the Egyptians had different quarries for different types of stone. They had alabaster quarries, for instance, which enabled them to get stone that could easily be manipulated into statues, tiles, flooring, and other, more ornate fixtures. But they also had limestone quarries. This is where the pyramid’s main stones would come from.
Each of the limestone blocks that the Egyptians had to move weighed a ton — literally. In most cases, they weighed several tons. And to get these giant blocks from their location in ground (from places called quarries) to their particular slot in the pyramids would take some skill.
Until recently, scientists have only had a fragmentary picture of how this was done. While we know that they would use sledges, a type of sled modified to embrace and move heavy objects, we didn’t know exactly how they would do this. Considering the sheer weight of the stones, the sledges didn’t totally alleviate the difficulty of the task.
A New Discovery
The most recent discovery, made by the crew working under the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, shed light on this process. What they found was the presence of small holes along the ramp of one particular quarry. These holes, located at the Hatnub quarry of the Eastern Desert, showed that these sledges didn’t move entirely unassisted. There was an ancient pully system, in other words, that helped them move along.
The Hatnub quarry was used to resurrect alabaster stones. While the primary stones used for the pyramids were made of limestone, we can infer from this process that the same tactic was used elsewhere.
These small holes are thought to be where ancient Egyptian architects would place posts made of wood. These wooden rods would then be used in tandem with rope that would act as a sort of pulley system, which could then be used to help heave and stabilize the stones as they were moved from the bottom to the top of the ramp. They would not only help resurrect the stone from the quarry, but to prevent it from falling backward as it was push and pulled upward.
This finding greatly helped elucidate the methodology with which the Egyptians used to build the pyramids. And while it doesn’t completely clarify they ways in which they moved the heavier stones, it does suggest some clues. And if you don’t find that too exciting, you can at least consider it another mark against the “ancient aliens” hypothesis. | <urn:uuid:3bc607b6-10fe-4c69-8be7-7b45ba141861> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.science101.com/scientists-crack-code-giza-great-pyramid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.980236 | 989 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0751304328... | 11 | Scientists Finally Crack the Code of Giza’s Great Pyramid
The Great Pyramid of Giza has proved one of the most confounding architectural achievements humans have ever created. In its heyday, it stood at a staggering 481 feet tall. For centuries, scientists have struggled to understand how it was built. Recently, they’ve unearthed a clue.
The Great Pyramid of Giza has proved one of the most confounding architectural achievements humans have ever built. In its heyday, it stood at a staggering 481-feet-tall, the largest building of its time. For centuries, scientists have struggled to understand how exactly it was built. Recently, they unearthed a clue.
This recent discovery was made by a team working out of the French Institute for Oriental Archaeology in Cairo. What they discovered was a small embankment where people once resurrected the pyramid’s heavy stones. But it’s the way in which they dragged these stones that has scientists — like Dr. Roland Enmarch, who helped spearhead the finding — excited.
What We Know
The three pyramids of Giza were built in succession by three different pharaohs (Khafre, Menkaure, and Khufu) around 3,800 years ago. The largest of them, the Great Pyramid, was built under the command Pharaoh Khufu. Since it was the largest, it naturally took the longest to build.
In total, it took the Egyptians around 10 to 20 years to finish each Pyramid. Considering that each held over one million limestone blocks (which weighed anywhere between two to 15 tons a pop), this was no simple feat.
To help the Egyptians complete such formidable tasks, they needed help. It’s estimated that around 10,000 people were conscripted into helping build the pyramids. Most of them didn’t do it by choice.
Of Quarries and Sledges
While the buildings of these pyramids has remained mysterious, Egyptologists and the like have not been totally dumbfounded. We know, for instance, that they had a high volume of manpower. We also know that they had the architectural prowess. (They may have been so advanced as to even had underground tunnels.) The question is whether they had the strategy.
A few of the things we know are that the Egyptians had different quarries for different types of stone. They had alabaster quarries, for instance, which enabled them to get stone that could easily be manipulated into statues, tiles, flooring, and other, more ornate fixtures. But they also had limestone quarries. This is where the pyramid’s main stones would come from.
Each of the limestone blocks that the Egyptians had to move weighed a ton — literally. In most cases, they weighed several tons. And to get these giant blocks from their location in ground (from places called quarries) to their particular slot in the pyramids would take some skill.
Until recently, scientists have only had a fragmentary picture of how this was done. While we know that they would use sledges, a type of sled modified to embrace and move heavy objects, we didn’t know exactly how they would do this. Considering the sheer weight of the stones, the sledges didn’t totally alleviate the difficulty of the task.
A New Discovery
The most recent discovery, made by the crew working under the French Institute of Oriental Archaeology, shed light on this process. What they found was the presence of small holes along the ramp of one particular quarry. These holes, located at the Hatnub quarry of the Eastern Desert, showed that these sledges didn’t move entirely unassisted. There was an ancient pully system, in other words, that helped them move along.
The Hatnub quarry was used to resurrect alabaster stones. While the primary stones used for the pyramids were made of limestone, we can infer from this process that the same tactic was used elsewhere.
These small holes are thought to be where ancient Egyptian architects would place posts made of wood. These wooden rods would then be used in tandem with rope that would act as a sort of pulley system, which could then be used to help heave and stabilize the stones as they were moved from the bottom to the top of the ramp. They would not only help resurrect the stone from the quarry, but to prevent it from falling backward as it was push and pulled upward.
This finding greatly helped elucidate the methodology with which the Egyptians used to build the pyramids. And while it doesn’t completely clarify they ways in which they moved the heavier stones, it does suggest some clues. And if you don’t find that too exciting, you can at least consider it another mark against the “ancient aliens” hypothesis. | 973 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We take our role as the leading kids’ tutor in math very seriously, but that doesn’t mean that our after school tutoring practice has to be serious. We want to teach kids that math can be fun! Part of the fun is being able to apply math in real-world situations and work out problems on their own.
This week’s word problem challenge gives students the opportunity to practice math skills such as addition, subtraction, logic and repeating patterns. Take a look at the question below and put your mind to working it out.
Question: Bethany collected 19 seashells today. Yesterday, she collected twice as many as she did today. She plans to collect twice as many seashells tomorrow as she did yesterday. How many seashells does Bethany plan to collect tomorrow?
Find out more at https://www.facebook.com/mathnasium.renton/ | <urn:uuid:e4872b12-ac00-4973-b73b-d9e28c563b1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mathnasium.com/rentonhighlands/news/word-problem-wednesday-collecting-seashells | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.982558 | 187 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.35486... | 3 | We take our role as the leading kids’ tutor in math very seriously, but that doesn’t mean that our after school tutoring practice has to be serious. We want to teach kids that math can be fun! Part of the fun is being able to apply math in real-world situations and work out problems on their own.
This week’s word problem challenge gives students the opportunity to practice math skills such as addition, subtraction, logic and repeating patterns. Take a look at the question below and put your mind to working it out.
Question: Bethany collected 19 seashells today. Yesterday, she collected twice as many as she did today. She plans to collect twice as many seashells tomorrow as she did yesterday. How many seashells does Bethany plan to collect tomorrow?
Find out more at https://www.facebook.com/mathnasium.renton/ | 174 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Imagine you owned a patch of land, but couldn’t put up any fences. How would you remember what was yours and what belonged to your neighbor?
Many animal species protect areas of land, which we call their territories. By keeping competitors off their land, a territorial male is able to mate with any females that live there. As well as being strong enough to defend his territory, he has to be able to remember what belongs to him and what doesn’t! Otherwise, he will risk getting into lots of fights with other territorial male neighbors.
A special part of the brain processes the memory of spaces and locations. We ran an experiment on lizards to see what caused this part of the brain to change size, and the results were not what we expected! | <urn:uuid:4c556b7f-e051-4c99-bf8f-269e135f836a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sciencejournalforkids.org/articles/what-causes-lizards-brains-to-change-size/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00057.warc.gz | en | 0.982802 | 157 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4234089553356... | 7 | Imagine you owned a patch of land, but couldn’t put up any fences. How would you remember what was yours and what belonged to your neighbor?
Many animal species protect areas of land, which we call their territories. By keeping competitors off their land, a territorial male is able to mate with any females that live there. As well as being strong enough to defend his territory, he has to be able to remember what belongs to him and what doesn’t! Otherwise, he will risk getting into lots of fights with other territorial male neighbors.
A special part of the brain processes the memory of spaces and locations. We ran an experiment on lizards to see what caused this part of the brain to change size, and the results were not what we expected! | 151 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kenyan political leader
Harry Thuku led a nationalist group in KENYA that opposed the land and labor policies of the British colonial government. Born into a poor family in northern Kenya, he attended a missionary school. At the age of 16, he traveled to NAIROBI, where he worked as a messenger before being jailed on minor charges. After his release from prison in 1913, he worked for a newspaper, the Leader of British East Africa, and began to learn about political issues. He was especially angered by agricultural issues and by the system of forced labor, in which colonial leaders forced laborers to work for low wages.
Under British colonial rule some of Kenya's best farmland had been given to European settlers. Africans, forced off their land and desperate for work, had to take jobs with low wages and poor working conditions. In the early 1920s the colonial government raised the taxes paid by African workers. The move angered many Kenyans, who formed political groups such as the East African Association (EAA) to fight the colonial land distribution and labor systems. Thuku became the first president of the EAA.
In 1922 Thuku was arrested, and the EAA staged demonstrations throughout Kenya in protest. During the uprising colonial troops killed 20 people in Nairobi. Thuku spent about nine years in detention, using his time to study agriculture. When he returned home in 1930, he worked on his own farm, which became one of the most successful in Kenya. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Labor, Land Ownership.) | <urn:uuid:8cafd950-a0da-428b-b81f-16499dcd2c6b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://geography.name/thuku-harry/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.983704 | 312 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.3114455938339... | 10 | Kenyan political leader
Harry Thuku led a nationalist group in KENYA that opposed the land and labor policies of the British colonial government. Born into a poor family in northern Kenya, he attended a missionary school. At the age of 16, he traveled to NAIROBI, where he worked as a messenger before being jailed on minor charges. After his release from prison in 1913, he worked for a newspaper, the Leader of British East Africa, and began to learn about political issues. He was especially angered by agricultural issues and by the system of forced labor, in which colonial leaders forced laborers to work for low wages.
Under British colonial rule some of Kenya's best farmland had been given to European settlers. Africans, forced off their land and desperate for work, had to take jobs with low wages and poor working conditions. In the early 1920s the colonial government raised the taxes paid by African workers. The move angered many Kenyans, who formed political groups such as the East African Association (EAA) to fight the colonial land distribution and labor systems. Thuku became the first president of the EAA.
In 1922 Thuku was arrested, and the EAA staged demonstrations throughout Kenya in protest. During the uprising colonial troops killed 20 people in Nairobi. Thuku spent about nine years in detention, using his time to study agriculture. When he returned home in 1930, he worked on his own farm, which became one of the most successful in Kenya. (See also Colonialism in Africa, Labor, Land Ownership.) | 330 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Showcasing Year 5 Creativity
We would like to start by saying thank you to all the parents and family members who attended the children’s outcome this morning. The children were so proud showcasing their work and certainly enjoyed the quiz as they were able to retrieve the knowledge they have gained through this project.
North American Weaving
During our project, the children learned that there are or were many indigenous tribes within North America such as the Inuit, the Mayans and the Navajo. Each child chose a tribe to focus on and researched this tribe in order to gain knowledge about the materials and colours which would have been traditional in their tribe. From this, they made a mood board and designed a weaving pattern before gathering the raw materials to create their very own weave. The results are stunning – take a look!
Illustrating Picture Maps
This term, the children studied the artist Mizielinski by observing how they use line and colour in their picture maps. The children practised using line drawings and were taught how to use line to create texture. In order to create their own map, the children voted for a country of North America which interested them and then used what they had learned across their other subjects to inform their illustrations.
What a wonderful term we have had – we wish you all an enjoyable and festive Christmas.
Year 5 Team | <urn:uuid:01256cc7-1c79-4d88-ad49-b7e87b509057> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stmarksprimary.net/2019/12/18/showcasing-year-5-creativity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.986341 | 273 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.3750786483287... | 2 | Showcasing Year 5 Creativity
We would like to start by saying thank you to all the parents and family members who attended the children’s outcome this morning. The children were so proud showcasing their work and certainly enjoyed the quiz as they were able to retrieve the knowledge they have gained through this project.
North American Weaving
During our project, the children learned that there are or were many indigenous tribes within North America such as the Inuit, the Mayans and the Navajo. Each child chose a tribe to focus on and researched this tribe in order to gain knowledge about the materials and colours which would have been traditional in their tribe. From this, they made a mood board and designed a weaving pattern before gathering the raw materials to create their very own weave. The results are stunning – take a look!
Illustrating Picture Maps
This term, the children studied the artist Mizielinski by observing how they use line and colour in their picture maps. The children practised using line drawings and were taught how to use line to create texture. In order to create their own map, the children voted for a country of North America which interested them and then used what they had learned across their other subjects to inform their illustrations.
What a wonderful term we have had – we wish you all an enjoyable and festive Christmas.
Year 5 Team | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leaves 1, HELP!!!
You won't believe what happened to me today! On such a fine and sunny day! As I was coming to your classroom and I was walking on the yellow brick road ... suddenly ... a very strong wind began to blow ... very strong ... like a tornado ... and it took away my book! I wanted to read the story of the "Three Little Pigs" top you ... but now all the pages are gone!!! "Don't worry, Mrs. Vivi! We will help you find them." Oh, thank you so much, Leaves 1. Then, let's start looking.
Did you find anything in there?
Oh, yes! And there are more pages ... keep looking!
Wow! There is the first page of our book!
And there is the pig who made a house of wood and the wolf blew it away!
I knew you are great detectives, you are very well trained at finding things and you did find all 14 pages of my book. But there is one even more difficult task that needs to be done. We need to put the pages in order. In the beginning the three pigs lived with their mother. Then the first pig built a house of straw. The wolf came and he blew the house in. The second pig built a house of wood and then ... ???
Well, look at that! Leaves 1, you did it! You put the pages in order. Now, since you know the story so well, instead of having me read it to you, can you tell me the story? | <urn:uuid:ca5ac490-5838-4e90-b273-a2f230dbe67f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.afs.edu.gr/newsd.php?id=896&lg=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.980367 | 317 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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You won't believe what happened to me today! On such a fine and sunny day! As I was coming to your classroom and I was walking on the yellow brick road ... suddenly ... a very strong wind began to blow ... very strong ... like a tornado ... and it took away my book! I wanted to read the story of the "Three Little Pigs" top you ... but now all the pages are gone!!! "Don't worry, Mrs. Vivi! We will help you find them." Oh, thank you so much, Leaves 1. Then, let's start looking.
Did you find anything in there?
Oh, yes! And there are more pages ... keep looking!
Wow! There is the first page of our book!
And there is the pig who made a house of wood and the wolf blew it away!
I knew you are great detectives, you are very well trained at finding things and you did find all 14 pages of my book. But there is one even more difficult task that needs to be done. We need to put the pages in order. In the beginning the three pigs lived with their mother. Then the first pig built a house of straw. The wolf came and he blew the house in. The second pig built a house of wood and then ... ???
Well, look at that! Leaves 1, you did it! You put the pages in order. Now, since you know the story so well, instead of having me read it to you, can you tell me the story? | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Exmoor's mining industry
PUBLISHED: 16:21 19 January 2016 | UPDATED: 16:21 19 January 2016
Simone Stanbrook-Byrne takes us back through the chequered history of Exmoor's mining history
Aeons ago the molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface was being pushed and squeezed by the movement of the mighty plates that make up our planet’s crust and it was around this time that the minerals that would give rise to Exmoor’s mining industry were laid down in the rocks beneath the moor.
Fast forward millennia to the present day. Exmoor: remote, beautiful, preserved by its National Park status for more than 60 years. In the long, long years of those intervening centuries people have lived and toiled out on the moor, making it as it is today, adding to its layers of history.
Exmoor’s potential underground wealth was there to be exploited and mining has taken place on Exmoor since medieval times, possibly even earlier. Iron and copper were the principal ores but precious metals were also found including silver and gold. Even uranium has been found near Simonsbath. Mining was at its busiest during the 19th century and although substantial quantities of iron were extracted it amounted to less than one per cent of our national production.
One of the principal iron-bearing lodes ran from the Brendon Hills in South East Exmoor to just beyond Simonsbath, not far from the Devon border, although the seams of iron within this weren’t continuous throughout the whole distance.
A little to the south east of Simonsbath, settled on the banks of the River Barle and watched over by the wild red deer who graze the heights of Flexbarrow, lies what’s left of the Wheal Eliza Mine. A seemingly peaceful place of skylarks and sun-spangled river, it has a chequered story.
Originally known as Wheal Maria (wheal deriving from the Cornish word huel meaning working), there is some evidence that mining first took place here in 1552. But in 1845 it came to life as a copper mine, part of the estate of the Knight family who had extensive business interests across the moor. Exmoor’s human population was sparse and those who eked out a living here needed to be housed.
By 1851 nine miners worked Wheal Eliza, six of whom lived in a cottage adjacent to the workings. Life was harsh and the copper enterprise unproductive. After 1854 Wheal Eliza moved over to iron, but this was another disappointment and in 1857 the mine closed. Without maintenance, the underground workings flooded. Wheal Eliza lay dormant.
But in 1858 its story grew sadder. William Burgess was a widower who, with his young daughter, Anna, took lodgings in Simonsbath after the death of his wife. His older children had flown the nest but Anna was at the mercy of an alcoholic father. Despite support and financial assistance from the incumbent of Simonsbath Church, William Thornton, Burgess drank away his meagre resources. To add to the problems, according to some sources, the relationship between Anna and Burgess’ mistress was hostile.
In June 1858 Burgess left Simonsbath, telling his landlady that he was taking Anna to live with her grandmother at Porlock Weir. After their departure William Thornton grew suspicious. His enquiries found that Anna had never reached Porlock Weir and investigations ensued to discover her whereabouts. Her father had, by now, fled to South Wales but he was brought back and imprisoned in Dulverton.
The search for Anna was fruitless for some months until an eyewitness reported having seen Burgess near Wheal Eliza. At great expense the mine was drained – and poor Anna’s body was discovered. Her father was found guilty of her murder, to which he ultimately confessed. One of his ‘reasons’, in addition to strained domestic relations, was that he wished to save the money spent on Anna’s keep to supply himself with alcohol. Burgess was hanged in Taunton in January 1859.
And so Wheal Eliza was left to decay slowly into the landscape. The ruins that remain today are on both sides of the river and include the mine workshop and a store. After the closure of the mine the remaining buildings were inhabited over subsequent decades by shepherd families. During circa the 1920s young Maggie Little lived here; she and her mother used to collect laundry from the hotel in Simonsbath, bringing it back to wash in a ‘boiler tub’ on the riverbank near their home before returning it to the hotel. Life in such cottages was in tune with nature; homemade furniture and self-sufficiency were de rigueur.
The shepherd’s cottage was last occupied in 1952. Accessed along a footpath beside the river, the area is tranquil, with no hint of its associated tragedy.
A short stroll along the river from Wheal Eliza rises the Iron Age hill fort of Cow Castle. Near here another mine was established in the 1850s with mineworkers’ cottages being converted from the cowsheds of Pickedstones Farm. But, as with Wheal Eliza, the pickings were not rich, and by 1861 the mine and cottages had been abandoned. Although some attempt was made to open it again in 1911, transportation was difficult and work didn’t continue.
Mining on Exmoor had largely ceased by the end of the 19th century due to lack of economic viability, although, as at Pickedstones, some continued during the early part of the 20th century. Investigations during the First and Second World Wars ultimately did not result in further activity. Future mining is unlikely, the National Park Authority would resist it, but, as with Wheal Eliza, there are mementoes of mining all over the moor.
In recent years the Exmoor Mines Research Group has undertaken work to consolidate some of Exmoor’s mine buildings, preserving them in their ruined state while preventing further deterioration.
Other remnants decay naturally, subsiding under the slow weight of years to become an organic part of the landscape. The keepers of secrets.... the haunts of ghosts. | <urn:uuid:bf5468bd-cc78-441c-accd-180b0f1cf0ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.somerset-life.co.uk/home/exmoor-s-mining-industry-1-4385506 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00395.warc.gz | en | 0.982603 | 1,315 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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PUBLISHED: 16:21 19 January 2016 | UPDATED: 16:21 19 January 2016
Simone Stanbrook-Byrne takes us back through the chequered history of Exmoor's mining history
Aeons ago the molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface was being pushed and squeezed by the movement of the mighty plates that make up our planet’s crust and it was around this time that the minerals that would give rise to Exmoor’s mining industry were laid down in the rocks beneath the moor.
Fast forward millennia to the present day. Exmoor: remote, beautiful, preserved by its National Park status for more than 60 years. In the long, long years of those intervening centuries people have lived and toiled out on the moor, making it as it is today, adding to its layers of history.
Exmoor’s potential underground wealth was there to be exploited and mining has taken place on Exmoor since medieval times, possibly even earlier. Iron and copper were the principal ores but precious metals were also found including silver and gold. Even uranium has been found near Simonsbath. Mining was at its busiest during the 19th century and although substantial quantities of iron were extracted it amounted to less than one per cent of our national production.
One of the principal iron-bearing lodes ran from the Brendon Hills in South East Exmoor to just beyond Simonsbath, not far from the Devon border, although the seams of iron within this weren’t continuous throughout the whole distance.
A little to the south east of Simonsbath, settled on the banks of the River Barle and watched over by the wild red deer who graze the heights of Flexbarrow, lies what’s left of the Wheal Eliza Mine. A seemingly peaceful place of skylarks and sun-spangled river, it has a chequered story.
Originally known as Wheal Maria (wheal deriving from the Cornish word huel meaning working), there is some evidence that mining first took place here in 1552. But in 1845 it came to life as a copper mine, part of the estate of the Knight family who had extensive business interests across the moor. Exmoor’s human population was sparse and those who eked out a living here needed to be housed.
By 1851 nine miners worked Wheal Eliza, six of whom lived in a cottage adjacent to the workings. Life was harsh and the copper enterprise unproductive. After 1854 Wheal Eliza moved over to iron, but this was another disappointment and in 1857 the mine closed. Without maintenance, the underground workings flooded. Wheal Eliza lay dormant.
But in 1858 its story grew sadder. William Burgess was a widower who, with his young daughter, Anna, took lodgings in Simonsbath after the death of his wife. His older children had flown the nest but Anna was at the mercy of an alcoholic father. Despite support and financial assistance from the incumbent of Simonsbath Church, William Thornton, Burgess drank away his meagre resources. To add to the problems, according to some sources, the relationship between Anna and Burgess’ mistress was hostile.
In June 1858 Burgess left Simonsbath, telling his landlady that he was taking Anna to live with her grandmother at Porlock Weir. After their departure William Thornton grew suspicious. His enquiries found that Anna had never reached Porlock Weir and investigations ensued to discover her whereabouts. Her father had, by now, fled to South Wales but he was brought back and imprisoned in Dulverton.
The search for Anna was fruitless for some months until an eyewitness reported having seen Burgess near Wheal Eliza. At great expense the mine was drained – and poor Anna’s body was discovered. Her father was found guilty of her murder, to which he ultimately confessed. One of his ‘reasons’, in addition to strained domestic relations, was that he wished to save the money spent on Anna’s keep to supply himself with alcohol. Burgess was hanged in Taunton in January 1859.
And so Wheal Eliza was left to decay slowly into the landscape. The ruins that remain today are on both sides of the river and include the mine workshop and a store. After the closure of the mine the remaining buildings were inhabited over subsequent decades by shepherd families. During circa the 1920s young Maggie Little lived here; she and her mother used to collect laundry from the hotel in Simonsbath, bringing it back to wash in a ‘boiler tub’ on the riverbank near their home before returning it to the hotel. Life in such cottages was in tune with nature; homemade furniture and self-sufficiency were de rigueur.
The shepherd’s cottage was last occupied in 1952. Accessed along a footpath beside the river, the area is tranquil, with no hint of its associated tragedy.
A short stroll along the river from Wheal Eliza rises the Iron Age hill fort of Cow Castle. Near here another mine was established in the 1850s with mineworkers’ cottages being converted from the cowsheds of Pickedstones Farm. But, as with Wheal Eliza, the pickings were not rich, and by 1861 the mine and cottages had been abandoned. Although some attempt was made to open it again in 1911, transportation was difficult and work didn’t continue.
Mining on Exmoor had largely ceased by the end of the 19th century due to lack of economic viability, although, as at Pickedstones, some continued during the early part of the 20th century. Investigations during the First and Second World Wars ultimately did not result in further activity. Future mining is unlikely, the National Park Authority would resist it, but, as with Wheal Eliza, there are mementoes of mining all over the moor.
In recent years the Exmoor Mines Research Group has undertaken work to consolidate some of Exmoor’s mine buildings, preserving them in their ruined state while preventing further deterioration.
Other remnants decay naturally, subsiding under the slow weight of years to become an organic part of the landscape. The keepers of secrets.... the haunts of ghosts. | 1,337 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Michelangelo Buonarroti (or simply Michelangelo, as he is usually referred to) was a very outstanding person not only in the Italian history but also in the world-scale culture. The variety of his occupations is impressive: painter, sculptor, architect, and writer. However, art has always been the uniting feature of the big variety of his interests. Michelangelo has been interested in painting since childhood. His father, Leonardo Simoni, a village judge, understood that his son was not attracted to education; he agreed to take Michelangelo as an intern to a luxurious art studio in Florence. This change in his life became a start of the great journey of the famous Italian artist. Michelangelo Buonarroti was able to study at first-hand the works of the major figures of the early Renaissance. His early years became a very fertile ground for the development of his talent. The genius of Michelangelo is as decent as the one of another mastermind from Italy, Leonardo da Vinci. “Michelangelo was one of the dominant figures of the Italian Renaissance” (Chapman 7).
The First Creations
The two sculptures such as “Battle of the Centaurs” and “Madonna Seated on a Step” became the first demonstrations of Michelangelo’s remarkable talent, and at that time he was only 16. In 1496, at the age of 26, the Italian artist crafted a sculpture, which lets us suppose that he did not limit himself by many social borders. It was a handiwork “Sleeping Cupid”, which was supposed to be purchased by a cardinal, but he refused to do so. “Perhaps because Michelangelo’s characterization of the god as a drunken swaying figure was too far removed from the classical models” (Chapman 12).
Two Outstanding Creations
In 1498, Michelangelo crafted the sculpture that made him famous at that time. “Pieta” was supposed to be created for a French cardinal’s church. This carved masterpiece is a depiction of Mary holding the late Jesus. The sculpture is very vivid, and Michelangelo managed to portray even small details, such as the particularization of the skin. “His virtuoso carving of the piece marked his coming of age as a sculptor” (Chapman 12).
Michelangelo’s next work, “David” made him a real art star and became another proof of his unique talent of a sculptor. Two previous artists gave up working on this piece, but Buonarroti produced what later became a real symbol of the city of Florence. The beauty of “David” is charming: face expressions charm with their perfection, the details of the body muscles are amazing, and the nakedness of the body shows how perfect the creations of the nature are. “His mythical sphere” (Falletti 51) touches every viewer.
The sculpture was not the only interest of Michelangelo. He was a great architect as well. At some point, the artist was absorbed by the idea of the development of the tomb project for the Pope Julius II. However, he was asked to switch from this task to decorating the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. This work became one of Michelangelo’s most famous creations and the one that made him known to many people. “Michelangelo’s painting on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is considered by many to the the [sic] quintessential artwork not only of Michelangelo’s life but also in the sponsorship of the Roman Catholic Church into the arts” (Dillon 7). The result of the artist’s work is fascinating: the 65-foot project depicting about 300 characters absorbed the Christian symbols and beliefs. The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel brings the viewers to a sacred world and has a kaleidoscopic effect, as one has to raise their head up and look at the big round painting. One of the most famous and recognized parts of this composition is the depiction of God touching the finger of a human being. However, the process of this masterpiece’s creation cost Michelangelo his health since he was lying on his back all the time. This health condition led to a switch of his activity from painting towards architecture.
Michelangelo proved to be a real genius in many spheres of art. He had a natural talent and got an opportunity to master his skills under the guidance of the expert artists of his time. Michelangelo’s works became noteworthy for the influential people, and this allowed him to move forward in his achievements. He created the handiworks that imprinted his name onto the pages of the world history forever. Due to his talent and persistent work, Michelangelo became an example for others to follow, as well as a person to admire. | <urn:uuid:91a230a3-7201-48bf-becc-f2f23ae636d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://exclusivethesis.com/essays/art/michelangelo-and-his-creations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.985528 | 1,008 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.5719706416130066,... | 3 | Michelangelo Buonarroti (or simply Michelangelo, as he is usually referred to) was a very outstanding person not only in the Italian history but also in the world-scale culture. The variety of his occupations is impressive: painter, sculptor, architect, and writer. However, art has always been the uniting feature of the big variety of his interests. Michelangelo has been interested in painting since childhood. His father, Leonardo Simoni, a village judge, understood that his son was not attracted to education; he agreed to take Michelangelo as an intern to a luxurious art studio in Florence. This change in his life became a start of the great journey of the famous Italian artist. Michelangelo Buonarroti was able to study at first-hand the works of the major figures of the early Renaissance. His early years became a very fertile ground for the development of his talent. The genius of Michelangelo is as decent as the one of another mastermind from Italy, Leonardo da Vinci. “Michelangelo was one of the dominant figures of the Italian Renaissance” (Chapman 7).
The First Creations
The two sculptures such as “Battle of the Centaurs” and “Madonna Seated on a Step” became the first demonstrations of Michelangelo’s remarkable talent, and at that time he was only 16. In 1496, at the age of 26, the Italian artist crafted a sculpture, which lets us suppose that he did not limit himself by many social borders. It was a handiwork “Sleeping Cupid”, which was supposed to be purchased by a cardinal, but he refused to do so. “Perhaps because Michelangelo’s characterization of the god as a drunken swaying figure was too far removed from the classical models” (Chapman 12).
Two Outstanding Creations
In 1498, Michelangelo crafted the sculpture that made him famous at that time. “Pieta” was supposed to be created for a French cardinal’s church. This carved masterpiece is a depiction of Mary holding the late Jesus. The sculpture is very vivid, and Michelangelo managed to portray even small details, such as the particularization of the skin. “His virtuoso carving of the piece marked his coming of age as a sculptor” (Chapman 12).
Michelangelo’s next work, “David” made him a real art star and became another proof of his unique talent of a sculptor. Two previous artists gave up working on this piece, but Buonarroti produced what later became a real symbol of the city of Florence. The beauty of “David” is charming: face expressions charm with their perfection, the details of the body muscles are amazing, and the nakedness of the body shows how perfect the creations of the nature are. “His mythical sphere” (Falletti 51) touches every viewer.
The sculpture was not the only interest of Michelangelo. He was a great architect as well. At some point, the artist was absorbed by the idea of the development of the tomb project for the Pope Julius II. However, he was asked to switch from this task to decorating the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. This work became one of Michelangelo’s most famous creations and the one that made him known to many people. “Michelangelo’s painting on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is considered by many to the the [sic] quintessential artwork not only of Michelangelo’s life but also in the sponsorship of the Roman Catholic Church into the arts” (Dillon 7). The result of the artist’s work is fascinating: the 65-foot project depicting about 300 characters absorbed the Christian symbols and beliefs. The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel brings the viewers to a sacred world and has a kaleidoscopic effect, as one has to raise their head up and look at the big round painting. One of the most famous and recognized parts of this composition is the depiction of God touching the finger of a human being. However, the process of this masterpiece’s creation cost Michelangelo his health since he was lying on his back all the time. This health condition led to a switch of his activity from painting towards architecture.
Michelangelo proved to be a real genius in many spheres of art. He had a natural talent and got an opportunity to master his skills under the guidance of the expert artists of his time. Michelangelo’s works became noteworthy for the influential people, and this allowed him to move forward in his achievements. He created the handiworks that imprinted his name onto the pages of the world history forever. Due to his talent and persistent work, Michelangelo became an example for others to follow, as well as a person to admire. | 977 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706, in Boston, Massachusetts. He was one of ten children born to Josiah Franklin, a soap maker, and his wife, Abiah Folger. Josiah wanted Benjamin to enter the clergy but could not afford to send him for schooling. Consequently, when Benjamin was 12, he apprenticed for his brother James who was a printer. Benjamin worked extremely hard at formatting the text and composing publications.
When Benjamin was 15, his brother printed the first editorial newspaper in Boston. Unlike other publications throughout Boston that simply reprinted events, James’s newspaper, called The New England Courant, printed articles and editorial columns. Benjamin was very interested in his brother’s newspaper and desperately wanted to help him write it. Unfortunately, he knew that James would not allow a fifteen-year-old boy to write articles. Benjamin thought of a plan. He would write under an anonymous pen name and slip the articles under the door at night. He chose the name Silence Dogood. Articles written by Silence Dogood became very popular. People throughout Boston wanted to know who she was. She spoke out about issues abroad and the poor treatment of women. Finally, after 16 letters, Benjamin confessed to James that he was Silence Dogood. James was very angry and jealous of the attention Benjamin received.
Off to London
Nevertheless, the paper continued. James’s editorials became increasingly critical of the Puritan leadership within Boston, especially for their support of the smallpox inoculation (which the Franklins believed made people sicker). James was incarcerated for his criticism and Benjamin was left in charge of publication. When James was released from jail, he beat Benjamin, despite the fact that he had kept the publication afloat. In 1723, Benjamin ran away and eventually ended up in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he met Deborah Read. While in Philadelphia, Benjamin lived with her family and soon found work as an apprentice printer. Franklin was an excellent printer and was sent by the governor of Pennsylvania to London to purchase font types and printing supplies. In exchange for his service, the governor promised to help Benjamin start his own printing business. In the meantime, Benjamin and Deborah had grown very close, and she had begun to suggest they should get married. Benjamin felt unprepared and left for England. Unfortunately, the governor lied, and Benjamin was forced to work in London for several months. Deborah married another man while he was gone (but the relationship was far from over).
The Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richard's Almanac
Upon his return to Philadelphia, Benjamin borrowed money and started his own printing business. He worked extremely hard and soon received government printing contracts. Benjamin’s business became very successful and he became well-known throughout Philadelphia. In 1730, he married his sweetheart, Deborah Reed, whose husband had left her.
In 1729, Franklin bought the Pennsylvania Gazette and turned it into the most successful newspaper in the colonies. His newspaper contained the very first political cartoons. Benjamin continued to design and author creative and popular publications. In 1733, he printed his Poor Richard’s Almanac. While most almanacs of the time contained weather reports and other predictions, Poor Richard’s Almanac contained lively writing, interesting facts, and creative sayings—many which are still used today. “A penny saved is a penny earned” came from Franklin’s almanac.
While Benjamin was busy with his publications, he also found time for charity and public work. Franklin launched various campaigns designed to improve the quality of life for Philadelphia’s residents. He helped in lighting and paving Philadelphia’s streets, cleaning up its environment, and in starting America’s first circulation library. He also started the American Philosophical Society as well as the Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia Union Fire Company, and the Philadelphia Contribution for Insurance Against Loss by Fire Company.
Making History in Science!
In the meantime, Benjamin was also conducting science experiments. He had already invented the Franklin stove, which was effective in keeping large houses warm in the winter, as well as bifocal glasses. He soon became interested in the concept of electricity. In 1752, Franklin devised a simple experiment to see if electricity could be harnessed from a storm. He succeeded and gained international fame.
Soon Benjamin turned to politics to satisfy his enormous craving to learn. He soon became the colonial representative for Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Georgia, and New Jersey in England. He stayed in England for 18 years, enjoying the life of a wealthy diplomat. Although he begged his wife to join him in England, she refused and eventually died while Benjamin was in England.
The Hutchinson Affair
In 1765, England passed the Stamp Act on the colonies, which forced Americans to pay taxes on any sort of printed document. America was outraged, and word soon spread across England about the rumblings in the colonies. Franklin helped persuade Parliament to repeal the act but grew sick of the corruption he saw among political officials in England. He began to formulate a plan for united colonies. Franklin was soon embarrassed by members of Parliament for exposing the “Hutchinson Letters Affair” to the colonies. Thomas Hutchinson, the royal governor of Massachusetts, was a British official sent to Massachusetts to pretend to side with the colonists concerning their complaints against England. In reality, he was controlled by Parliament and had no intention of helping the colonists.
A Founding Father
Benjamin Franklin then came home to join the cause for independence. He was elected a member of the Continental Congress and helped Thomas Jefferson draft the Declaration of Independence. After he signed the Declaration of Independence, Franklin set sail for France as America’s ambassador. Franklin’s charm and persuasion were successful in convincing the French to sign the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, which asserted France’s intention to aid the colonies in their quest for independence and secure loans for military supplies. In 1783, Franklin attended the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War.
After returning from France, Franklin became a member of the Constitutional Convention and signed the Constitution in 1787. He died three years later on April 17, 1790. Twenty thousand people attended his funeral. | <urn:uuid:c12fd3d1-64cc-4f54-a4e9-f638920ac4f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/benjamin-franklin-biography | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.982802 | 1,266 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.0758397430181503... | 1 | Benjamin Franklin was born on January 17, 1706, in Boston, Massachusetts. He was one of ten children born to Josiah Franklin, a soap maker, and his wife, Abiah Folger. Josiah wanted Benjamin to enter the clergy but could not afford to send him for schooling. Consequently, when Benjamin was 12, he apprenticed for his brother James who was a printer. Benjamin worked extremely hard at formatting the text and composing publications.
When Benjamin was 15, his brother printed the first editorial newspaper in Boston. Unlike other publications throughout Boston that simply reprinted events, James’s newspaper, called The New England Courant, printed articles and editorial columns. Benjamin was very interested in his brother’s newspaper and desperately wanted to help him write it. Unfortunately, he knew that James would not allow a fifteen-year-old boy to write articles. Benjamin thought of a plan. He would write under an anonymous pen name and slip the articles under the door at night. He chose the name Silence Dogood. Articles written by Silence Dogood became very popular. People throughout Boston wanted to know who she was. She spoke out about issues abroad and the poor treatment of women. Finally, after 16 letters, Benjamin confessed to James that he was Silence Dogood. James was very angry and jealous of the attention Benjamin received.
Off to London
Nevertheless, the paper continued. James’s editorials became increasingly critical of the Puritan leadership within Boston, especially for their support of the smallpox inoculation (which the Franklins believed made people sicker). James was incarcerated for his criticism and Benjamin was left in charge of publication. When James was released from jail, he beat Benjamin, despite the fact that he had kept the publication afloat. In 1723, Benjamin ran away and eventually ended up in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he met Deborah Read. While in Philadelphia, Benjamin lived with her family and soon found work as an apprentice printer. Franklin was an excellent printer and was sent by the governor of Pennsylvania to London to purchase font types and printing supplies. In exchange for his service, the governor promised to help Benjamin start his own printing business. In the meantime, Benjamin and Deborah had grown very close, and she had begun to suggest they should get married. Benjamin felt unprepared and left for England. Unfortunately, the governor lied, and Benjamin was forced to work in London for several months. Deborah married another man while he was gone (but the relationship was far from over).
The Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richard's Almanac
Upon his return to Philadelphia, Benjamin borrowed money and started his own printing business. He worked extremely hard and soon received government printing contracts. Benjamin’s business became very successful and he became well-known throughout Philadelphia. In 1730, he married his sweetheart, Deborah Reed, whose husband had left her.
In 1729, Franklin bought the Pennsylvania Gazette and turned it into the most successful newspaper in the colonies. His newspaper contained the very first political cartoons. Benjamin continued to design and author creative and popular publications. In 1733, he printed his Poor Richard’s Almanac. While most almanacs of the time contained weather reports and other predictions, Poor Richard’s Almanac contained lively writing, interesting facts, and creative sayings—many which are still used today. “A penny saved is a penny earned” came from Franklin’s almanac.
While Benjamin was busy with his publications, he also found time for charity and public work. Franklin launched various campaigns designed to improve the quality of life for Philadelphia’s residents. He helped in lighting and paving Philadelphia’s streets, cleaning up its environment, and in starting America’s first circulation library. He also started the American Philosophical Society as well as the Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia Union Fire Company, and the Philadelphia Contribution for Insurance Against Loss by Fire Company.
Making History in Science!
In the meantime, Benjamin was also conducting science experiments. He had already invented the Franklin stove, which was effective in keeping large houses warm in the winter, as well as bifocal glasses. He soon became interested in the concept of electricity. In 1752, Franklin devised a simple experiment to see if electricity could be harnessed from a storm. He succeeded and gained international fame.
Soon Benjamin turned to politics to satisfy his enormous craving to learn. He soon became the colonial representative for Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Georgia, and New Jersey in England. He stayed in England for 18 years, enjoying the life of a wealthy diplomat. Although he begged his wife to join him in England, she refused and eventually died while Benjamin was in England.
The Hutchinson Affair
In 1765, England passed the Stamp Act on the colonies, which forced Americans to pay taxes on any sort of printed document. America was outraged, and word soon spread across England about the rumblings in the colonies. Franklin helped persuade Parliament to repeal the act but grew sick of the corruption he saw among political officials in England. He began to formulate a plan for united colonies. Franklin was soon embarrassed by members of Parliament for exposing the “Hutchinson Letters Affair” to the colonies. Thomas Hutchinson, the royal governor of Massachusetts, was a British official sent to Massachusetts to pretend to side with the colonists concerning their complaints against England. In reality, he was controlled by Parliament and had no intention of helping the colonists.
A Founding Father
Benjamin Franklin then came home to join the cause for independence. He was elected a member of the Continental Congress and helped Thomas Jefferson draft the Declaration of Independence. After he signed the Declaration of Independence, Franklin set sail for France as America’s ambassador. Franklin’s charm and persuasion were successful in convincing the French to sign the 1778 Treaty of Alliance, which asserted France’s intention to aid the colonies in their quest for independence and secure loans for military supplies. In 1783, Franklin attended the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War.
After returning from France, Franklin became a member of the Constitutional Convention and signed the Constitution in 1787. He died three years later on April 17, 1790. Twenty thousand people attended his funeral. | 1,275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In ancient Greece, Socrates and the Sophists were the most valued philosophical thinkers of their time period. In this essay, I will be examining the similarities and differences in their respective ways of thinking when it comes to their teachings as well as their overall beliefs of knowledge and thinking. The Sophists approach their thinking in a similar way as Socrates as they both practice epistemology, their emphasization of argumentation when using rhetoric, as well as educating the community.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Socrates and the Sophists" essay for you
The predominant difference between Socrates and the Sophists begins with the fact that they were different types of teachers during this time and their extending debate between truth or knowledge and whether or not it was absolute. Through the process of comparing their similarities and differences about their specific ways of thinking, I will conclude that the Sophists and Socrates share a greater amount of similarities than they do differences in respective ways of thinking.
Socrates and the Sophists share a respective way of thinking when it comes to their beliefs in epistemology, their clear usage of rhetoric for argumentation, and also their acts of educating people. The theory about knowledge called epistemology began for the very first time when Socrates and the Sophists began to give their explanations about the difference between belief and opinion. The two philosophers share the same epistemology in that they share similar ideas in the nature of knowledge as well as the extent of human knowledge. The nature of knowledge shows the difference from when someone knows something and when some thinks they know something. The extent of human knowledge comes from using human senses, reason, and the resources to gain knowledge of a certain idea. Like the Sophists, Socrates is interested in the arts of communication and argument, in techniques of persuasion. (Melchert pg 64). Their shared idea of the pure difference between knowledge and opinion is shown through their theories of human knowledge and the knowledge of nature through gaining knowledge to prove whether something is true or not.
The usage of rhetoric was a shared idea for their teaching, primarily through their use of persuasion. Rhetoric allowed them to persuade those who were either ignorant or in denial about the truth whether that came to justice or injustice. During Socrates trial, for corrupting the youth, we have our first glimpse of the Socratic method, which proceeds by the question and answer, not by long speeches. (Melchert pg 62) He used rhetoric is his advantage by not changing his argument to prove injustice but using rhetoric to persuade and make his argument stronger through his Socratic method. The Sophists used rhetoric for similar tributes, with their great public speaking skills they used it to solicit victory in speaking contests, lawsuits, and then transferred what they know about the technique to others. The Sophists and Socrates had a goal and it was a goal they exceeded tremendously, and that was to use the gifts they were endowed with to share their knowledge to as many people as they could. They took place in philosophical teaching and teaching specifically their rhetoric but also excellence or virtue. In Plato’s dialogues, he highlights the sharing concept Socrates and the Sophists have, which is to prepare their students for philosophical practice and inquiry. Meaning they wanted to prepare students to look past what they saw from the physical world and really seek the deeper meaning to find the truth. Their ideas are both rationalized by the ideas of their epistemology, rhetoric, and seeking to educate those around them, which created a great connection between the Sophists and Socrates.
Socrates and the Sophists shared many similarities during their era, yet differed in their styles and through their usage of the extended debate over styles of teaching and about truth and knowledge is absolute or not. While they shared the assets of teaching the people around them, there is a very large separation between the simplicity aspects of their teachings. Sophists were known to spread their word of knowledge through working, their acts in teaching people resulted in payments from their doings. However, Socrates educated people on pure will; he was not paid for any of his tributes done to society. This creates a large distinction between them because it shows that while the Sophists educated many, their intentions to teach could have been drawn through the result in payment. While Socrates preached what he believed purely through love and absolute belief, without any care or will to receive any commodity in return.
Through the difference in payment on their teachings, there was also a major difference in the overall technique of how they taught, including their use in rhetoric as well as their curriculum organization. Socrates was known to use the philosophical rhetoric known as dialectic which has been based on the persuasion through evidence it takes to prove a specific point, Socrates proves he practiced this rhetoric when he continued to question Euthyphro about his knowledge on piety and its true form. The Sophists ,on the other hand, used the rhetoric technique called technical rhetoric, which they mainly used for strategies and tactics in battle, where they also emphasize that the best speaker receives the Sophist main goal: victory. But it is at this point that we find the deepest difference between them, the difference that perhaps allows us to deny that Socrates is a Sophist at all.(Melchert pg 64) The fact that they used different types of rhetoric shows that the set curriculum for their educating was not on the same page and they had done things in very different manners.
The central difference between Socrates and the Sophists has been a major disagreement of whether a truth or knowledge is absolute. Socrates looked at whether knowledge was absolute by looking through a line of rational to seek out the primary truth about the matter, he believed that through logical and rational thought people are able to gain true insights about what is true and what is not. Sophists believed that absolute truth and knowledge had to be found by students on their own time, majorly disagreeing with Socrates as he believed the truth has already been inside of the soul since you were created. Through the similarities of the philosophers you can also find many differences, Socrates and the Sophists created community through the very opposite side of thinking and methods which created different results for their overall success.
Socrates and the Sophists were found to have many things in common and in differentiation. After contrasting them, I can still conclude that there are a greater amount of similarities than there are differences between them. Together they shared, the practice epistemology, argumentation when using rhetoric, and educating, which created a big connection between the philosophers at the time. Which I believe is stronger than their teaching techniques being different and the debate between absolute knowledge.
Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly?
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0.178041666746... | 1 | In ancient Greece, Socrates and the Sophists were the most valued philosophical thinkers of their time period. In this essay, I will be examining the similarities and differences in their respective ways of thinking when it comes to their teachings as well as their overall beliefs of knowledge and thinking. The Sophists approach their thinking in a similar way as Socrates as they both practice epistemology, their emphasization of argumentation when using rhetoric, as well as educating the community.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Socrates and the Sophists" essay for you
The predominant difference between Socrates and the Sophists begins with the fact that they were different types of teachers during this time and their extending debate between truth or knowledge and whether or not it was absolute. Through the process of comparing their similarities and differences about their specific ways of thinking, I will conclude that the Sophists and Socrates share a greater amount of similarities than they do differences in respective ways of thinking.
Socrates and the Sophists share a respective way of thinking when it comes to their beliefs in epistemology, their clear usage of rhetoric for argumentation, and also their acts of educating people. The theory about knowledge called epistemology began for the very first time when Socrates and the Sophists began to give their explanations about the difference between belief and opinion. The two philosophers share the same epistemology in that they share similar ideas in the nature of knowledge as well as the extent of human knowledge. The nature of knowledge shows the difference from when someone knows something and when some thinks they know something. The extent of human knowledge comes from using human senses, reason, and the resources to gain knowledge of a certain idea. Like the Sophists, Socrates is interested in the arts of communication and argument, in techniques of persuasion. (Melchert pg 64). Their shared idea of the pure difference between knowledge and opinion is shown through their theories of human knowledge and the knowledge of nature through gaining knowledge to prove whether something is true or not.
The usage of rhetoric was a shared idea for their teaching, primarily through their use of persuasion. Rhetoric allowed them to persuade those who were either ignorant or in denial about the truth whether that came to justice or injustice. During Socrates trial, for corrupting the youth, we have our first glimpse of the Socratic method, which proceeds by the question and answer, not by long speeches. (Melchert pg 62) He used rhetoric is his advantage by not changing his argument to prove injustice but using rhetoric to persuade and make his argument stronger through his Socratic method. The Sophists used rhetoric for similar tributes, with their great public speaking skills they used it to solicit victory in speaking contests, lawsuits, and then transferred what they know about the technique to others. The Sophists and Socrates had a goal and it was a goal they exceeded tremendously, and that was to use the gifts they were endowed with to share their knowledge to as many people as they could. They took place in philosophical teaching and teaching specifically their rhetoric but also excellence or virtue. In Plato’s dialogues, he highlights the sharing concept Socrates and the Sophists have, which is to prepare their students for philosophical practice and inquiry. Meaning they wanted to prepare students to look past what they saw from the physical world and really seek the deeper meaning to find the truth. Their ideas are both rationalized by the ideas of their epistemology, rhetoric, and seeking to educate those around them, which created a great connection between the Sophists and Socrates.
Socrates and the Sophists shared many similarities during their era, yet differed in their styles and through their usage of the extended debate over styles of teaching and about truth and knowledge is absolute or not. While they shared the assets of teaching the people around them, there is a very large separation between the simplicity aspects of their teachings. Sophists were known to spread their word of knowledge through working, their acts in teaching people resulted in payments from their doings. However, Socrates educated people on pure will; he was not paid for any of his tributes done to society. This creates a large distinction between them because it shows that while the Sophists educated many, their intentions to teach could have been drawn through the result in payment. While Socrates preached what he believed purely through love and absolute belief, without any care or will to receive any commodity in return.
Through the difference in payment on their teachings, there was also a major difference in the overall technique of how they taught, including their use in rhetoric as well as their curriculum organization. Socrates was known to use the philosophical rhetoric known as dialectic which has been based on the persuasion through evidence it takes to prove a specific point, Socrates proves he practiced this rhetoric when he continued to question Euthyphro about his knowledge on piety and its true form. The Sophists ,on the other hand, used the rhetoric technique called technical rhetoric, which they mainly used for strategies and tactics in battle, where they also emphasize that the best speaker receives the Sophist main goal: victory. But it is at this point that we find the deepest difference between them, the difference that perhaps allows us to deny that Socrates is a Sophist at all.(Melchert pg 64) The fact that they used different types of rhetoric shows that the set curriculum for their educating was not on the same page and they had done things in very different manners.
The central difference between Socrates and the Sophists has been a major disagreement of whether a truth or knowledge is absolute. Socrates looked at whether knowledge was absolute by looking through a line of rational to seek out the primary truth about the matter, he believed that through logical and rational thought people are able to gain true insights about what is true and what is not. Sophists believed that absolute truth and knowledge had to be found by students on their own time, majorly disagreeing with Socrates as he believed the truth has already been inside of the soul since you were created. Through the similarities of the philosophers you can also find many differences, Socrates and the Sophists created community through the very opposite side of thinking and methods which created different results for their overall success.
Socrates and the Sophists were found to have many things in common and in differentiation. After contrasting them, I can still conclude that there are a greater amount of similarities than there are differences between them. Together they shared, the practice epistemology, argumentation when using rhetoric, and educating, which created a big connection between the philosophers at the time. Which I believe is stronger than their teaching techniques being different and the debate between absolute knowledge.
Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly?
Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+! | 1,382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson – Facts, Bio, and Information on the Confederate General
Facts, biographical information and articles about Stonewall Jackson, a confederate Civil War General during the American Civil War
Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson Facts
Around midnight January 20–21, 1824
May 10, 1863
Read more about Stonewall Jackson’s death
Colonel, Virginia Volunteers
Highest Rank Achieved
Lieutenant general, CSA
Stonewall Jackson Pictures
Stonewall Jackson pictures, images, and photographs
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Stonewall Jackson Quotes
Stonewall Jackson Articles
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Stonewall Jackson summary: Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson was a Confederate lieutenant general in the Civil War. He won his nickname at the Battle of First Bull Run (First Manassas), but it was his actions at Harpers Ferry in 1861, his 1862 Shenandoah Valley Campaign, and the flanking maneuver at the Battle of Chancellorsville that made him a military legend. Only General Robert E. Lee occupies a higher place in the Confederate pantheon, and prior to the Seven Days Battles, Jackson was a greater hero to the South than Lee was. A devout Christian who believed in predestination, he saw himself as an instrument of God’s will, an Old Testament–style commander of armies in the service of his Lord. He was mortally wounded by his own men during the Battle of Chancellorsville, and many people have speculated that if he had been alive to participate in Lee’s Pennsylvania Campaign the Battle of Gettysburg would have resulted in Confederate victory.
Stonewall Jackson’s Life
He was born around midnight of January 20–21, 1824, in a small house in the heart of Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia). His attorney father always struggled financially. Dying of typhoid when Thomas was two, he left his family impoverished. When his widow, Julia Neale Jackson, remarried four years later, her new husband either could not support or did not wish to raise her older children, who were farmed out to relatives. Thomas was sent to live with his uncle Cummings Jackson, who operated a gristmill and sawmill near the town of Weston some 25 miles from Thomas’ birthplace. (The gristmill still stands, on the grounds of the West Virginia State 4-H Camp at Jackson’s Mill.) Thomas found a home with Cummings but little of familial love. The circumstances of his early life may have contributed to his taciturn nature and self-reliance.
In 1842, at the age of 18, he became constable of Lewis County briefly but was also one of four local residents to test for an appointment to the West Point Military Academy. The appointment went to Gibson Butcher, but Butcher quickly withdrew from the academy and Jackson, hoping to obtain an education he otherwise could not afford, went to see Congressman Samuel Hays about becoming Butcher’s replacement. He got the appointment.
Lieutenant Jackson At West Point And The Mexican War
At West Point, he struggled with his classes and studied well into the night, taking no part in social activities. By the time of his graduation in 1846, he had risen from near the bottom to rank 17th in his class. He was sent to the Mexican War as a second lieutenant in the 3rd Artillery Regiment and was twice breveted for his actions in the war.
After Mexico, Jackson served at Fort Hamilton, New York, and in December 1850 was transferred with his artillery company to Fort Meade, Florida. He and his superior, Major William H. French, engaged in bitter disagreements and each filed accusations of misconduct against the other. Before matters escalated further, Jackson resigned to accept a position as an instructor at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington. He memorized his lectures and, if interrupted, would begin again, speaking in a monotone with his high-pitched voice.
Thomas “Tom Fool Jackson”
These and other unusual personality traits—holding one arm aloft to increase circulation and sucking on lemons to name two—earned him such nicknames as “Tom Fool Jackson” among his students. His reputation as a strict disciplinarian didn’t help, but over the course of time they came to respect his conscientiousness and honesty.
Thomas Jackson The Calvinist
Jackson had developed a deep interest in the Christian religion earlier, beginning in Mexico. His views were Calvinistic, including a belief that everything is predetermined by God and that man is utterly depraved, i.e., all human actions, whether “good” or “bad” can never gain God’s favor because the relationship between humanity and God was severed by original sin. Calvinism’s principle of unconditional election teaches that some are chosen by God to be delivered of a knowledge of Himself, and these are selected solely based on His own will and not due to any exceptional behavior or merit of those chosen.
Jackson may have believed he was one of those chosen; elements of Calvinistic beliefs evidenced themselves in his Civil War career. He said it mattered not if he were exposing himself to danger in battle or cowering in bed, when God’s chosen time came for him to die, he would die and not until then. He attributed all victories to God and regarded setbacks as requisite chastisement. After the First Battle of Bull Run he wrote to his wife, “Whilst great credit is due to other parts of our gallant army, God made my brigade more instrumental than any other in repulsing the main attack.”
The belief in predetermination led Jackson to believe the United States was created by God’s will and plan, but that the Confederacy also was created through that same holy will.
Jackson’s View On Slavery
Like many Southerners, Jackson struggled with his feelings about the institution of slavery, but it obviously was God’s will that it exist—a belief widely held in the South. In 1855, he began teaching Sunday school classes to slaves in Lexington, a violation of Virginia’s segregation laws. Slaves came to know him through these classes and sometimes begged him to buy them so they wouldn’t be sold into the Deep South where they might be worked literally to death. In 1906, long after Jackson’s death, Reverend L. L. Downing, whose parents had been among the slaves in Jackson’s Sunday school, raised money to have a memorial window dedicated to him in the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church of Roanoke, Virginia—likely making “Stonewall” the only Confederate general to have a memorial in an African American church.
Virginia Secedes And The Start Of The Civil War
When Virginia was preparing to secede from the Union in the spring of 1861, Jackson’s neighbor in Lexington, Virginia’s governor John Letcher, appointed him a colonel of Virginia militia and sent him to secure Harpers Ferry at the mouth of the Shenandoah River. The town was home to a U.S. arsenal and was the entry point of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad into Virginia. Colonel Jackson took charge of the ill-trained militia who had seized the town, deposed their commanders, and ordered their whiskey poured into the streets. He instituted seven hours of drill daily and brought in VMI cadets to assist with training. While at Harpers Ferry he had the equipment of the arsenal shipped to Richmond and captured a large number of locomotives and cars of the B&O. Four suitable locomotives he had dragged by horses down the Valley Turnpike to Strasburg, where they could travel on to Richmond by rail. His energetic leadership went too far for the Richmond government , however, when he ordered cannon emplaced atop Maryland Heights, a tall hill that dominates Harpers Ferry. The heights were in Maryland, which the Confederacy was courting, and his actions aggrieved some of its citizens. He was replaced at Harpers Ferry by Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston, who thought the town could not be defended and withdrew.
General Jackson’s First Battle
Jackson’s first Civil War battle occurred July 2, 1861. Now a brigadier general commanding a brigade commander in the Shenandoah Valley, he stretched his orders so he could intercept a Union probe toward Martinsburg led by Brig. Gen. George Cadwallader. The two small forces met at Falling Waters. Jackson was nearly outflanked by three regiments under Col. George H. Thomas—the future “Rock of Chickamauga”—but timely reinforcements arrived and Cadwallader withdrew. This small affair is most notable because it pitted the future “Rock” against the future “Stonewall.”
General Jackson’s Earns The Nickname “Stonewall”
Jackson acquired his nickname two weeks later, July 21, on Henry Hill outside Manassas, in the Battle of First Bull Run (First Battle of Manassas). Infantry under South Carolinian brigadier general Bernard Bee had been engaged for some time and were falling back; Jackson’s brigade was in reserve. Bee told his men, “There stands Jackson like a stone wall,” but whether he meant it as a compliment or an insult has been long debated. Bee was killed later in the battle. When Jackson threw his troops into the battle, they captured Union artillery atop the hill and fought the Federals until Confederate reinforcements caused a Union rout.
Promoted To Major General
In November he was promoted to major general and placed in charge of the Shenandoah Valley district. In a small house that he used as his headquarters in Winchester, he planned his next moves. The first one, a westward movement to capture Romney, was successful but led to one of many squabbles with subordinates. Brigadier General W. W. Loring, left in command at Romney when Jackson returned to Winchester, complained to Richmond about the hardships and hazards of his position, and Jackson was ordered to have him withdraw. Jackson complied but submitted his resignation. In the end, Loring was transferred and would find himself in conflict with another commander the following year in Mississippi, in the campaign leading up to the Battle of Vicksburg. The War Department did not interfere with Jackson’s decisions again.
On March 11, Jackson withdrew from Winchester in the face of a large Union force. It was the beginning of what would become known as the Shenandoah Valley Campaign. In that campaign—part of larger Confederate plan to prevent a Federal advance down the valley and to prevent additional Union troops from being sent to reinforce George B. McClellan’s Army of the Potomac that was threatening Richmond from the east—Jackson used the mountains to conceal his forces in order to mislead, confuse and mystify his opponents,.
Jackson struck at Kernstown March 23. He was defeated by a larger than expected Union force, but the battle kept the U.S. War Department from pulling troops from the Shenandoah to reinforce McClellan. The battle was fought on a Sunday, and Jackson’s wife questioned whether it was right to on the Lord’s Day; he felt some compunction over it himself but told her that military necessity sometimes required it.
Three Federal armies totaling 64,000 men were sent to deal with him, approaching from north, east and west. Jackson controlled the macadamized Valley Turnpike and used it to move his 17,000-man force more rapidly than his opponents, and defeat each enemy separately. His rapid movements earned his men the name “Jackson’s foot cavalry.” Between May 8 and June 9, he won victories at McDowell, Front Royal, Winchester (First Battle of Winchester), Cross Keys and Fort Republic, ending the threat to the valley. His actions also led the Lincoln Administration to rescind orders for a 40,000-man army to march on Richmond from the north and link up with McClellan.
General Stonewall Jackson Defends Richmond
Summoned to aid in the defense of Richmond, Jackson and his Army of the Valley joined Confederate forces east of the city that were under a new commander, Gen. Robert E. Lee. Jackson was ordered to strike a Federal detachment at Beaver Dam Creek (Mechanicsville) on June 26 in order to draw more Yankee soldiers to the north side of the Chickahominy River while Maj. Gen. A. P. Hill attacked on the south side. The energetic Jackson and his foot cavalry failed to carry out their part of the plan. Exhausted from weeks of marching and fighting, they did not move with alacrity and Hill was beaten back because his opponent’s forces had not been weakened to reinforce Beaver Dam Creek. At Gaines Mill the next day, Jackson was again late in arriving. On the 30th, Jackson’s attacks at White Oak Swamp failed to produce a victory, but Lee’s goal of driving McClellan’s army back from Richmond had been achieved in a campaign known as the Seven Days Battles. If the Shenandoah Valley Campaign was the height of Jackson’s Civil War career, the Seven Days were the low point.
A less-respected commander might have been reprimanded, perhaps moved to another theater, after such lackluster performance. Instead, Lee sent him north to outflank the Federal Army of Virginia under Maj. Gen. John Pope. At Cedar Mountain, Jackson was nearly beaten by the hapless Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks, but the timely arrival of A. P. Hill’s Light Division saved the day. Jackson, however, filed court-martial charges against Hill for disobeying orders. That wasn’t unusual; Jackson expected complete, blind obedience to his orders—although he kept his plans to himself, so that his subordinates didn’t know what his overall objectives were—and at one time had nearly every one of his brigade commanders under arrest. Even his brother-in-law Richard Garnett fell victim after Kernstown. Hill’s court-martial never occurred.
From August 28 to August 30, Jackson’s men held off uncoordinated Federal attacks near the old Bull Run battlefield in the Second Battle of Bull Run until Lt. Gen. James Longstreet could arrive with the rest of Lee’s army, resulting in another Confederate victory.
Lee then carried the war onto Northern soil by crossing the Potomac into Maryland—which had not joined the Confederacy. To protect his left flank, he sent Jackson back to familiar territory, to capture Harpers Ferry. Knowing well the defensive disadvantages of that place, Jackson captured the entire Union garrison before moving to rejoin Lee behind Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg. There, on September 21, the Battle of Antietam (Battle of Sharpsburg) resulted in the bloodiest single day in all of American history. Jackson’s men successfully held the northern (left) flank of the Confederate position in the fighting in Miller’s Cornfield, the East Woods and the West Woods. The battle was a tactical draw, but Lee withdrew his battered army back into Virginia.
Jackson Promoted To Lieutenant General
In November, Jackson—now a lieutenant general—was elated by personal news: his wife, the former Anna Morrison, had given birth to a daughter. He had lost his first wife, Elinor Junkin, during childbirth just 14 months into their marriage. The first child of his marriage to Anna had died shortly after birth. This time, his wife and daughter would long outlive him.
Battle Of Fredericksburg
In December, defending the right flank of Lee’s army during the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, Jackson left a small gap in his line that briefly allowed a Union breakthrough but, unreinforced, the Federals withdrew and Jackson filled the gap. Once more, Stonewall had held firm.
In April, Anna brought their five-month-old daughter to visit. For a few days, Jackson experienced one of the happiest times of his life, but then word arrived that the Union’s Army of the Potomac under Maj. Gen. Joe Hooker was on the move and attempting to outflank the Fredericksburg position. Confederate cavalry had skirmished with Union troops near a crossroads where a brick home called Chancellorsville stood. Lee sent Jackson with most of Second Corps to blunt the advance.
Chancellorsville: Stonewall Jackson’s Last Battle
Jackson, riding his favorite horse, Little Sorrel, arrived around 8 a.m., his corps strung out along the road behind him. He observed the defensive positions prepared by the infantry and cavalry and made a fateful decision: instead of waiting on the defensive for all of his troops to arrive, he would go on the attack. At midmorning, he sent two columns, about 6,000 men total, advancing down the Orange Turnpike and Orange Plank Road. The thoroughfares were separated by up to a mile of thick woods and undergrowth in an area known as The Wilderness. In the tangle of brush, Hooker’s men were uncertain how many Confederates were facing them, and Hooker ordered a withdrawal, approximately to where his men had camped the night before. Jackson’s bold move had cost Hooker his nerve.
Fighting continued through the day, and that evening Jackson rode along his front with his staff, making a personal reconnaissance, as he was always inclined to do. That night, Lee rode to join him and the two discussed the strong Federal positions to their front, which were being strengthened hourly with felled trees and earthworks. Word arrived from a cavalry reconnaissance that the right flank of Hooker’s army was “in the air,” not anchored to any defensible terrain feature. Lee ordered Jackson to march around that flank and attack it. (Some writers credit Jackson with this plan, but the most reliable evidence indicates it was Lee’s.) When Lee asked how many men Jackson would use for the maneuver, he surprised his commander by responding, “My whole corps.”
The next morning, operating on about two hours sleep, Jackson set out on what many regard as his greatest tactical maneuver. His column was spotted on the march and its rearguard attacked, but he continued on.
The flank he was going to attack was that of the XI Corps, under the command of Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, who had lost an arm at the Battle of Seven Pines (Battle of Fair Oaks). Howard and several of his subordinates ignored warnings that a large Rebel force was on his flanks. Between 5 and 5:30 that evening, Jackson’s men advanced in three lines, each about one and a half miles long and separated from each other by a few hundred yards.
He’d ordered no drums, no bugles, no yells as they advanced. The first warning Federals cooking supper had of the storm that was about to strike them came when deer and rabbits, flushed from cover by the Confederate advance, began running into the camps. Regiments and batteries were quickly overrun as the XI Corps tumbled back in disarray.
Around 7:15, the first two Confederate lines had intermingled and become confused. They paused to sort themselves out while A. P. Hill’s fresh division came forward to fight. The pause bought time for Union commanders to form a defensive position near Hazel Grove.
General Jackson Shot By Friendly Fire
About 8:30, Jackson ordered Hill to, “Press them, cut them off from the United States Ford (over the Rappahannock), Hill; press them.” Jackson then rode off with his staff to reconnoiter the situation. Sometime after 9:00 they rode up behind the skirmishers of the 33rd North Carolina Regiment and turned back. Aware Federal cavalry was in the area, the North Carolinians mistook the riders for enemy horsemen and opened fire. From somewhere, probably the men of the 18th North Carolina, came another volley. Jackson was hit in his right hand and left wrist. A third ball broke his upper left arm.
Taken to a field hospital, his arm was amputated sometime after midnight. Lee, hearing the news, remarked, “Jackson has lost his left arm; I have lost my right.” On the afternoon of May 3, the wounded general was moved to a home at Guinea Station. At first, he seemed to be healing but by the time Anna arrived with their daughter on the 7th, pneumonia had set in. By the 10th, he felt the end was near and reportedly said, “My wish is fulfilled. I have always desired to die on a Sunday.” By midafternoon, he spoke his last intelligible words, “Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees.” His body was laid in state in the Confederate capital before being buried at Lexington.
The Death Of Stonewall Jackson
He had been a man of many contrasts. A rigid disciplinarian with both himself and those around him, he had often clashed with subordinates. A deeply religious man, he accepted killing as a necessity of war. He accepted slavery but made an effort to educate slaves, at least in religious matters. An aggressive fighter and brilliant tactician, he sometimes overextended himself and had demonstrated mediocrity or worse during the Seven Days Campaign. At Falling Waters, Cedar Mountain and Second Bull Run his success was due in no small part to the timely arrival of reinforcements. But he remains second only to Lee in the adoration of the Southern people, in relation to the war, and is held in high regard around the world for his military maneuvers.
Read more about the death of Stonewall Jackson | <urn:uuid:2d967ad6-df50-42af-bb1d-440e4b6f3040> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historynet.com/stonewall-jackson | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.980758 | 4,583 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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Facts, biographical information and articles about Stonewall Jackson, a confederate Civil War General during the American Civil War
Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson Facts
Around midnight January 20–21, 1824
May 10, 1863
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Lieutenant general, CSA
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Stonewall Jackson summary: Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson was a Confederate lieutenant general in the Civil War. He won his nickname at the Battle of First Bull Run (First Manassas), but it was his actions at Harpers Ferry in 1861, his 1862 Shenandoah Valley Campaign, and the flanking maneuver at the Battle of Chancellorsville that made him a military legend. Only General Robert E. Lee occupies a higher place in the Confederate pantheon, and prior to the Seven Days Battles, Jackson was a greater hero to the South than Lee was. A devout Christian who believed in predestination, he saw himself as an instrument of God’s will, an Old Testament–style commander of armies in the service of his Lord. He was mortally wounded by his own men during the Battle of Chancellorsville, and many people have speculated that if he had been alive to participate in Lee’s Pennsylvania Campaign the Battle of Gettysburg would have resulted in Confederate victory.
Stonewall Jackson’s Life
He was born around midnight of January 20–21, 1824, in a small house in the heart of Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia). His attorney father always struggled financially. Dying of typhoid when Thomas was two, he left his family impoverished. When his widow, Julia Neale Jackson, remarried four years later, her new husband either could not support or did not wish to raise her older children, who were farmed out to relatives. Thomas was sent to live with his uncle Cummings Jackson, who operated a gristmill and sawmill near the town of Weston some 25 miles from Thomas’ birthplace. (The gristmill still stands, on the grounds of the West Virginia State 4-H Camp at Jackson’s Mill.) Thomas found a home with Cummings but little of familial love. The circumstances of his early life may have contributed to his taciturn nature and self-reliance.
In 1842, at the age of 18, he became constable of Lewis County briefly but was also one of four local residents to test for an appointment to the West Point Military Academy. The appointment went to Gibson Butcher, but Butcher quickly withdrew from the academy and Jackson, hoping to obtain an education he otherwise could not afford, went to see Congressman Samuel Hays about becoming Butcher’s replacement. He got the appointment.
Lieutenant Jackson At West Point And The Mexican War
At West Point, he struggled with his classes and studied well into the night, taking no part in social activities. By the time of his graduation in 1846, he had risen from near the bottom to rank 17th in his class. He was sent to the Mexican War as a second lieutenant in the 3rd Artillery Regiment and was twice breveted for his actions in the war.
After Mexico, Jackson served at Fort Hamilton, New York, and in December 1850 was transferred with his artillery company to Fort Meade, Florida. He and his superior, Major William H. French, engaged in bitter disagreements and each filed accusations of misconduct against the other. Before matters escalated further, Jackson resigned to accept a position as an instructor at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington. He memorized his lectures and, if interrupted, would begin again, speaking in a monotone with his high-pitched voice.
Thomas “Tom Fool Jackson”
These and other unusual personality traits—holding one arm aloft to increase circulation and sucking on lemons to name two—earned him such nicknames as “Tom Fool Jackson” among his students. His reputation as a strict disciplinarian didn’t help, but over the course of time they came to respect his conscientiousness and honesty.
Thomas Jackson The Calvinist
Jackson had developed a deep interest in the Christian religion earlier, beginning in Mexico. His views were Calvinistic, including a belief that everything is predetermined by God and that man is utterly depraved, i.e., all human actions, whether “good” or “bad” can never gain God’s favor because the relationship between humanity and God was severed by original sin. Calvinism’s principle of unconditional election teaches that some are chosen by God to be delivered of a knowledge of Himself, and these are selected solely based on His own will and not due to any exceptional behavior or merit of those chosen.
Jackson may have believed he was one of those chosen; elements of Calvinistic beliefs evidenced themselves in his Civil War career. He said it mattered not if he were exposing himself to danger in battle or cowering in bed, when God’s chosen time came for him to die, he would die and not until then. He attributed all victories to God and regarded setbacks as requisite chastisement. After the First Battle of Bull Run he wrote to his wife, “Whilst great credit is due to other parts of our gallant army, God made my brigade more instrumental than any other in repulsing the main attack.”
The belief in predetermination led Jackson to believe the United States was created by God’s will and plan, but that the Confederacy also was created through that same holy will.
Jackson’s View On Slavery
Like many Southerners, Jackson struggled with his feelings about the institution of slavery, but it obviously was God’s will that it exist—a belief widely held in the South. In 1855, he began teaching Sunday school classes to slaves in Lexington, a violation of Virginia’s segregation laws. Slaves came to know him through these classes and sometimes begged him to buy them so they wouldn’t be sold into the Deep South where they might be worked literally to death. In 1906, long after Jackson’s death, Reverend L. L. Downing, whose parents had been among the slaves in Jackson’s Sunday school, raised money to have a memorial window dedicated to him in the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church of Roanoke, Virginia—likely making “Stonewall” the only Confederate general to have a memorial in an African American church.
Virginia Secedes And The Start Of The Civil War
When Virginia was preparing to secede from the Union in the spring of 1861, Jackson’s neighbor in Lexington, Virginia’s governor John Letcher, appointed him a colonel of Virginia militia and sent him to secure Harpers Ferry at the mouth of the Shenandoah River. The town was home to a U.S. arsenal and was the entry point of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad into Virginia. Colonel Jackson took charge of the ill-trained militia who had seized the town, deposed their commanders, and ordered their whiskey poured into the streets. He instituted seven hours of drill daily and brought in VMI cadets to assist with training. While at Harpers Ferry he had the equipment of the arsenal shipped to Richmond and captured a large number of locomotives and cars of the B&O. Four suitable locomotives he had dragged by horses down the Valley Turnpike to Strasburg, where they could travel on to Richmond by rail. His energetic leadership went too far for the Richmond government , however, when he ordered cannon emplaced atop Maryland Heights, a tall hill that dominates Harpers Ferry. The heights were in Maryland, which the Confederacy was courting, and his actions aggrieved some of its citizens. He was replaced at Harpers Ferry by Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston, who thought the town could not be defended and withdrew.
General Jackson’s First Battle
Jackson’s first Civil War battle occurred July 2, 1861. Now a brigadier general commanding a brigade commander in the Shenandoah Valley, he stretched his orders so he could intercept a Union probe toward Martinsburg led by Brig. Gen. George Cadwallader. The two small forces met at Falling Waters. Jackson was nearly outflanked by three regiments under Col. George H. Thomas—the future “Rock of Chickamauga”—but timely reinforcements arrived and Cadwallader withdrew. This small affair is most notable because it pitted the future “Rock” against the future “Stonewall.”
General Jackson’s Earns The Nickname “Stonewall”
Jackson acquired his nickname two weeks later, July 21, on Henry Hill outside Manassas, in the Battle of First Bull Run (First Battle of Manassas). Infantry under South Carolinian brigadier general Bernard Bee had been engaged for some time and were falling back; Jackson’s brigade was in reserve. Bee told his men, “There stands Jackson like a stone wall,” but whether he meant it as a compliment or an insult has been long debated. Bee was killed later in the battle. When Jackson threw his troops into the battle, they captured Union artillery atop the hill and fought the Federals until Confederate reinforcements caused a Union rout.
Promoted To Major General
In November he was promoted to major general and placed in charge of the Shenandoah Valley district. In a small house that he used as his headquarters in Winchester, he planned his next moves. The first one, a westward movement to capture Romney, was successful but led to one of many squabbles with subordinates. Brigadier General W. W. Loring, left in command at Romney when Jackson returned to Winchester, complained to Richmond about the hardships and hazards of his position, and Jackson was ordered to have him withdraw. Jackson complied but submitted his resignation. In the end, Loring was transferred and would find himself in conflict with another commander the following year in Mississippi, in the campaign leading up to the Battle of Vicksburg. The War Department did not interfere with Jackson’s decisions again.
On March 11, Jackson withdrew from Winchester in the face of a large Union force. It was the beginning of what would become known as the Shenandoah Valley Campaign. In that campaign—part of larger Confederate plan to prevent a Federal advance down the valley and to prevent additional Union troops from being sent to reinforce George B. McClellan’s Army of the Potomac that was threatening Richmond from the east—Jackson used the mountains to conceal his forces in order to mislead, confuse and mystify his opponents,.
Jackson struck at Kernstown March 23. He was defeated by a larger than expected Union force, but the battle kept the U.S. War Department from pulling troops from the Shenandoah to reinforce McClellan. The battle was fought on a Sunday, and Jackson’s wife questioned whether it was right to on the Lord’s Day; he felt some compunction over it himself but told her that military necessity sometimes required it.
Three Federal armies totaling 64,000 men were sent to deal with him, approaching from north, east and west. Jackson controlled the macadamized Valley Turnpike and used it to move his 17,000-man force more rapidly than his opponents, and defeat each enemy separately. His rapid movements earned his men the name “Jackson’s foot cavalry.” Between May 8 and June 9, he won victories at McDowell, Front Royal, Winchester (First Battle of Winchester), Cross Keys and Fort Republic, ending the threat to the valley. His actions also led the Lincoln Administration to rescind orders for a 40,000-man army to march on Richmond from the north and link up with McClellan.
General Stonewall Jackson Defends Richmond
Summoned to aid in the defense of Richmond, Jackson and his Army of the Valley joined Confederate forces east of the city that were under a new commander, Gen. Robert E. Lee. Jackson was ordered to strike a Federal detachment at Beaver Dam Creek (Mechanicsville) on June 26 in order to draw more Yankee soldiers to the north side of the Chickahominy River while Maj. Gen. A. P. Hill attacked on the south side. The energetic Jackson and his foot cavalry failed to carry out their part of the plan. Exhausted from weeks of marching and fighting, they did not move with alacrity and Hill was beaten back because his opponent’s forces had not been weakened to reinforce Beaver Dam Creek. At Gaines Mill the next day, Jackson was again late in arriving. On the 30th, Jackson’s attacks at White Oak Swamp failed to produce a victory, but Lee’s goal of driving McClellan’s army back from Richmond had been achieved in a campaign known as the Seven Days Battles. If the Shenandoah Valley Campaign was the height of Jackson’s Civil War career, the Seven Days were the low point.
A less-respected commander might have been reprimanded, perhaps moved to another theater, after such lackluster performance. Instead, Lee sent him north to outflank the Federal Army of Virginia under Maj. Gen. John Pope. At Cedar Mountain, Jackson was nearly beaten by the hapless Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks, but the timely arrival of A. P. Hill’s Light Division saved the day. Jackson, however, filed court-martial charges against Hill for disobeying orders. That wasn’t unusual; Jackson expected complete, blind obedience to his orders—although he kept his plans to himself, so that his subordinates didn’t know what his overall objectives were—and at one time had nearly every one of his brigade commanders under arrest. Even his brother-in-law Richard Garnett fell victim after Kernstown. Hill’s court-martial never occurred.
From August 28 to August 30, Jackson’s men held off uncoordinated Federal attacks near the old Bull Run battlefield in the Second Battle of Bull Run until Lt. Gen. James Longstreet could arrive with the rest of Lee’s army, resulting in another Confederate victory.
Lee then carried the war onto Northern soil by crossing the Potomac into Maryland—which had not joined the Confederacy. To protect his left flank, he sent Jackson back to familiar territory, to capture Harpers Ferry. Knowing well the defensive disadvantages of that place, Jackson captured the entire Union garrison before moving to rejoin Lee behind Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg. There, on September 21, the Battle of Antietam (Battle of Sharpsburg) resulted in the bloodiest single day in all of American history. Jackson’s men successfully held the northern (left) flank of the Confederate position in the fighting in Miller’s Cornfield, the East Woods and the West Woods. The battle was a tactical draw, but Lee withdrew his battered army back into Virginia.
Jackson Promoted To Lieutenant General
In November, Jackson—now a lieutenant general—was elated by personal news: his wife, the former Anna Morrison, had given birth to a daughter. He had lost his first wife, Elinor Junkin, during childbirth just 14 months into their marriage. The first child of his marriage to Anna had died shortly after birth. This time, his wife and daughter would long outlive him.
Battle Of Fredericksburg
In December, defending the right flank of Lee’s army during the Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, Jackson left a small gap in his line that briefly allowed a Union breakthrough but, unreinforced, the Federals withdrew and Jackson filled the gap. Once more, Stonewall had held firm.
In April, Anna brought their five-month-old daughter to visit. For a few days, Jackson experienced one of the happiest times of his life, but then word arrived that the Union’s Army of the Potomac under Maj. Gen. Joe Hooker was on the move and attempting to outflank the Fredericksburg position. Confederate cavalry had skirmished with Union troops near a crossroads where a brick home called Chancellorsville stood. Lee sent Jackson with most of Second Corps to blunt the advance.
Chancellorsville: Stonewall Jackson’s Last Battle
Jackson, riding his favorite horse, Little Sorrel, arrived around 8 a.m., his corps strung out along the road behind him. He observed the defensive positions prepared by the infantry and cavalry and made a fateful decision: instead of waiting on the defensive for all of his troops to arrive, he would go on the attack. At midmorning, he sent two columns, about 6,000 men total, advancing down the Orange Turnpike and Orange Plank Road. The thoroughfares were separated by up to a mile of thick woods and undergrowth in an area known as The Wilderness. In the tangle of brush, Hooker’s men were uncertain how many Confederates were facing them, and Hooker ordered a withdrawal, approximately to where his men had camped the night before. Jackson’s bold move had cost Hooker his nerve.
Fighting continued through the day, and that evening Jackson rode along his front with his staff, making a personal reconnaissance, as he was always inclined to do. That night, Lee rode to join him and the two discussed the strong Federal positions to their front, which were being strengthened hourly with felled trees and earthworks. Word arrived from a cavalry reconnaissance that the right flank of Hooker’s army was “in the air,” not anchored to any defensible terrain feature. Lee ordered Jackson to march around that flank and attack it. (Some writers credit Jackson with this plan, but the most reliable evidence indicates it was Lee’s.) When Lee asked how many men Jackson would use for the maneuver, he surprised his commander by responding, “My whole corps.”
The next morning, operating on about two hours sleep, Jackson set out on what many regard as his greatest tactical maneuver. His column was spotted on the march and its rearguard attacked, but he continued on.
The flank he was going to attack was that of the XI Corps, under the command of Maj. Gen. O. O. Howard, who had lost an arm at the Battle of Seven Pines (Battle of Fair Oaks). Howard and several of his subordinates ignored warnings that a large Rebel force was on his flanks. Between 5 and 5:30 that evening, Jackson’s men advanced in three lines, each about one and a half miles long and separated from each other by a few hundred yards.
He’d ordered no drums, no bugles, no yells as they advanced. The first warning Federals cooking supper had of the storm that was about to strike them came when deer and rabbits, flushed from cover by the Confederate advance, began running into the camps. Regiments and batteries were quickly overrun as the XI Corps tumbled back in disarray.
Around 7:15, the first two Confederate lines had intermingled and become confused. They paused to sort themselves out while A. P. Hill’s fresh division came forward to fight. The pause bought time for Union commanders to form a defensive position near Hazel Grove.
General Jackson Shot By Friendly Fire
About 8:30, Jackson ordered Hill to, “Press them, cut them off from the United States Ford (over the Rappahannock), Hill; press them.” Jackson then rode off with his staff to reconnoiter the situation. Sometime after 9:00 they rode up behind the skirmishers of the 33rd North Carolina Regiment and turned back. Aware Federal cavalry was in the area, the North Carolinians mistook the riders for enemy horsemen and opened fire. From somewhere, probably the men of the 18th North Carolina, came another volley. Jackson was hit in his right hand and left wrist. A third ball broke his upper left arm.
Taken to a field hospital, his arm was amputated sometime after midnight. Lee, hearing the news, remarked, “Jackson has lost his left arm; I have lost my right.” On the afternoon of May 3, the wounded general was moved to a home at Guinea Station. At first, he seemed to be healing but by the time Anna arrived with their daughter on the 7th, pneumonia had set in. By the 10th, he felt the end was near and reportedly said, “My wish is fulfilled. I have always desired to die on a Sunday.” By midafternoon, he spoke his last intelligible words, “Let us cross over the river and rest under the shade of the trees.” His body was laid in state in the Confederate capital before being buried at Lexington.
The Death Of Stonewall Jackson
He had been a man of many contrasts. A rigid disciplinarian with both himself and those around him, he had often clashed with subordinates. A deeply religious man, he accepted killing as a necessity of war. He accepted slavery but made an effort to educate slaves, at least in religious matters. An aggressive fighter and brilliant tactician, he sometimes overextended himself and had demonstrated mediocrity or worse during the Seven Days Campaign. At Falling Waters, Cedar Mountain and Second Bull Run his success was due in no small part to the timely arrival of reinforcements. But he remains second only to Lee in the adoration of the Southern people, in relation to the war, and is held in high regard around the world for his military maneuvers.
Read more about the death of Stonewall Jackson | 4,508 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Judgement of Paris in Greek Mythology
The judging of a beauty contest would not normally be perceived as a dangerous occupation; the worst that a judge might expect is a few accusations of bias. Although, in Greek mythology, a beauty contest was one of the starting points of a war. That beauty contest was the Judgement of Paris, and the war was the Trojan War.
The Wedding of Peleus and Thetis
The Start at the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis
The story of the Judgement of Paris appears in many ancient sources, including the Bibliotheca (Apollodorus), Fabulae (Hyginus), and Description of Greece (Pausanias). In the most famous story of the Trojan War, the Iliad, Homer makes only passing reference to it, assuming that his readers were already acquainted with the story. These sources all suggest that the starting point for the Judgement of Paris was the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
Peleus was a noted hero of Ancient Greece, whilst Thetis was a Nereid, a sea-nymph. Poseidon and Zeus had both chased after Thetis, but had been warned off when a prophecy was given about the greatness of the future offspring of Thetis; so the Nereid was married off to Peleus.
All the deities of the Greek pantheon were invited to the wedding festivities; that was all deities apart from Eris, the goddess of strife.
Angered by the slight, Eris decided to turn up at the celebrations anyway; and she brought a gift, a golden apple. This was an apple of disharmony, and upon it was written the words “to the fairest.” Eris threw the apple amongst the wedding guests and waited for the arguments to start.
Three goddesses laid claim to the golden apple; each believing that they were the “fairest,” or most beautiful, of the assembled guests. These three claimants were Hera, the wife of Zeus, Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, and Athena, the goddess of wisdom.
Each of the three goddesses argued their case, but of course, none of them were willing to listen to the arguments of the other, or give the title of fairest to a rival.
Therefore, the goddess decided that Zeus would have to make the final decision.
Zeus was wise enough to avoid placing himself in a position where he would end up putting one goddess above another; thus, he made the proclamation that the choice of fairest was to be made by Paris.
Paris and the Beauty Contest
Paris was not another god, but was a mortal, and a prince of Troy. Paris was the son of King Priam of Troy, and looked after the cattle and sheep of his father on Mount Ida, to the southeast of the city.
Paris was well known for making fair and just decisions, and acting as a judge who would not be swayed by outside influences. Paris had already judged that Ares, when disguised as a bull, was a better animal than Paris’ own bull, without knowing that the other bull was a god in disguise.
Hermes, therefore, took the three goddesses to Paris for him to make a decision. The three goddesses, despite having profound natural beauty, were not content to allow Paris to make a decision based on looks alone. Each sought to influence the decision by offering bribes.
Hera offered Paris wealth, power, and dominion over all mortal realms if she was chosen as fairest of the three. Athena promised the Trojan prince every known skill, as well as the ability to be the greatest of all warriors. Lastly, Aphrodite offered Paris Helen's hand in marriage. The daughter of Leda and Zeus, Helen was said to be the most beautiful woman in the world.
The Judgement of Paris
Paris gives his Judgement
Paris made his decision; and the Judgement of Paris was that Aphrodite was the “fairest” and rightful owner of the apple. No doubt. Paris was swayed by the bribe that the goddess of love offered to the prince.
Aphrodite would keep her promise, and would aid the Trojan prince with the abduction of Helen from Sparta; regardless of the fact that Helen was already married to Menelaus.
Of course, the decision made by Paris was not well received by Hera or Athena, and both would hold a lifelong grudge towards Paris. The animosity of Athena and Hera would later be displayed in the Trojan War, when both goddesses sided with the Achaean forces; although Aphrodite would assist the Trojans.
Aphrodite the Winner
The Inevitability of the Judgement of Paris
Paris would have done well to keep clear from judging this beauty contest, but what mortal could turn down a request from Zeus? A declination from Paris would have probably proved deadly for the prince.
In any case, the whole event had already been pre-ordained, as it had been foretold that Paris would cause the downfall of Troy. When Hecuba had given birth to Paris, a premonition had seen the queen see Troy burning, and the Trojan seer Aesacus had proclaimed that Paris would have to be put to death to save the city.
Many of the ancient sources also claimed that Zeus himself had planned everything, arranging for Eris to throw the apple and start off the Trojan War, so that the supreme deity could bring the time of heroes to an end.
Questions & Answers
Why was Paris chosen to be the judge of the beauty contest?
Zeus chose Paris for two reasons. Firstly, Paris was not an immortal, and Zeus did not wish for potential conflict between the gods.
Secondly, Paris was known as an impartial judge, for previously he had judge a competition between cattle, and had chosen an animal in preference to his own, without even knowing that that animal belonged to the god Ares.Helpful 6
Why does Paris choose Aphrodite's offer over those offered by the other two goddesses?
Some might consider Paris' acceptance of Aphrodite's bribe a strange one, for she promised him the most beautiful woman, whilst Hera offered power, and Athena offered military might, but of course some believe that love conquers all.Helpful 1 | <urn:uuid:cdf03f53-fce9-4129-8681-59d6b4b72946> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://owlcation.com/humanities/The-Judgement-of-Paris-in-Greek-Mythology | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.984064 | 1,311 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.37136855721... | 1 | The Judgement of Paris in Greek Mythology
The judging of a beauty contest would not normally be perceived as a dangerous occupation; the worst that a judge might expect is a few accusations of bias. Although, in Greek mythology, a beauty contest was one of the starting points of a war. That beauty contest was the Judgement of Paris, and the war was the Trojan War.
The Wedding of Peleus and Thetis
The Start at the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis
The story of the Judgement of Paris appears in many ancient sources, including the Bibliotheca (Apollodorus), Fabulae (Hyginus), and Description of Greece (Pausanias). In the most famous story of the Trojan War, the Iliad, Homer makes only passing reference to it, assuming that his readers were already acquainted with the story. These sources all suggest that the starting point for the Judgement of Paris was the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis.
Peleus was a noted hero of Ancient Greece, whilst Thetis was a Nereid, a sea-nymph. Poseidon and Zeus had both chased after Thetis, but had been warned off when a prophecy was given about the greatness of the future offspring of Thetis; so the Nereid was married off to Peleus.
All the deities of the Greek pantheon were invited to the wedding festivities; that was all deities apart from Eris, the goddess of strife.
Angered by the slight, Eris decided to turn up at the celebrations anyway; and she brought a gift, a golden apple. This was an apple of disharmony, and upon it was written the words “to the fairest.” Eris threw the apple amongst the wedding guests and waited for the arguments to start.
Three goddesses laid claim to the golden apple; each believing that they were the “fairest,” or most beautiful, of the assembled guests. These three claimants were Hera, the wife of Zeus, Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, and Athena, the goddess of wisdom.
Each of the three goddesses argued their case, but of course, none of them were willing to listen to the arguments of the other, or give the title of fairest to a rival.
Therefore, the goddess decided that Zeus would have to make the final decision.
Zeus was wise enough to avoid placing himself in a position where he would end up putting one goddess above another; thus, he made the proclamation that the choice of fairest was to be made by Paris.
Paris and the Beauty Contest
Paris was not another god, but was a mortal, and a prince of Troy. Paris was the son of King Priam of Troy, and looked after the cattle and sheep of his father on Mount Ida, to the southeast of the city.
Paris was well known for making fair and just decisions, and acting as a judge who would not be swayed by outside influences. Paris had already judged that Ares, when disguised as a bull, was a better animal than Paris’ own bull, without knowing that the other bull was a god in disguise.
Hermes, therefore, took the three goddesses to Paris for him to make a decision. The three goddesses, despite having profound natural beauty, were not content to allow Paris to make a decision based on looks alone. Each sought to influence the decision by offering bribes.
Hera offered Paris wealth, power, and dominion over all mortal realms if she was chosen as fairest of the three. Athena promised the Trojan prince every known skill, as well as the ability to be the greatest of all warriors. Lastly, Aphrodite offered Paris Helen's hand in marriage. The daughter of Leda and Zeus, Helen was said to be the most beautiful woman in the world.
The Judgement of Paris
Paris gives his Judgement
Paris made his decision; and the Judgement of Paris was that Aphrodite was the “fairest” and rightful owner of the apple. No doubt. Paris was swayed by the bribe that the goddess of love offered to the prince.
Aphrodite would keep her promise, and would aid the Trojan prince with the abduction of Helen from Sparta; regardless of the fact that Helen was already married to Menelaus.
Of course, the decision made by Paris was not well received by Hera or Athena, and both would hold a lifelong grudge towards Paris. The animosity of Athena and Hera would later be displayed in the Trojan War, when both goddesses sided with the Achaean forces; although Aphrodite would assist the Trojans.
Aphrodite the Winner
The Inevitability of the Judgement of Paris
Paris would have done well to keep clear from judging this beauty contest, but what mortal could turn down a request from Zeus? A declination from Paris would have probably proved deadly for the prince.
In any case, the whole event had already been pre-ordained, as it had been foretold that Paris would cause the downfall of Troy. When Hecuba had given birth to Paris, a premonition had seen the queen see Troy burning, and the Trojan seer Aesacus had proclaimed that Paris would have to be put to death to save the city.
Many of the ancient sources also claimed that Zeus himself had planned everything, arranging for Eris to throw the apple and start off the Trojan War, so that the supreme deity could bring the time of heroes to an end.
Questions & Answers
Why was Paris chosen to be the judge of the beauty contest?
Zeus chose Paris for two reasons. Firstly, Paris was not an immortal, and Zeus did not wish for potential conflict between the gods.
Secondly, Paris was known as an impartial judge, for previously he had judge a competition between cattle, and had chosen an animal in preference to his own, without even knowing that that animal belonged to the god Ares.Helpful 6
Why does Paris choose Aphrodite's offer over those offered by the other two goddesses?
Some might consider Paris' acceptance of Aphrodite's bribe a strange one, for she promised him the most beautiful woman, whilst Hera offered power, and Athena offered military might, but of course some believe that love conquers all.Helpful 1 | 1,300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s been a little while since we’ve heard from the Mars Curiosity rover, but over the past few weeks, it’s been very busy examining what could be evidence of mud cracks in a slab of Martian rock. That slab of rock – dubbed Old Soaker by NASA scientists – features many raised ridges that could have been created by drying mud billions of years ago. If that’s the case, then we’ll have even more evidence for a wetter environment in the planet’s past.
Furthermore, this would be the first evidence of mud cracks discovered by Curiosity. Scientists noted that these ridges were unlike other rock fractures they’d seen thus far, which leads Curiosity science team member Nathan Stein to conclude that “Mud cracks are the most likely scenario here.”
With mud cracks being the working theory, that would make the ridges on the face of Old Soaker ancient deposits of sediment. The ridges you see were formed by material that filled the cracks in the dried mud, which was then buried by other layers of sediment. All of the layers then became stratified rock, and then the ridges outlasted the other layers of rock as it was all eroded away.
The idea that the ridges of sediment deposits would be more resistant to erosion could give us a window in the past. If these ridges were left by dried, cracked mud billions of years ago, then it could point to a Martian past that was far more wet than it is today. Old Soaker is found on lower Mount Sharp, which is where Curiosity has discovered additional evidence of water.
Obviously, NASA scientists are going to study this more as time goes on, but for now, it sounds like another solid indication that Mars had a much wetter surface once upon a time. Mount Sharp has offered a significant look into the past of Mars so far, and it will hopefully provide more in the future. We’ll see what comes from further inspection of Old Soaker, so stay tuned for more. | <urn:uuid:cd3f0228-68f6-4217-8ae4-285349541a56> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.slashgear.com/curiosity-rover-finds-evidence-of-mud-cracks-in-martian-rocks-18472325/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00163.warc.gz | en | 0.98257 | 419 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.22631403... | 2 | It’s been a little while since we’ve heard from the Mars Curiosity rover, but over the past few weeks, it’s been very busy examining what could be evidence of mud cracks in a slab of Martian rock. That slab of rock – dubbed Old Soaker by NASA scientists – features many raised ridges that could have been created by drying mud billions of years ago. If that’s the case, then we’ll have even more evidence for a wetter environment in the planet’s past.
Furthermore, this would be the first evidence of mud cracks discovered by Curiosity. Scientists noted that these ridges were unlike other rock fractures they’d seen thus far, which leads Curiosity science team member Nathan Stein to conclude that “Mud cracks are the most likely scenario here.”
With mud cracks being the working theory, that would make the ridges on the face of Old Soaker ancient deposits of sediment. The ridges you see were formed by material that filled the cracks in the dried mud, which was then buried by other layers of sediment. All of the layers then became stratified rock, and then the ridges outlasted the other layers of rock as it was all eroded away.
The idea that the ridges of sediment deposits would be more resistant to erosion could give us a window in the past. If these ridges were left by dried, cracked mud billions of years ago, then it could point to a Martian past that was far more wet than it is today. Old Soaker is found on lower Mount Sharp, which is where Curiosity has discovered additional evidence of water.
Obviously, NASA scientists are going to study this more as time goes on, but for now, it sounds like another solid indication that Mars had a much wetter surface once upon a time. Mount Sharp has offered a significant look into the past of Mars so far, and it will hopefully provide more in the future. We’ll see what comes from further inspection of Old Soaker, so stay tuned for more. | 402 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What Is Peak Expiratory Flow?
Peak expiratory flow, or PEF, is the amount of air you can quickly expel from your lungs. Used to measure lung function in people with asthma, PEF can be tested at home by blowing out as hard and as quickly as you can into a device known as a peak flow meter.
Physicians may also measure the amount of air you can expel from your lungs as part of an asthma diagnosis or checkup. Doctors gauge this using spirometry, which involves exhaling as much air as you can, as fast as you can, into a tube attached to a device called a spirometer. This results in a more specific measure known as FEV subscript1, or forced expiratory volume in one second.
Because asthma is a respiratory condition in which the airways in the lungs are narrowed and inflamed, being able to expel more air—meaning that lung tissue is less swollen and inflamed—is better than expelling less air, which can indicate that lungs are inflamed due to asthma. | <urn:uuid:ac151f19-588c-4d40-a78d-d02bb39fe82b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.health.com/condition/asthma/what-is-peak-expiratory-flow | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.981843 | 216 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.110266983509... | 6 | What Is Peak Expiratory Flow?
Peak expiratory flow, or PEF, is the amount of air you can quickly expel from your lungs. Used to measure lung function in people with asthma, PEF can be tested at home by blowing out as hard and as quickly as you can into a device known as a peak flow meter.
Physicians may also measure the amount of air you can expel from your lungs as part of an asthma diagnosis or checkup. Doctors gauge this using spirometry, which involves exhaling as much air as you can, as fast as you can, into a tube attached to a device called a spirometer. This results in a more specific measure known as FEV subscript1, or forced expiratory volume in one second.
Because asthma is a respiratory condition in which the airways in the lungs are narrowed and inflamed, being able to expel more air—meaning that lung tissue is less swollen and inflamed—is better than expelling less air, which can indicate that lungs are inflamed due to asthma. | 215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Augustus de Morgan Biography and Contribution to Math World Essay
Augustus De Morgan was known as a British mathematician and logician. He is known for creating De Morgan’s Laws and showing us the term mathematical induction. He also has a crater on the moon named after him. Augustus De Morgan was born on June 27, 1806 in Madras, India. His father was named Colonel John De Morgan, and he was employed by the East India Company’s service. Just a few months after Augustus was born, he became blind in one eye.
At seven months old, his father moved the family to England because he had to serve.
His father died on his way home back in 1816 when Augustus was just ten years old. De Morgan attended many private schools. Before he turned fourteen, he was fluent in Greek, Latin and Hebrew. When he was sixteen, he enrolled at Trinity College. His major was mathematics. Three years later, he got a scholarship from the school. He really enjoyed reading which sometimes interfered with his study of mathematics.
He didn’t want to sign the theological tests that were mandatory for masters of arts degree which prevented him from getting his M. A. In 1828, he became a professor at The University of London in the subject of math. He was only twenty two when he gave his first lecture. A bit of trouble happened at the college so he resigned his position as a professor. But when his boss accidently drowned, he was asked to teach again. His memory was extraordinary and he was known for it. He worked with Lord Broughman. Together about the same time, they both started The Society for The Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. De Morgan was one of the reoccurring writers.
The Society published The Differential and Integral Calculus which is what De Morgan wrote. He also wrote like one-sixth of articles found in the Penny Cyclopedia. While at the university, he befriended William Frend, who was also a mathematician. He got married in 1837 to Sophia Elizabeth. Sophia was one of William’s daughters. Together, they had seven children; four daughters and three sons. He became a professor for the London University which was founded about ten years later. De Morgan would give out what we now call homework. He always said that it’s better to fully understand it then not.
So that was the purpose of his homework which he would return before the next class. He always stressed how much logical training was important. While at the college, he formulated what is now considered “De Morgan’s Laws” which simply states: Not P and Not Q = Not P or Not Q and Not P or Not Q = Not P and Not Q Although Aristotle came up with something similar, De Morgan was given credit because he stated it formally. He came up with Negation of disjunction and Negation of conjunction. He created the truth tables and came up with ways to solve validity.
The headquarters in London at the Mathematical Society is now called the De Morgan House and well as the math department at the college is called the Augustus De Morgan Society. At the age of sixty, De Morgan resigned from his teaching position. Tragedy soon struck afterwards. His son George, whom he had nicknames with, who also loved mathematics, died just two years later! Right after his son’s death, his daughter also passed away leaving him with a broken heart. At the age of sixty-five, just five years after he retired, on March 18, 1871, Augustus De Morgan died of nervous prostration.
Cite this Augustus de Morgan Biography and Contribution to Math World Essay
Augustus de Morgan Biography and Contribution to Math World Essay. (2017, Mar 28). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/augustus-de-morgan-biography-and-contribution-to-math-world/ | <urn:uuid:d2dd70f1-e128-4d48-926d-73a414bbd330> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/augustus-de-morgan-biography-and-contribution-to-math-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.989848 | 816 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.1240512728691101... | 1 | Augustus de Morgan Biography and Contribution to Math World Essay
Augustus De Morgan was known as a British mathematician and logician. He is known for creating De Morgan’s Laws and showing us the term mathematical induction. He also has a crater on the moon named after him. Augustus De Morgan was born on June 27, 1806 in Madras, India. His father was named Colonel John De Morgan, and he was employed by the East India Company’s service. Just a few months after Augustus was born, he became blind in one eye.
At seven months old, his father moved the family to England because he had to serve.
His father died on his way home back in 1816 when Augustus was just ten years old. De Morgan attended many private schools. Before he turned fourteen, he was fluent in Greek, Latin and Hebrew. When he was sixteen, he enrolled at Trinity College. His major was mathematics. Three years later, he got a scholarship from the school. He really enjoyed reading which sometimes interfered with his study of mathematics.
He didn’t want to sign the theological tests that were mandatory for masters of arts degree which prevented him from getting his M. A. In 1828, he became a professor at The University of London in the subject of math. He was only twenty two when he gave his first lecture. A bit of trouble happened at the college so he resigned his position as a professor. But when his boss accidently drowned, he was asked to teach again. His memory was extraordinary and he was known for it. He worked with Lord Broughman. Together about the same time, they both started The Society for The Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. De Morgan was one of the reoccurring writers.
The Society published The Differential and Integral Calculus which is what De Morgan wrote. He also wrote like one-sixth of articles found in the Penny Cyclopedia. While at the university, he befriended William Frend, who was also a mathematician. He got married in 1837 to Sophia Elizabeth. Sophia was one of William’s daughters. Together, they had seven children; four daughters and three sons. He became a professor for the London University which was founded about ten years later. De Morgan would give out what we now call homework. He always said that it’s better to fully understand it then not.
So that was the purpose of his homework which he would return before the next class. He always stressed how much logical training was important. While at the college, he formulated what is now considered “De Morgan’s Laws” which simply states: Not P and Not Q = Not P or Not Q and Not P or Not Q = Not P and Not Q Although Aristotle came up with something similar, De Morgan was given credit because he stated it formally. He came up with Negation of disjunction and Negation of conjunction. He created the truth tables and came up with ways to solve validity.
The headquarters in London at the Mathematical Society is now called the De Morgan House and well as the math department at the college is called the Augustus De Morgan Society. At the age of sixty, De Morgan resigned from his teaching position. Tragedy soon struck afterwards. His son George, whom he had nicknames with, who also loved mathematics, died just two years later! Right after his son’s death, his daughter also passed away leaving him with a broken heart. At the age of sixty-five, just five years after he retired, on March 18, 1871, Augustus De Morgan died of nervous prostration.
Cite this Augustus de Morgan Biography and Contribution to Math World Essay
Augustus de Morgan Biography and Contribution to Math World Essay. (2017, Mar 28). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/augustus-de-morgan-biography-and-contribution-to-math-world/ | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1854, Samuel Ringgold Ward declared to an audience in York that since the Tudor times, the soil of England had been “reddened with the blood of my race.” He directly targeted the moral superiority narrative within British society that declared the nation was a land of freedom: instead, he pointed to cases where Black British sailors had been kidnapped into slavery in the US, and the British government did nothing to recover them.
Born enslaved in Maryland in 1817, Ward escaped and became a preacher, antislavery activist and journalist in the US. He joined the Liberty Party in 1840, and lectured on abolition across the eastern United States. From 1853, he travelled to the British Isles on behalf of the Canadian Antislavery Society and hope to capitalize on the commercial success of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. He held temperance, abolitionist and religious meetings across the British Isles and befriended influential reformers, authors, and other formerly enslaved individuals who were travelling Britain at the time, including Alexander Crummell and William and Ellen Craft.
In 1855, Ward wrote Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro, which detailed his experiences in Canada, England and the US, and emigrated to Jamaica, where he died in 1866.
Englishmen sang “Britons never shall be slaves,” but some were annually made slaves. Mr. Ward referred to John Glasgow, whose case has lately been before the public, who was born free in Demerara, and English settlement, but who had been seized in Georgia, and not being able to pay the gaol fees, was now a slave in that state. Such a state of affairs he considered was un-English, and it was strange that this great country allowed it to exist without its voice being raised against it. | <urn:uuid:e4027f48-7063-4998-ac46-4186f7416b48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://frederickdouglassinbritain.com/img/SamuelRinggoldWard/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.982601 | 377 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.0408... | 6 | In 1854, Samuel Ringgold Ward declared to an audience in York that since the Tudor times, the soil of England had been “reddened with the blood of my race.” He directly targeted the moral superiority narrative within British society that declared the nation was a land of freedom: instead, he pointed to cases where Black British sailors had been kidnapped into slavery in the US, and the British government did nothing to recover them.
Born enslaved in Maryland in 1817, Ward escaped and became a preacher, antislavery activist and journalist in the US. He joined the Liberty Party in 1840, and lectured on abolition across the eastern United States. From 1853, he travelled to the British Isles on behalf of the Canadian Antislavery Society and hope to capitalize on the commercial success of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin. He held temperance, abolitionist and religious meetings across the British Isles and befriended influential reformers, authors, and other formerly enslaved individuals who were travelling Britain at the time, including Alexander Crummell and William and Ellen Craft.
In 1855, Ward wrote Autobiography of a Fugitive Negro, which detailed his experiences in Canada, England and the US, and emigrated to Jamaica, where he died in 1866.
Englishmen sang “Britons never shall be slaves,” but some were annually made slaves. Mr. Ward referred to John Glasgow, whose case has lately been before the public, who was born free in Demerara, and English settlement, but who had been seized in Georgia, and not being able to pay the gaol fees, was now a slave in that state. Such a state of affairs he considered was un-English, and it was strange that this great country allowed it to exist without its voice being raised against it. | 385 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Atlantic Slave Trade took about 12.5 million Africans across the Atlantic in the Middle Passage. Only about 10.7 million of these people actually made it to the Americas, with the other estimated 1.8 million dying during the voyage. Many others died while being seized and transported to the African Coast. The commerce in people corrupted many African societies. Elites would often use victimized slaves to earn money and power. Owning and exchanging people was a very common practice that was represented by the Atlantic Slave Trade in the Americas. Many African Societies practiced slavery and would also sale slaves in international commerce. The Atlantic Slave Trade had about twice as many men as it did women. Europeans had a low immunity to tropical diseases, and they would often wait on the coast for the African merchants or political elites to bring the slaves to them. Most African societies were very willing to sell their slaves peacefully to the Europeans, which kept them from having to raid Africa in search of slaves. Millions of African underwent horrendous conditions on slave ships to the New World, “with the Middle Passage having an overall mortality rate of more than 14 percent”. Some slaves would even jump overboard and drown themselves to avoid undergoing these despicable voyages. Almost 10 percent of these voyages faced rebellion by the captives. Africa was divided into many separate communities. These societies had “no concept of an African identity”. Africans would generally not sell their own people, but rather rival community members or outsiders who were not protected by a community. Many times Blacks would sell prisoners of war for the slave trade, and occasionally they would even sell their own children or other family members. Once aboard the slave ships, Africans had such miserable environments that they often wished to return to former slavery in their native country or for death to come. The captives were kept under the deck where the stench and the number of people was suffocating. The men are handcuffed on their wrists and legs immediately after boarding the ship. The women are kept in a separate area from the men. They are frequently packed so tight that they are forced to lay on their sides. The Africans have to use small tubs when necessary and these tubs are only cleaned out once a day. The tubs are not usually not large enough for their intended purpose. The captives are fed generally twice a day. Their meals consist of horse beans, boiled yams, rice, and occasionally a small amount of beef or pork. Many times there are fights over the small quantity of food. The slaves were given a coconut shell of water at each meal and that was all they had to drink all day. When weather allows the captives to be on deck, they are forced to dance for exercise to maintain proper health. The Africans are often highly affected by sea sickness, which often ends in death, especially for women. Since captives are often not allowed on deck, there are small air ports on the side of the ship for fresh air. These air ports commonly have to be closed due to rain. The lack of fresh air causes the rooms to be extremely hot. Breathing the same air in and out causes “fevers and fluxes which generally carries off great number of them.” The flux would cause the floor to be covered in blood and mucus. Alexander Falconbridge who often was aboard these sort of ships said, “It is not in the power of the human imagination to picture a situation more dreadful or disgusting”. Captives look for every opportunity to escape their miserable state, but few succeed. The slavers aboard the ships treated the Africans worse than they would animals. Most of them believed it was their right to have slaves. The slavers were used to seeing the mistreatment of slaves, so it wasn’t uncommon for them to hurt the slaves. They thought that the Africans were beneath them, and that they were treating the slaves the way they deserved to be treated. John Barbot, an agent for the French Royal African Company, stated that by going to the New World the Africans had the “advantage…of becoming christians, and saving their souls, if they make a true use of their condition….”. The slavers believed that they were only doing what had to be done in providing slaves for the New World. They thought that the Africans deserved to have their teeth broken for refusing to eat. They would also put hot goals on the slaves lips and threaten to make them swallow coals if they wouldn’t eat. The slavers believed that they were doing the right thing, and trying to keep the captives from starving to death. The slavers were responsible for keeping the slaves from injuring themselves or other captives. The slavers had to break up many fights, especially around meal time. The slavers would beat the captives to show who was in control of the ship. It’s hard to imagine treating another person this harshly, but was what the slavers had always know. The slavers had been taught that they were superior to the Africans their whole lifes. Even though the slavers had a considerably better experience on the slave ships than the Africans did, there were still some difficult situations for the slavers. The slavers had to go below deck daily to change out the waste tubs, check for deceased captives, and bring the slaves water and food. During these daily trips the slavers would often be attacked by the desperate captives. The slaves would use any object they could find as a weapon to try and break free. The slavers often had to disarm these rebellious captives without killing or severely injuring them. If the slaves were killed then the slavers wouldn’t get the money from selling that slave. The majority of the slavers felt no compassion for the Africans, but this wasn’t the case for all the white men aboard. James Barbot, an English slaver, was one of the few who felt that the slaves were mistreated. James stated that, “Such officers should consider, those unfortunate creatures are men as well as themselves, tho’ of a different colour, and pagans; and that they ought to do to others as they would be done by in like circumstances…”. Although slavers who felt the way James Barbot did were few and far between, they did exist. The Atlantic slave trade had significant impact on the world. The economic benefits of slavery was incomparable to the millions of people who died. The “profound and enduring human consequences” of the Atlantic Slave Trade will forever be a part of the world’s history. | <urn:uuid:b002864e-85a0-44cf-b37f-a68ec1b5dcf5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shakespearecomputer.com/the-atlantic-slave-trade-took-about-12-5-million/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.98899 | 1,331 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.23138341... | 2 | The Atlantic Slave Trade took about 12.5 million Africans across the Atlantic in the Middle Passage. Only about 10.7 million of these people actually made it to the Americas, with the other estimated 1.8 million dying during the voyage. Many others died while being seized and transported to the African Coast. The commerce in people corrupted many African societies. Elites would often use victimized slaves to earn money and power. Owning and exchanging people was a very common practice that was represented by the Atlantic Slave Trade in the Americas. Many African Societies practiced slavery and would also sale slaves in international commerce. The Atlantic Slave Trade had about twice as many men as it did women. Europeans had a low immunity to tropical diseases, and they would often wait on the coast for the African merchants or political elites to bring the slaves to them. Most African societies were very willing to sell their slaves peacefully to the Europeans, which kept them from having to raid Africa in search of slaves. Millions of African underwent horrendous conditions on slave ships to the New World, “with the Middle Passage having an overall mortality rate of more than 14 percent”. Some slaves would even jump overboard and drown themselves to avoid undergoing these despicable voyages. Almost 10 percent of these voyages faced rebellion by the captives. Africa was divided into many separate communities. These societies had “no concept of an African identity”. Africans would generally not sell their own people, but rather rival community members or outsiders who were not protected by a community. Many times Blacks would sell prisoners of war for the slave trade, and occasionally they would even sell their own children or other family members. Once aboard the slave ships, Africans had such miserable environments that they often wished to return to former slavery in their native country or for death to come. The captives were kept under the deck where the stench and the number of people was suffocating. The men are handcuffed on their wrists and legs immediately after boarding the ship. The women are kept in a separate area from the men. They are frequently packed so tight that they are forced to lay on their sides. The Africans have to use small tubs when necessary and these tubs are only cleaned out once a day. The tubs are not usually not large enough for their intended purpose. The captives are fed generally twice a day. Their meals consist of horse beans, boiled yams, rice, and occasionally a small amount of beef or pork. Many times there are fights over the small quantity of food. The slaves were given a coconut shell of water at each meal and that was all they had to drink all day. When weather allows the captives to be on deck, they are forced to dance for exercise to maintain proper health. The Africans are often highly affected by sea sickness, which often ends in death, especially for women. Since captives are often not allowed on deck, there are small air ports on the side of the ship for fresh air. These air ports commonly have to be closed due to rain. The lack of fresh air causes the rooms to be extremely hot. Breathing the same air in and out causes “fevers and fluxes which generally carries off great number of them.” The flux would cause the floor to be covered in blood and mucus. Alexander Falconbridge who often was aboard these sort of ships said, “It is not in the power of the human imagination to picture a situation more dreadful or disgusting”. Captives look for every opportunity to escape their miserable state, but few succeed. The slavers aboard the ships treated the Africans worse than they would animals. Most of them believed it was their right to have slaves. The slavers were used to seeing the mistreatment of slaves, so it wasn’t uncommon for them to hurt the slaves. They thought that the Africans were beneath them, and that they were treating the slaves the way they deserved to be treated. John Barbot, an agent for the French Royal African Company, stated that by going to the New World the Africans had the “advantage…of becoming christians, and saving their souls, if they make a true use of their condition….”. The slavers believed that they were only doing what had to be done in providing slaves for the New World. They thought that the Africans deserved to have their teeth broken for refusing to eat. They would also put hot goals on the slaves lips and threaten to make them swallow coals if they wouldn’t eat. The slavers believed that they were doing the right thing, and trying to keep the captives from starving to death. The slavers were responsible for keeping the slaves from injuring themselves or other captives. The slavers had to break up many fights, especially around meal time. The slavers would beat the captives to show who was in control of the ship. It’s hard to imagine treating another person this harshly, but was what the slavers had always know. The slavers had been taught that they were superior to the Africans their whole lifes. Even though the slavers had a considerably better experience on the slave ships than the Africans did, there were still some difficult situations for the slavers. The slavers had to go below deck daily to change out the waste tubs, check for deceased captives, and bring the slaves water and food. During these daily trips the slavers would often be attacked by the desperate captives. The slaves would use any object they could find as a weapon to try and break free. The slavers often had to disarm these rebellious captives without killing or severely injuring them. If the slaves were killed then the slavers wouldn’t get the money from selling that slave. The majority of the slavers felt no compassion for the Africans, but this wasn’t the case for all the white men aboard. James Barbot, an English slaver, was one of the few who felt that the slaves were mistreated. James stated that, “Such officers should consider, those unfortunate creatures are men as well as themselves, tho’ of a different colour, and pagans; and that they ought to do to others as they would be done by in like circumstances…”. Although slavers who felt the way James Barbot did were few and far between, they did exist. The Atlantic slave trade had significant impact on the world. The economic benefits of slavery was incomparable to the millions of people who died. The “profound and enduring human consequences” of the Atlantic Slave Trade will forever be a part of the world’s history. | 1,327 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On November 13, 1093, died Malcolm III, King of Scots from 1058 to 1093.
Nicknamed Canmore (in Scottish Gaelic: «Great Chief», Malcolm ruled 35 years and his reign preceded the beginning of the Scotto-Norman age.
He was founder of the dynasty that consolidated royal power in the Scottish kingdom.
He is the historical equivalent of the character of the same name in the famous work of Shakespeare — Macbeth.Malcolm III was born in 1031; he was the eldest son of King Duncan I.
As the eldest son, was appointed as the successor to the throne. In 1040, when he was just 9 years old, his father was killed in battle by Macbeth — his cousin.
Macbeth at that time, was the new king of Scotland and Malcolm was forced to live in exile in England during part of the reign of his father’s murderer, Macbeth (reigned 1040–57).
Malcolm killed Macbeth in battle in 1057 and then ascended the throne. After the conquest of England by William the Conqueror, in 1066, Malcolm gave refuge to the Anglo-Saxon prince Edgar Ætheling and his sisters, one of whom, Margaret (later St. Margaret), became his second wife.
Disputes with its southern neighbor ended in 1072 when Malcolm under pressure from King William II of the Red swore subordination of England, which caused controversy among almost the same court, and the population of Scotland, because it meant the end of one hundred percent of the sovereignty of the state
In 1093 Malcolm decided to recover the independence of Scotland and began the war with Wilhelm II, who had a well-organized armies and quickly restrained Malcolm.
King of Scotland, died November 13, 1093 at the Battle of Alnwick, in which the King of England attacked the Scottish armies by surprise.
In the same battle he died also the son of Malcolm, Edward. It was which meant a big fiasco for the Scots. On his death, Malcolm was succeeded by the joint rule of his brother, Donald III, and his second son by Margaret, Edmund.
Malcolm was initially buried at Tynemouth Priory, but in 1115 he was exhumed and reburied in the monastery of the Benedictine Durnfemline, built by his wife Margaret in 1070.Dunfermline Abbey, next to Margaret. | <urn:uuid:03d9af7f-9c29-42d7-9688-3daa15c6f6d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tall-white-aliens.com/?p=9688 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.983862 | 505 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.1917854... | 2 | On November 13, 1093, died Malcolm III, King of Scots from 1058 to 1093.
Nicknamed Canmore (in Scottish Gaelic: «Great Chief», Malcolm ruled 35 years and his reign preceded the beginning of the Scotto-Norman age.
He was founder of the dynasty that consolidated royal power in the Scottish kingdom.
He is the historical equivalent of the character of the same name in the famous work of Shakespeare — Macbeth.Malcolm III was born in 1031; he was the eldest son of King Duncan I.
As the eldest son, was appointed as the successor to the throne. In 1040, when he was just 9 years old, his father was killed in battle by Macbeth — his cousin.
Macbeth at that time, was the new king of Scotland and Malcolm was forced to live in exile in England during part of the reign of his father’s murderer, Macbeth (reigned 1040–57).
Malcolm killed Macbeth in battle in 1057 and then ascended the throne. After the conquest of England by William the Conqueror, in 1066, Malcolm gave refuge to the Anglo-Saxon prince Edgar Ætheling and his sisters, one of whom, Margaret (later St. Margaret), became his second wife.
Disputes with its southern neighbor ended in 1072 when Malcolm under pressure from King William II of the Red swore subordination of England, which caused controversy among almost the same court, and the population of Scotland, because it meant the end of one hundred percent of the sovereignty of the state
In 1093 Malcolm decided to recover the independence of Scotland and began the war with Wilhelm II, who had a well-organized armies and quickly restrained Malcolm.
King of Scotland, died November 13, 1093 at the Battle of Alnwick, in which the King of England attacked the Scottish armies by surprise.
In the same battle he died also the son of Malcolm, Edward. It was which meant a big fiasco for the Scots. On his death, Malcolm was succeeded by the joint rule of his brother, Donald III, and his second son by Margaret, Edmund.
Malcolm was initially buried at Tynemouth Priory, but in 1115 he was exhumed and reburied in the monastery of the Benedictine Durnfemline, built by his wife Margaret in 1070.Dunfermline Abbey, next to Margaret. | 536 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today we looked at a book full of pictures of real farm animals. Using books like this is a great way to increase you child’s vocabulary. We can use many adjectives to describe what we see . There were FLOCKS of sheep. We saw PIGLETS , DUCKLINGS and CHICKS. What do you call a baby horse ? A horsling ?????? No… but I can see why she said that ! It is called a foal.
We also took our farm counters out and did some sorting . I tried to let the kids think of ways to sort the animals. They almost always guessed by color first. The other ways were a little more complicated. We can sort them by species or animal families. We can sort them by size – big or little animals.
We also did some patterning. First we did a simple ABAB pattern ( red animal, blue animal, red animal, blue animal ). Then we moved on to an AABAA pattern ( Red animal, red animal, blue animal, red animal, red animal.) The kids really surprised me by tackling some of the difficult patterns.
Then we played ” What is missing?” Games like this one helps the kids become better observers. I placed several animals on the table and took one away. The kids would then look and try to remember which one I took away. The funny part of this was they would cover their eyes and after taking an animal I would say ” Ok, Look back!” And every time they would look behind them instead of at the table ! It cracked me up. I realized that there were other ways that would be better to say ” Im ready you can look to see what is missing now..” But I LOVED that they all did this. HILARIOUS. ( Hey, I need entertainment sometimes too! ) | <urn:uuid:0e250db9-856f-4d8b-9bef-b8c31a165ba0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://siloampreschool.com/2012/02/how-many-different-ways-can-we-sort/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.981429 | 386 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.22808511555194855... | 14 | Today we looked at a book full of pictures of real farm animals. Using books like this is a great way to increase you child’s vocabulary. We can use many adjectives to describe what we see . There were FLOCKS of sheep. We saw PIGLETS , DUCKLINGS and CHICKS. What do you call a baby horse ? A horsling ?????? No… but I can see why she said that ! It is called a foal.
We also took our farm counters out and did some sorting . I tried to let the kids think of ways to sort the animals. They almost always guessed by color first. The other ways were a little more complicated. We can sort them by species or animal families. We can sort them by size – big or little animals.
We also did some patterning. First we did a simple ABAB pattern ( red animal, blue animal, red animal, blue animal ). Then we moved on to an AABAA pattern ( Red animal, red animal, blue animal, red animal, red animal.) The kids really surprised me by tackling some of the difficult patterns.
Then we played ” What is missing?” Games like this one helps the kids become better observers. I placed several animals on the table and took one away. The kids would then look and try to remember which one I took away. The funny part of this was they would cover their eyes and after taking an animal I would say ” Ok, Look back!” And every time they would look behind them instead of at the table ! It cracked me up. I realized that there were other ways that would be better to say ” Im ready you can look to see what is missing now..” But I LOVED that they all did this. HILARIOUS. ( Hey, I need entertainment sometimes too! ) | 369 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were some improvements in London in the 17th century:
In September 1666, after a hot summer, a fire broke out in a baker's shop. The fire was fanned by a strong wind and destroyed 13,000 houses and 88 churches, including St Paul's Cathedral. Only a few people died, but about 100,000 were made homeless. London had to be rebuilt. Christopher Wren designed the new St Paul's Cathedral that still stands today. The government insisted that new houses were built of bricks and stone.
Most people travelled by boat on the River Thames. The ferrymen were called 'wherrymen'.
In 1570, Sir Thomas Gresham opened the Royal Exchange. After Queen Elizabeth I visited it, it became a fashionable shopping mall.
During the Great Frost of 1683–1684, the River Thames was completely frozen for two months and fairs were held on it.
The theatre became popular. The most famous theatre of Tudor times was The Globe, where Shakespeare's plays were performed. Oliver Cromwell banned the theatre – he thought it was sinful. During the reign of Charles II, the plays became sexy and funny. Women were allowed to be actors and one of them, Nell Gwyn, famously became Charles II's mistress.
The heads of executed people were put on spikes at the Tower of London for all to see. | <urn:uuid:c57b9ef6-25cb-4c22-9490-3203a3d67ae0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zwbj6sg/revision/6 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.994291 | 281 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.439975857... | 1 | There were some improvements in London in the 17th century:
In September 1666, after a hot summer, a fire broke out in a baker's shop. The fire was fanned by a strong wind and destroyed 13,000 houses and 88 churches, including St Paul's Cathedral. Only a few people died, but about 100,000 were made homeless. London had to be rebuilt. Christopher Wren designed the new St Paul's Cathedral that still stands today. The government insisted that new houses were built of bricks and stone.
Most people travelled by boat on the River Thames. The ferrymen were called 'wherrymen'.
In 1570, Sir Thomas Gresham opened the Royal Exchange. After Queen Elizabeth I visited it, it became a fashionable shopping mall.
During the Great Frost of 1683–1684, the River Thames was completely frozen for two months and fairs were held on it.
The theatre became popular. The most famous theatre of Tudor times was The Globe, where Shakespeare's plays were performed. Oliver Cromwell banned the theatre – he thought it was sinful. During the reign of Charles II, the plays became sexy and funny. Women were allowed to be actors and one of them, Nell Gwyn, famously became Charles II's mistress.
The heads of executed people were put on spikes at the Tower of London for all to see. | 301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The role of individuals cannot be underestimated when studying the outcome of the Counter-Reformation. The likes of Ignatius Loyola founding the Jesuits is well documented as are the ‘big’ issues such as the Council of Trent, the Index, the Inquisition etc. However, the role of the individual can easily be overlooked.
Charles Borromeo (1538 – 1584) was born into wealth. He was a monk at 8 and a titular abbot at 13 i.e. symbolising everything that was wrong with the Catholic Church. In 1559 he was appointed a cardinal (aged 21) and in the same year archbishop of Milan. He was not even ordained at this time but his uncle was Pius IV.
At this time he underwent a spiritual change and decided to devote his life to the Catholic Church. He helped to draft a new catechism of the church to instruct parish clergy. This was an attempt to simplify and make more understandable the faith to the masses. In 1 566, he went to Milan where there had been no resident archbishop for 80 years. He patronised the Jesuits, founded 3 seminaries in Milan and 3 more in other parts of his diocese. He established the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine for instructing children — the Sunday school movement grew from this. He gave most of his money to the poor and worked exceptionally hard and never spared himself. Milan became a model for other reformers.
Francis Xavier (1506 – 1552) was one of the original Jesuits and one of the greatest missionaries of all time. In 1541, he was invited to go to the East Indies by John III of Portugal. He was from an aristocratic family yet he found himself on a filthy ship devastated by fever. He washed, scrubbed and cooked for all the people on board. He went to Goa, Travancore, Malacca, Molucca Isles, Sri Lanka, Japan and he eventually died near Hong Kong thus failing in his wish to get to China. He travelled extensively in great hardship but it is estimated that he converted more than 700,000 people to the Catholic faith.
Philip Neri (1515 – 1595) founded the Congregation of the Oratory. Neri devoted his life to God after turning down the chance to be a merchant. At 18 he went to Rome where he taught and helped the young and prayed with them. He encouraged them to sing, dance and play games.
In 1551, he became a priest and grouped around him a congregation of priests at the church of San Girolamo. This developed into the Congregation of the Oratory which was recognised by the pope in 1575. This group dedicated itself to leading people to God by prayer, preaching and studying the sacraments. Singing was encouraged (the word ‘oratorio” comes from this). By 1595, they were established in Italy, Spain and southern Germany.
Theresa of AIva (1515 – 1582) and John of the Cross (1549 -1599) were both contemplative mystics. At 18, Theresa went to a Carmelite convent and found it relaxed and very lax with regards to discipline. She reacted against this and founded a reformed convent. Her Carmelites were called Barefooted while the easier going convents were called Barefaced. She founded 17 convents and 14 monasteries (though the latter was helped by John of the Cross) Their writings were widely read and influential. Both were supreme organisers and administrators. This, combined with a total religious commitment, proved a potent combination. Both were great thinkers thus adding a philosophical side to the Counter-Reformation. | <urn:uuid:580c5caf-1c40-4fd3-bc57-ad790b042f4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/the-counter-reformation/individuals-and-the-counter-reformation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.986786 | 762 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2486801147... | 10 | The role of individuals cannot be underestimated when studying the outcome of the Counter-Reformation. The likes of Ignatius Loyola founding the Jesuits is well documented as are the ‘big’ issues such as the Council of Trent, the Index, the Inquisition etc. However, the role of the individual can easily be overlooked.
Charles Borromeo (1538 – 1584) was born into wealth. He was a monk at 8 and a titular abbot at 13 i.e. symbolising everything that was wrong with the Catholic Church. In 1559 he was appointed a cardinal (aged 21) and in the same year archbishop of Milan. He was not even ordained at this time but his uncle was Pius IV.
At this time he underwent a spiritual change and decided to devote his life to the Catholic Church. He helped to draft a new catechism of the church to instruct parish clergy. This was an attempt to simplify and make more understandable the faith to the masses. In 1 566, he went to Milan where there had been no resident archbishop for 80 years. He patronised the Jesuits, founded 3 seminaries in Milan and 3 more in other parts of his diocese. He established the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine for instructing children — the Sunday school movement grew from this. He gave most of his money to the poor and worked exceptionally hard and never spared himself. Milan became a model for other reformers.
Francis Xavier (1506 – 1552) was one of the original Jesuits and one of the greatest missionaries of all time. In 1541, he was invited to go to the East Indies by John III of Portugal. He was from an aristocratic family yet he found himself on a filthy ship devastated by fever. He washed, scrubbed and cooked for all the people on board. He went to Goa, Travancore, Malacca, Molucca Isles, Sri Lanka, Japan and he eventually died near Hong Kong thus failing in his wish to get to China. He travelled extensively in great hardship but it is estimated that he converted more than 700,000 people to the Catholic faith.
Philip Neri (1515 – 1595) founded the Congregation of the Oratory. Neri devoted his life to God after turning down the chance to be a merchant. At 18 he went to Rome where he taught and helped the young and prayed with them. He encouraged them to sing, dance and play games.
In 1551, he became a priest and grouped around him a congregation of priests at the church of San Girolamo. This developed into the Congregation of the Oratory which was recognised by the pope in 1575. This group dedicated itself to leading people to God by prayer, preaching and studying the sacraments. Singing was encouraged (the word ‘oratorio” comes from this). By 1595, they were established in Italy, Spain and southern Germany.
Theresa of AIva (1515 – 1582) and John of the Cross (1549 -1599) were both contemplative mystics. At 18, Theresa went to a Carmelite convent and found it relaxed and very lax with regards to discipline. She reacted against this and founded a reformed convent. Her Carmelites were called Barefooted while the easier going convents were called Barefaced. She founded 17 convents and 14 monasteries (though the latter was helped by John of the Cross) Their writings were widely read and influential. Both were supreme organisers and administrators. This, combined with a total religious commitment, proved a potent combination. Both were great thinkers thus adding a philosophical side to the Counter-Reformation. | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cocksfoot grass (Dactylis glomerata) was sown on the Banks Peninsula hills by the Hay family of Pigeon Bay. Harvesting the seed was hard work, as it had to be done by hand. First, the grass was cut with scythes, then it was bundled into sheaves and carried by horse to the threshing location. Here it is being threshed by a machine, but prior to the 1860s threshing was done by hand with a flail. The industry died out in the 1930s when a disease attacked the crop, and also because harvesting of cocksfoot was able to be done more cheaply on the plains.
Te whakamahi i tēnei tūemi
This item has been provided for private study purposes (such as school projects, family and local history research) and any published reproduction (print or electronic) may infringe copyright law. It is the responsibility of the user of any material to obtain clearance from the copyright holder. | <urn:uuid:82f73613-851f-4480-ad04-3c8eff58a0d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/mi/photograph/16155/harvesting-cocksfoot | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.980706 | 209 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.4824454784... | 3 | Cocksfoot grass (Dactylis glomerata) was sown on the Banks Peninsula hills by the Hay family of Pigeon Bay. Harvesting the seed was hard work, as it had to be done by hand. First, the grass was cut with scythes, then it was bundled into sheaves and carried by horse to the threshing location. Here it is being threshed by a machine, but prior to the 1860s threshing was done by hand with a flail. The industry died out in the 1930s when a disease attacked the crop, and also because harvesting of cocksfoot was able to be done more cheaply on the plains.
Te whakamahi i tēnei tūemi
This item has been provided for private study purposes (such as school projects, family and local history research) and any published reproduction (print or electronic) may infringe copyright law. It is the responsibility of the user of any material to obtain clearance from the copyright holder. | 213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ottoman State has spent the last two hundred years of modernization; Production was unable to meet consumption, and by constantly losing land, the cost of war and compensation became unbearable and could not repay its foreign debt since 1854. The first external debt was received in 1854 due to the Crimean War. In 1874, 23 separate foreign debt received 239 million pounds, but only 127 million pounds were received by the government. Until 1865, the annual repayment of foreign debts could only be made with new foreign debts. The main reason for this result was that external debt was allocated to current expenditures instead of using borrowings in production areas. Although budget revenues were £ 25 million by 1875, compulsory external debt was £ 12 million and floating loans were £ 17 million. In other words, the income earned by the Ottoman Empire in 1875 was insufficient to repay its debts that year and could not be paid £ 5 million. However, it is not possible for the government to allocate all its revenues to debts and to pay current expenditures for the survival of the state. In short, the Ottoman state has collapsed financially and declared a morotorium.
Borrowing, Foreign Debt, Morotorium, Interest.
|Author :||Ali BİRVURAL|
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0.5584450960159302,... | 2 | The Ottoman State has spent the last two hundred years of modernization; Production was unable to meet consumption, and by constantly losing land, the cost of war and compensation became unbearable and could not repay its foreign debt since 1854. The first external debt was received in 1854 due to the Crimean War. In 1874, 23 separate foreign debt received 239 million pounds, but only 127 million pounds were received by the government. Until 1865, the annual repayment of foreign debts could only be made with new foreign debts. The main reason for this result was that external debt was allocated to current expenditures instead of using borrowings in production areas. Although budget revenues were £ 25 million by 1875, compulsory external debt was £ 12 million and floating loans were £ 17 million. In other words, the income earned by the Ottoman Empire in 1875 was insufficient to repay its debts that year and could not be paid £ 5 million. However, it is not possible for the government to allocate all its revenues to debts and to pay current expenditures for the survival of the state. In short, the Ottoman state has collapsed financially and declared a morotorium.
Borrowing, Foreign Debt, Morotorium, Interest.
|Author :||Ali BİRVURAL|
|Number of pages:||115-122| | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The reader finds under ment in the poem. The feeling that the boy experienced after being called a nigger brought much harm to his understanding of the world than Cullen talks about in the poem. Cullen has made the whole thing lighter by saying that it was all he remembered, but he has not mentioned the pain and sorrow that the incident might have brought to the young boy’s mind. So, understatement is there, and the poem leaves for us to think what the boy’s mind might have gone through after this incident of racism.
The poetic form of the poem is nice and easy. There are three quatrains on the whole. The first line of each quatrain has seven syllables; the second line of each has six syllables; and, the third line of each has eight syllables. The reader comes to know that the poem has the rhyming scheme of ABCB. The second line of the quatrain rhymes with the fourth line, throughout the poem. The overall poetic form is very simple, and the use of words is very easy to understand even for a child.
To conclude, Cullen has brought forward a very sensitive issue, which prevails in the American society, with the use of the word “nigger”, which is considered to be very insulting, so much so that even a child of eight felt the abuse. He was not able to forget the mental trauma he went through. The poem has brought up a thought-provoking and an unpleasant subject indeed.
Cullen, Countee. “Incident.” PoemHunter.com. N.p., 2011. Web. 5 Dec 2012. | <urn:uuid:7fd6b825-ceab-4287-a3f8-b42f5927f912> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/poem-analysis-incident-by-countee-cullen/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.98099 | 343 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.383026212453... | 2 | The reader finds under ment in the poem. The feeling that the boy experienced after being called a nigger brought much harm to his understanding of the world than Cullen talks about in the poem. Cullen has made the whole thing lighter by saying that it was all he remembered, but he has not mentioned the pain and sorrow that the incident might have brought to the young boy’s mind. So, understatement is there, and the poem leaves for us to think what the boy’s mind might have gone through after this incident of racism.
The poetic form of the poem is nice and easy. There are three quatrains on the whole. The first line of each quatrain has seven syllables; the second line of each has six syllables; and, the third line of each has eight syllables. The reader comes to know that the poem has the rhyming scheme of ABCB. The second line of the quatrain rhymes with the fourth line, throughout the poem. The overall poetic form is very simple, and the use of words is very easy to understand even for a child.
To conclude, Cullen has brought forward a very sensitive issue, which prevails in the American society, with the use of the word “nigger”, which is considered to be very insulting, so much so that even a child of eight felt the abuse. He was not able to forget the mental trauma he went through. The poem has brought up a thought-provoking and an unpleasant subject indeed.
Cullen, Countee. “Incident.” PoemHunter.com. N.p., 2011. Web. 5 Dec 2012. | 338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lifeboats are one of the most important life-saving equipment that are attached to a ship and they can help to save lives of passengers on board a ship in times of emergencies. They can also be kept on shore to rescue people who are in trouble at sea. These small rigid vessels, which can also be referred to as elaborate versions of a life raft, are secured on the ship into davits which allows it to be launched from the side of the ship, saving crucial escape time as it uses minimal mechanical assistance to be launched allowing an early escape. Besides rescuing people from a dangerous situation, a lifeboat is also required to have essential survival equipment for the people on board the lifeboat to use to survive until they receive help. Some examples of such items can be rations, fresh water, first aid kit, compass and signaling equipment. Ships make use of different types of lifeboats in event of an emergency.
Types of Lifeboat.
There are three types of lifeboats used on merchant vessels :
As the name suggests, the open lifeboat has no roof and is normally propelled by manual power by using hand-propelled ores. Compression ignition engine may also be provided for the propulsion purpose. However, open lifeboats are becoming obsolete now because of stringent safety norms, but one may find them on an older ship. The open lifeboat doesn’t help much in rain or bad weather and the possibility of water ingress in the highest.
The three most common types of life boats that are found on ships can be the Open Lifeboat, Closed Lifeboat and the Free fall life boat. The least common amongst the three being the open lifeboat is now commonly found only on older ships. As the name would suggest, these boats are open with no roof and normally require manual power using hand propelled ores in order for it to move. Some of these boats may also come with ignition engine as a replacement for the hand propelled ores to allow the lifeboat to gain movement. These lifeboats usually have the tendency to collect water during rainy seasons. Also due to the fact that they do not have a roof, they cannot guarantee 100% safety for their passengers. Due to their older designs, very little safety features and stringent safety norms, these lifeboats are becoming obsolete.
Closed lifeboats are the most popular lifeboats that are used on ships, for they are enclosed which saves the crew from seawater, strong wind and rough weather. Moreover, the watertight integrity is higher in this type of lifeboat and it can also get upright on its own if toppled over by waves.
These are the most commonly used lifeboats on ships today. As their name suggest, they are enclosed with a door to allow passengers to board it. The enclosed design saves the lifeboats passengers from sea water, rough weather or strong winds. These lifeboats also do not allow water to enter its interiors and they also have the ability to get upright on their own if they were to get toppled over by harsh weather or rough waves. The closed shape of these lifeboats is able to ensure the safety of its passengers. They also do not require manual power to propel the lifeboat forward as they are motorized.
Free fall lifeboat.
Freefall lifeboat is similar to an enclosed lifeboat but the process of launching is entirely different. They are aerodynamic in nature and thus the boat can penetrate the water without damaging the body when launched from the ship.
These lifeboats are similar to closed lifeboats with the difference being their shape. The launching process of these boats is totally different from closed lifeboats. These boats have an aerodynamic shape which allows them to penetrate the water without damaging their body as they free fall from the ship when launched into the water. They are located at the aft of the ship which provides them with the maximum clear area to free fall into the water.
These lifeboats also make use of different methods to deploy into the sea during an emergency. Two most common methods are on load mechanism and free fall boat release. On load mechanism is when a lifeboat is released from a wire at the height of 1 meter above sea level with all the crew members inside the life boat. A lever which can be controlled from inside the lifeboat is used to detach the lifeboat from the hook. This ensures safety of the passengers as they do not have to go out of the life boat to unhook the lifeboat. A free fall release is similar to the on load mechanism with the difference being that the boat is allowed to free fall from a greater height through a rap tilted into the water which is almost near the top of the ship. | <urn:uuid:b606596c-8036-4d1f-8bc0-db2a0f3fb0ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://inameq.com/safety/ship-lifeboats-types/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00463.warc.gz | en | 0.98048 | 946 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.16527703404... | 4 | Lifeboats are one of the most important life-saving equipment that are attached to a ship and they can help to save lives of passengers on board a ship in times of emergencies. They can also be kept on shore to rescue people who are in trouble at sea. These small rigid vessels, which can also be referred to as elaborate versions of a life raft, are secured on the ship into davits which allows it to be launched from the side of the ship, saving crucial escape time as it uses minimal mechanical assistance to be launched allowing an early escape. Besides rescuing people from a dangerous situation, a lifeboat is also required to have essential survival equipment for the people on board the lifeboat to use to survive until they receive help. Some examples of such items can be rations, fresh water, first aid kit, compass and signaling equipment. Ships make use of different types of lifeboats in event of an emergency.
Types of Lifeboat.
There are three types of lifeboats used on merchant vessels :
As the name suggests, the open lifeboat has no roof and is normally propelled by manual power by using hand-propelled ores. Compression ignition engine may also be provided for the propulsion purpose. However, open lifeboats are becoming obsolete now because of stringent safety norms, but one may find them on an older ship. The open lifeboat doesn’t help much in rain or bad weather and the possibility of water ingress in the highest.
The three most common types of life boats that are found on ships can be the Open Lifeboat, Closed Lifeboat and the Free fall life boat. The least common amongst the three being the open lifeboat is now commonly found only on older ships. As the name would suggest, these boats are open with no roof and normally require manual power using hand propelled ores in order for it to move. Some of these boats may also come with ignition engine as a replacement for the hand propelled ores to allow the lifeboat to gain movement. These lifeboats usually have the tendency to collect water during rainy seasons. Also due to the fact that they do not have a roof, they cannot guarantee 100% safety for their passengers. Due to their older designs, very little safety features and stringent safety norms, these lifeboats are becoming obsolete.
Closed lifeboats are the most popular lifeboats that are used on ships, for they are enclosed which saves the crew from seawater, strong wind and rough weather. Moreover, the watertight integrity is higher in this type of lifeboat and it can also get upright on its own if toppled over by waves.
These are the most commonly used lifeboats on ships today. As their name suggest, they are enclosed with a door to allow passengers to board it. The enclosed design saves the lifeboats passengers from sea water, rough weather or strong winds. These lifeboats also do not allow water to enter its interiors and they also have the ability to get upright on their own if they were to get toppled over by harsh weather or rough waves. The closed shape of these lifeboats is able to ensure the safety of its passengers. They also do not require manual power to propel the lifeboat forward as they are motorized.
Free fall lifeboat.
Freefall lifeboat is similar to an enclosed lifeboat but the process of launching is entirely different. They are aerodynamic in nature and thus the boat can penetrate the water without damaging the body when launched from the ship.
These lifeboats are similar to closed lifeboats with the difference being their shape. The launching process of these boats is totally different from closed lifeboats. These boats have an aerodynamic shape which allows them to penetrate the water without damaging their body as they free fall from the ship when launched into the water. They are located at the aft of the ship which provides them with the maximum clear area to free fall into the water.
These lifeboats also make use of different methods to deploy into the sea during an emergency. Two most common methods are on load mechanism and free fall boat release. On load mechanism is when a lifeboat is released from a wire at the height of 1 meter above sea level with all the crew members inside the life boat. A lever which can be controlled from inside the lifeboat is used to detach the lifeboat from the hook. This ensures safety of the passengers as they do not have to go out of the life boat to unhook the lifeboat. A free fall release is similar to the on load mechanism with the difference being that the boat is allowed to free fall from a greater height through a rap tilted into the water which is almost near the top of the ship. | 932 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shields of Gallic, British, German and Iberian auxiliary Regiments. Clans in the Roman Empire.
The shield of the Gauls.
The shield of the Gauls, according to Strabo and Virgil, was usually long, and the Ligurians carried one of the same form. In sculpture, we perceive the Germans with an oval shaped buckler of ample dimensions. Tacitus admits it was large, but suited to the size of the bearer.
From the plates in Cluverius’s work, we find it was at first formed of the rough wood, or bark of a tree, sometimes retaining the natural curve, but at other times appearing flat,and nearly the length of the body; in several instances it appears formed of straw, or rushes, something resembling the work of bee-hives.
A small round shield seems, however, to have been the favorite of the Celts; and Schoepflin notices the remains of some discovered in Germany. Several of the Celtiberi used the light shield of the Gauls, and others bore round targets, the size of bucklers; but, at Cannae, Polybius says they both carried the same kind, which he describes as weak. The Roman shield was, at first, square; but in their wars with the Tyrhenians, a people of Gallic origin, they adopted the round form used by that people.
From the spoils that were taken at Thermopylae, where the Gauls had no other weapons of defense, and deposited in the temple of Apollo at Delphos, Pausanias describes them as similar to the wicker targets of the Persians, called Gerrha. Those Celts called them thureoi, or thyreos; the Welsh still use tarian, and the French retain thiros. In the Gaelic, tearmun, protection, or defense, is appbed to a shield, as well as targaid, from whence comes the Saxon targa and English target; but sgiath is the usual term, and is applied to a buckler from its supposed resemblance to a wing, denoted by the same word.
The most ancient and most common shields of the Caledonians were, probably, made of interwoven twigs covered with hide. In the poem of Cathula, a sword is said to pass through the folds of a shield; and young Oscar, in Duthona, is represented with one formed of woven reeds.
Caesar describes the Aduatici, who occupied the country about Douay, as having targets of wicker, covered with a tough hide; and Tacitus says those of the Germans were either a sort of basket work, or of board, painted, but seldom bound either with leather or iron, like that of the Romans.
The Scots of Ulster, in the time of Spenser, carried long wicker shields, which were quite unknown among the Southern tribes.
Lucan says some of the Celtiberi used a small shield, called Cetra, which the Romans afterwards adopted. I find that Cetra, in Gaelic, means something intervening, a term very applicable to a shield. The Lusitani carried shields of a peculiar form, resembling a half moon, and composed of the sinews of animals, so strongly interwoven, that, for lightness and strength, they could not be excelled; being, besides,managed with admirable skill, and whirled about so dexterously that it was scarcely possible to wound the person who bore them. They were called Peltae, and four are represented on the shield of the Vesontes in the engraving. Among the Etruscans it was round, and not fixed to the arm, but held in the centre by the hand.
The shield of the ancient Caledonians, according to Herodian, was oblong, resembling those assigned by Cluverius to the continental Celts; but numerous discoveries prove that this was not the only form, if it was at all common.
Dr. Meyrick, indeed, exhibited lately to the Society of Antiquaries, a curious remain of a shield of this shape, but the original British target was circular. The figure of Britannia on Roman coins is represented with one of this form, and apparently of the dimensions of those which the Highlanders, during their independence, continued to use.
The bards invariably speak of them as round, and they appear to have generally resembled those used in the last century, the poetical expressions “dark brown,” “shield of thongs,” alluding to their covering of leather. The targaid of the Scots’ Highlanders was always orbicular, and formed of one or two thin pieces of wood, covered with one or more folds of thick leather, fastened by numerous nails, usually of brass, but often of iron, and sometimes of silver, according to the circumstances of the party.
These nails, or knobs, served to strengthen the targaid, and were rendered highly ornamental to it, for they were sometimes formed into representations of armorial badges, by means of the different metals. The most usual style was an arrangement in concentric circles, which had a pleasing and rich effect. The one represented in the plate is in the armory of the Tower of London, and measures one foot nine inches in diameter. The one shown in the vignette, p.273, is taken from a portrait of a Highland nobleman in the Trius, in the possession of Mr.Donald Currie, Regent street.
The circular arrangement of the nails is singular; for a bronze target of nearly the same dimensions, found in Cardiganshire, and represented in Dr. Meyrick’s excellent history of that county, exhibits, in relief, sixteen circular lines of knobs, exactly resembling the nails on the shields of the Highlanders. It is difficult to determine whether the metal buckler was an imitation of the wooden, or its model. Like the Scots’ target, this curious relic was carried by a single hold, a piece of metal being placed across the boss, or umbo, which afforded room for
the hand; and, in numerous cases, those parts have been discovered of iron and brass, when the wooden shield has been long perished. This method of wielding the shield was common to all Northern nations.
The small round target, covered with leather, common to both Scots and Irish, was always retained by the Highlanders, who signalized themselves by its adroit management. So early as the first century, their ancestors excited admiration by the dexterity with which they used it in eluding the missiles of the Roman army. The single hold, by which the targe was grasped, enabled the bearer to use it with advantage;and of so much importance was it deemed, that, in the last unfortunate rebellion, it was the first care, after the battle of Preston Pans, to provide a large supply for the army. By receiving the points of the bayonets on their targets, they were able with their swords to assail the enemy, who, by this mode of attack, were almost defense less.
Nor was this all: the shield had often a spike fixed in the centre; and they were accustomed to carry the dirk along with it, and thus were doubly armed. “When within reach of the enemies bayonets, bending their left knee, they, by their attitude, cover their bodies with their targets, that receive the thrusts of the bayonets, which they contrive to parry, while, at the same time, they raise their sword arm and strike their adversary.
Having once got within the bayonets, the fate of the battle is decided in an instant, and the carnage follows; the Highlanders bringing down two men at a time, one with their dirk in the left hand, and another with the sword.” These are the words of one who served in the campaign, and was well qualified to give an opinion. This superiority in tactics engaged considerable attention at the time of the rebellion, and various plans were suggested to enable the regular troops to resist the furious onset of the Highlanders.
The targe was usually hung on the left shoulder ;and, on a march,it was sometimes borne on the arm: but, except in actual war, it was not carried about the person. It was reckoned the greatest disgrace among the Germans, to quit their shield in battle. He who did so was not permitted to join in sacrifice, or attend the public assemblies; and many who were so unfortunate as to lose this part of their under a circumstance so disgraceful. The Gael did not carry this feeling so far, yet the Highlander never willingly parted with his targe, “Whose brazen studds and tough bull hide, Had death so often dashed aside.” (Tac. de Mor. Germ.)
The shield of the Celtic chiefs was frequently of metal, or, like the above, was covered with it. An iron shield, round, and weighing nearly twenty pounds, is mentioned by Pennant as preserved at Dunvegan Castle, in Sky. That of the Earl of Mar, in the engraving, is of steel, ornamented with gold.
The shield was sometimes raised in bosses, called, in Gaelic, copan, which, from being hollow, could be made to emit a sound, and, by means of these, it served other uses of some importance among the ancient Caledonians. It was either suspended on a tree, or between spears, near the king or commander of an army; and, when at sea, it hung on the mast, “the dismal sign of war,” and being struck with a spear, was a signal for assembling the army, or preparing for immediate battle. Hence it was poetically named “the shield of alarms,” “the warning boss,” &c.
The Celts did every thing in a grave, solemn, and peculiar way. It seems to have been a privilege or duty of the leader of the war “to strike his shield at times,” and the warriors appear to have done so occasionally, “when their rage arose,” either to keep alive their ardor, or as an indication of their readiness and anxiety for the contest. It was also the practice, at least during the war, of awakening the chiefs by these means. I cannot, however, very well conceive how the sound emitted could be sufficiently loud to be heard through the whole army, as the expressions of the poets seem to imply, although they had been formed of the most sonorous materials; and such a mode of directing the military operations of the troops appears unnecessary, where there were horns for the express purpose. A people that were able to fabricate the other ingenious parts of their military accoutrements, could certainly form a shield of iron capable of producing a certain tone; but the extraordinary effect that is said to have attended the loud clang of these bucklers, can only be set down as a poetical embellishment.
USES OF THE SHIELD.
The shield of Cathmor, a chief of Ireland, as described in the seventh book of Temora, seems too artificial to be reconciled, with satisfaction, to the rude state of the arts at that time. It had seven bosses, each of which was ornamented with a star, representing a constellation, (The shield of Achilles was, likewise, ornamented with celestial signs) and conveyed by its sound a particular order from the king. I should certainly be inclined to doubt the existence of such a singular article, did we not know, from discoveries, that the bosses were sometimes of silver, or other metal, of very ingenious workmanship,and were it not possible to attempt a rational explanation of this traditional account.
sShields of metal were certainly of limited use among those tribes, and were confined to the chief men, giving rise to the expression of “blue-shielded kings,” &c. That of Fingal was evidently of this sort; and the following passage will throw considerable light on the manner in which this curious custom was observed. “On two spears hung his shield on high; the gleaming sign of death: that shield which he was wont to strike, by night, before he rushed to war. It was then his warriors knew when the king was to lead in strife; for, never was this buckler heard, till the wrath of Fingal arose.” This shield, formed of metal, or covered with a plate of iron, was of a more simple construction than that of Cathmor.
The term “bossy,” applied to these bucklers, was expressive of the little convex plates with which they were ornamented. Some were, no doubt, fabricated with superior ingenuity, divided into several of these bosses, or knobs,a blow on any one of which might have been the method by which the commands of the General were conveyed to the army. This is perfectly agreeable to the symbolical and figurative manners of the Celtic race, and the method was less strange than at first appears.
The seven bosses on Cathmor`s shield were “the seven voices of the king, which his warriors received from the wind, and marked over all their tribes.” Here we are not told that the sound of the particular boss which he struck was so loud as to be heard by all the army, but the different clans were informed by means of the warriors. In the former extract we also find that it was the warriors, i. e. the usual, or those above the commons, only, who knew when the engagement was to commence.
It maybe further observed, that the King of Morven, on one occasion, having struck his shield in the night, many of his host were awakened, and thought it was a signal for them to get under arms, which, from other passages, we are led to believe it must have been; but receiving no further intimation, they again went to sleep. It is impossible to believe that these shields could have sounded so loud as the Bard, by poetical license, has given us to understand; and if the bosses of Cathmor`s had rung with the noise of tenor bells, the army would, nevertheless, have been liable to misunderstand their import: but the king’s determination being indicated by his giving a certain number of knocks on a particular boss, his warriors or attendants instantly retired and conveyed his orders to their respective clans.
ORNAMENTS OF THE SHIELD.
The shield was the only part of the warrior’s armour appropriate for the purpose of announcing the resolutions of the chief; and, as that of Cathmor was different from Fingal’s, perhaps each tribe had their peculiar signals.
The king is defender of his people, and the shield, used as the defence of the body, denoted his presence, by being always suspended beside him. It was also used figuratively, to denote this office of defender,in being carried by bards in front of the army after a victory, as we find from a Gaelic poem which refers to the era of the Caledonian Bard. Those who besought assistance, also presented a shield covered with blood, to denote the death of their friends or defenders.
The use of the shield as a tablet, whereon the glory and renown of heroes and their ancestors were set forth, is not its most ancient appropriation. The origin of coat armour is, more probably, to be traced from the practice of displaying the intentions or determination of hostile parties. If the ancient warriors wore the skins and other parts of the animals they killed, or adorned themselves with the spoils of their vanquished enemies, they did so to inspire terror, by this means of shewing no less their power and valour than their inclination to support their prowess. Nations and individuals have frequently assumed certain symbols and borne them on their shields or ensigns, to demonstrate to others the designs on which they were engaged.
The very meaning of the word herald signifies the champion of an army; and to declare war is still his province. The Bards were the heralds of the Celtæ, and they carried the shields of the chiefs, as the herald of succeed in gages bore the arms of his country or patron.
The marks impressed on the leather covered targaid (Target) resembles the intertwining of sprigs, a favorite ornament among the Celts, being imitated in the hilts of the dirks, and introduced in their brooches and other ornaments. This intricate tracery, which formed, for so many ages, their common pattern, is seen in the rude sculptures of monumental stones, and appears to be derived from the mysterious woven knots of the branches of trees, under which the Druids concealed their knowledge, and of which more shall be said hereafter.
The Gauls, says Diodorus, had often the brazen figures of animals on their shields, which served both for ornament and strength; those of the Cimbri being bright and glittering, adorned with the figures of beasts. The Celts were also fond of painting their shields, a practice which they had in most ancient times, and which, being adopted for the purpose of distinction, is clearly the origin of the science of heraldry, about which its professors and antiquaries are so ill agreed.
At Thermopylae, the Gauls had their shields painted in a certain manner; and the night being so dark as to prevent them from perceiving the figures, they were unable to recognize their own troops, and consequently fell into complete confusion.
When society is rude and unsettled,it is not to be expected that individuals will have distinctive symbols or marks; a whole tribe adopts a general recognizance: but the origin of coat armouris to be traced to a much more remote period than the era of justs and tournaments. Dr. Henry very ingeniously supposes that the introduction of clothing led to the transfer of the figures which characterized nobility, from the body to the shield. This is, probably, in some degree true, for the skin was stained for a mark of distinction; but insignia, I apprehend, were first exhibited on standards and shields; and it is probable that the practice was, at first, connected with a religious feeling, the figures being, perhaps, the symbols of gods.
In proof of this, we find that the Aestii carried the images of boars, to indicate the worship of the mother of the gods; and by this mark they were recognized and protected among their enemies. The Gauls carried the images from their sacred groves to battle. The princes of Milan, on Hannibal’s descent into Italy, took the ensigns of gold from the temple of Minerva, which ensigns they called immoveable, and marched with them against the Romans.’ That people did themselves retain something of this ancient custom; the eagles and other military ensigns being deposited in a sacellum with the tutelar gods, and, when displayed, they were placed together in the same rank.
The Celtic tribes of Britain had standards, or banners, figuratively termed sunbeams, in the bardic poems, each leading chief being provided with one. That of Fingal, of which Dr. Smith, of Campbell town, gives a description, was much respected as the king’s ensign; but the flag of Diarmid, who led the right wing of the army, seems to have been superior. In the original Gaelic, the description of “those of the seven principal chiefs is very particular, and so inimitably beautiful, that I cannot imagine,” says a writer, “how Mac Pherson has omitted it in his translation.” (Letter of the Rev. Donald Mac Leod to Dr. Blair.)
The materials of these banners it is not easy to discover. In the poem of “the Death of Fraoich,” conjectured to be of almost equal antiquity with Ossian,— bratach sroil, a silken flag, is mentioned, but it is doubtful whether this be not an interpolation. It is probable that the term now applied to silk, formerly meant only something of a very fine texture.
The Caledonian chiefs had hereditary standard bearers, and the office was reckoned one of much honor, to which a salary in land and other perquisites were attached. They continued to enjoy their trust and emoluments, under Sir Donald Mac Donald, of Slate, in the last century, and were retained by some chiefs to a more recent period. The Celtic name, Vergasilanus, is Fear go saelan, the man with the standard. A superstitious importance was, in many cases, attached to particular banners, which may at first have arisen from the religious veneration before alluded to.
In the island of Oronsay, near the tomb of Murchard Mac Duffaidh, an abbot, who died 1509, is, or was lately, a long pole fixed in memory of the ensign staff of his family, on the preservation of which depended the fate of the race. Clan na Faiter held three lands in Bracadale, Isle of Skye, for preserving the Braotach-shi of Mac Leod, which, tradition asserted, was only to be produced on three occasions. Pennant, who relates this story, says the third time was to preserve his own life; but we are not informed whether any other effect was to follow this last display. To owe his life to its appearance, was matter for lasting gratitude to the “fairy flag.”
The colors of the ancient banners, or their devices, are not distinctly known. “The dark wreaths of Erin’s standard,” (Dargo) the blended colors of Mac Druivel`s bratach, the beauteous green colored banner of the King of plains,” and the red and green meteors, as others are termed, do not give a very definite idea of their appearance. The banner of Gaul, a companion of Fingal, was called Briachail bhrocaill.
The Celts did not confine their distinguishing badges to their flags; they had, we have seen, long before the commencement of the era of Christianity, depicted them on their shields. The Germans are celebrated for the taste with which these were painted, the various colors being much admired. Tacitus speaks of the Arians, one of their tribes, as having been distinguished by black shields, but he describes them generally as ornamenting them with figures of animals, bears, bulls, wolves, deer, oxen, horses, dogs, and lynxes, being enumerated. The accompanying print, engraved and colored from the descriptions in the “Notitia Imperii” of Pancirollus, and the “Hieroglyphica” of Pierius, will shew that the Gallic and German auxiliary troops bore various devices on their shields, which were certainly, to all intents and purposes, coat armor; and in a tasteful arrangement of colors and design the British legions did not yield to their continental friends.
In the compositions of the bards we often find allusion made to painted targets. Sometimes they are called red, at other times spotted, varied, or chequered.
It is singular that the term breac, applied to the party colored shield, should be given to the coat or covering which became the family recognisance of the Gael! In the time of Spenser, the Irish also painted their round leathern targets “in rude fashion.”
Some of the figures depicted on the Celtic shields bear a close resemblance to those in modern coat armor. We recognize the star, the gyron, the carbuncle, the lozenge, the crescent, the griffin, the pall, the tressure, &c. that appear in forms as rude as in many old works on heraldry.
From the book: “The Scottish Gaël; or, Celtic Manners, as preserved among the Highlanders: being an historical and descriptive account of the inhabitants, antiquities and national peculiarities of Scotland; more particularly of the Northern or Gaelic parts, etc” by James Logan. | <urn:uuid:3b2582fb-ce4c-4798-a49f-64626612beb5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://world4.eu/shields-gauls/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.982319 | 5,068 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.2594693899154663... | 1 | Shields of Gallic, British, German and Iberian auxiliary Regiments. Clans in the Roman Empire.
The shield of the Gauls.
The shield of the Gauls, according to Strabo and Virgil, was usually long, and the Ligurians carried one of the same form. In sculpture, we perceive the Germans with an oval shaped buckler of ample dimensions. Tacitus admits it was large, but suited to the size of the bearer.
From the plates in Cluverius’s work, we find it was at first formed of the rough wood, or bark of a tree, sometimes retaining the natural curve, but at other times appearing flat,and nearly the length of the body; in several instances it appears formed of straw, or rushes, something resembling the work of bee-hives.
A small round shield seems, however, to have been the favorite of the Celts; and Schoepflin notices the remains of some discovered in Germany. Several of the Celtiberi used the light shield of the Gauls, and others bore round targets, the size of bucklers; but, at Cannae, Polybius says they both carried the same kind, which he describes as weak. The Roman shield was, at first, square; but in their wars with the Tyrhenians, a people of Gallic origin, they adopted the round form used by that people.
From the spoils that were taken at Thermopylae, where the Gauls had no other weapons of defense, and deposited in the temple of Apollo at Delphos, Pausanias describes them as similar to the wicker targets of the Persians, called Gerrha. Those Celts called them thureoi, or thyreos; the Welsh still use tarian, and the French retain thiros. In the Gaelic, tearmun, protection, or defense, is appbed to a shield, as well as targaid, from whence comes the Saxon targa and English target; but sgiath is the usual term, and is applied to a buckler from its supposed resemblance to a wing, denoted by the same word.
The most ancient and most common shields of the Caledonians were, probably, made of interwoven twigs covered with hide. In the poem of Cathula, a sword is said to pass through the folds of a shield; and young Oscar, in Duthona, is represented with one formed of woven reeds.
Caesar describes the Aduatici, who occupied the country about Douay, as having targets of wicker, covered with a tough hide; and Tacitus says those of the Germans were either a sort of basket work, or of board, painted, but seldom bound either with leather or iron, like that of the Romans.
The Scots of Ulster, in the time of Spenser, carried long wicker shields, which were quite unknown among the Southern tribes.
Lucan says some of the Celtiberi used a small shield, called Cetra, which the Romans afterwards adopted. I find that Cetra, in Gaelic, means something intervening, a term very applicable to a shield. The Lusitani carried shields of a peculiar form, resembling a half moon, and composed of the sinews of animals, so strongly interwoven, that, for lightness and strength, they could not be excelled; being, besides,managed with admirable skill, and whirled about so dexterously that it was scarcely possible to wound the person who bore them. They were called Peltae, and four are represented on the shield of the Vesontes in the engraving. Among the Etruscans it was round, and not fixed to the arm, but held in the centre by the hand.
The shield of the ancient Caledonians, according to Herodian, was oblong, resembling those assigned by Cluverius to the continental Celts; but numerous discoveries prove that this was not the only form, if it was at all common.
Dr. Meyrick, indeed, exhibited lately to the Society of Antiquaries, a curious remain of a shield of this shape, but the original British target was circular. The figure of Britannia on Roman coins is represented with one of this form, and apparently of the dimensions of those which the Highlanders, during their independence, continued to use.
The bards invariably speak of them as round, and they appear to have generally resembled those used in the last century, the poetical expressions “dark brown,” “shield of thongs,” alluding to their covering of leather. The targaid of the Scots’ Highlanders was always orbicular, and formed of one or two thin pieces of wood, covered with one or more folds of thick leather, fastened by numerous nails, usually of brass, but often of iron, and sometimes of silver, according to the circumstances of the party.
These nails, or knobs, served to strengthen the targaid, and were rendered highly ornamental to it, for they were sometimes formed into representations of armorial badges, by means of the different metals. The most usual style was an arrangement in concentric circles, which had a pleasing and rich effect. The one represented in the plate is in the armory of the Tower of London, and measures one foot nine inches in diameter. The one shown in the vignette, p.273, is taken from a portrait of a Highland nobleman in the Trius, in the possession of Mr.Donald Currie, Regent street.
The circular arrangement of the nails is singular; for a bronze target of nearly the same dimensions, found in Cardiganshire, and represented in Dr. Meyrick’s excellent history of that county, exhibits, in relief, sixteen circular lines of knobs, exactly resembling the nails on the shields of the Highlanders. It is difficult to determine whether the metal buckler was an imitation of the wooden, or its model. Like the Scots’ target, this curious relic was carried by a single hold, a piece of metal being placed across the boss, or umbo, which afforded room for
the hand; and, in numerous cases, those parts have been discovered of iron and brass, when the wooden shield has been long perished. This method of wielding the shield was common to all Northern nations.
The small round target, covered with leather, common to both Scots and Irish, was always retained by the Highlanders, who signalized themselves by its adroit management. So early as the first century, their ancestors excited admiration by the dexterity with which they used it in eluding the missiles of the Roman army. The single hold, by which the targe was grasped, enabled the bearer to use it with advantage;and of so much importance was it deemed, that, in the last unfortunate rebellion, it was the first care, after the battle of Preston Pans, to provide a large supply for the army. By receiving the points of the bayonets on their targets, they were able with their swords to assail the enemy, who, by this mode of attack, were almost defense less.
Nor was this all: the shield had often a spike fixed in the centre; and they were accustomed to carry the dirk along with it, and thus were doubly armed. “When within reach of the enemies bayonets, bending their left knee, they, by their attitude, cover their bodies with their targets, that receive the thrusts of the bayonets, which they contrive to parry, while, at the same time, they raise their sword arm and strike their adversary.
Having once got within the bayonets, the fate of the battle is decided in an instant, and the carnage follows; the Highlanders bringing down two men at a time, one with their dirk in the left hand, and another with the sword.” These are the words of one who served in the campaign, and was well qualified to give an opinion. This superiority in tactics engaged considerable attention at the time of the rebellion, and various plans were suggested to enable the regular troops to resist the furious onset of the Highlanders.
The targe was usually hung on the left shoulder ;and, on a march,it was sometimes borne on the arm: but, except in actual war, it was not carried about the person. It was reckoned the greatest disgrace among the Germans, to quit their shield in battle. He who did so was not permitted to join in sacrifice, or attend the public assemblies; and many who were so unfortunate as to lose this part of their under a circumstance so disgraceful. The Gael did not carry this feeling so far, yet the Highlander never willingly parted with his targe, “Whose brazen studds and tough bull hide, Had death so often dashed aside.” (Tac. de Mor. Germ.)
The shield of the Celtic chiefs was frequently of metal, or, like the above, was covered with it. An iron shield, round, and weighing nearly twenty pounds, is mentioned by Pennant as preserved at Dunvegan Castle, in Sky. That of the Earl of Mar, in the engraving, is of steel, ornamented with gold.
The shield was sometimes raised in bosses, called, in Gaelic, copan, which, from being hollow, could be made to emit a sound, and, by means of these, it served other uses of some importance among the ancient Caledonians. It was either suspended on a tree, or between spears, near the king or commander of an army; and, when at sea, it hung on the mast, “the dismal sign of war,” and being struck with a spear, was a signal for assembling the army, or preparing for immediate battle. Hence it was poetically named “the shield of alarms,” “the warning boss,” &c.
The Celts did every thing in a grave, solemn, and peculiar way. It seems to have been a privilege or duty of the leader of the war “to strike his shield at times,” and the warriors appear to have done so occasionally, “when their rage arose,” either to keep alive their ardor, or as an indication of their readiness and anxiety for the contest. It was also the practice, at least during the war, of awakening the chiefs by these means. I cannot, however, very well conceive how the sound emitted could be sufficiently loud to be heard through the whole army, as the expressions of the poets seem to imply, although they had been formed of the most sonorous materials; and such a mode of directing the military operations of the troops appears unnecessary, where there were horns for the express purpose. A people that were able to fabricate the other ingenious parts of their military accoutrements, could certainly form a shield of iron capable of producing a certain tone; but the extraordinary effect that is said to have attended the loud clang of these bucklers, can only be set down as a poetical embellishment.
USES OF THE SHIELD.
The shield of Cathmor, a chief of Ireland, as described in the seventh book of Temora, seems too artificial to be reconciled, with satisfaction, to the rude state of the arts at that time. It had seven bosses, each of which was ornamented with a star, representing a constellation, (The shield of Achilles was, likewise, ornamented with celestial signs) and conveyed by its sound a particular order from the king. I should certainly be inclined to doubt the existence of such a singular article, did we not know, from discoveries, that the bosses were sometimes of silver, or other metal, of very ingenious workmanship,and were it not possible to attempt a rational explanation of this traditional account.
sShields of metal were certainly of limited use among those tribes, and were confined to the chief men, giving rise to the expression of “blue-shielded kings,” &c. That of Fingal was evidently of this sort; and the following passage will throw considerable light on the manner in which this curious custom was observed. “On two spears hung his shield on high; the gleaming sign of death: that shield which he was wont to strike, by night, before he rushed to war. It was then his warriors knew when the king was to lead in strife; for, never was this buckler heard, till the wrath of Fingal arose.” This shield, formed of metal, or covered with a plate of iron, was of a more simple construction than that of Cathmor.
The term “bossy,” applied to these bucklers, was expressive of the little convex plates with which they were ornamented. Some were, no doubt, fabricated with superior ingenuity, divided into several of these bosses, or knobs,a blow on any one of which might have been the method by which the commands of the General were conveyed to the army. This is perfectly agreeable to the symbolical and figurative manners of the Celtic race, and the method was less strange than at first appears.
The seven bosses on Cathmor`s shield were “the seven voices of the king, which his warriors received from the wind, and marked over all their tribes.” Here we are not told that the sound of the particular boss which he struck was so loud as to be heard by all the army, but the different clans were informed by means of the warriors. In the former extract we also find that it was the warriors, i. e. the usual, or those above the commons, only, who knew when the engagement was to commence.
It maybe further observed, that the King of Morven, on one occasion, having struck his shield in the night, many of his host were awakened, and thought it was a signal for them to get under arms, which, from other passages, we are led to believe it must have been; but receiving no further intimation, they again went to sleep. It is impossible to believe that these shields could have sounded so loud as the Bard, by poetical license, has given us to understand; and if the bosses of Cathmor`s had rung with the noise of tenor bells, the army would, nevertheless, have been liable to misunderstand their import: but the king’s determination being indicated by his giving a certain number of knocks on a particular boss, his warriors or attendants instantly retired and conveyed his orders to their respective clans.
ORNAMENTS OF THE SHIELD.
The shield was the only part of the warrior’s armour appropriate for the purpose of announcing the resolutions of the chief; and, as that of Cathmor was different from Fingal’s, perhaps each tribe had their peculiar signals.
The king is defender of his people, and the shield, used as the defence of the body, denoted his presence, by being always suspended beside him. It was also used figuratively, to denote this office of defender,in being carried by bards in front of the army after a victory, as we find from a Gaelic poem which refers to the era of the Caledonian Bard. Those who besought assistance, also presented a shield covered with blood, to denote the death of their friends or defenders.
The use of the shield as a tablet, whereon the glory and renown of heroes and their ancestors were set forth, is not its most ancient appropriation. The origin of coat armour is, more probably, to be traced from the practice of displaying the intentions or determination of hostile parties. If the ancient warriors wore the skins and other parts of the animals they killed, or adorned themselves with the spoils of their vanquished enemies, they did so to inspire terror, by this means of shewing no less their power and valour than their inclination to support their prowess. Nations and individuals have frequently assumed certain symbols and borne them on their shields or ensigns, to demonstrate to others the designs on which they were engaged.
The very meaning of the word herald signifies the champion of an army; and to declare war is still his province. The Bards were the heralds of the Celtæ, and they carried the shields of the chiefs, as the herald of succeed in gages bore the arms of his country or patron.
The marks impressed on the leather covered targaid (Target) resembles the intertwining of sprigs, a favorite ornament among the Celts, being imitated in the hilts of the dirks, and introduced in their brooches and other ornaments. This intricate tracery, which formed, for so many ages, their common pattern, is seen in the rude sculptures of monumental stones, and appears to be derived from the mysterious woven knots of the branches of trees, under which the Druids concealed their knowledge, and of which more shall be said hereafter.
The Gauls, says Diodorus, had often the brazen figures of animals on their shields, which served both for ornament and strength; those of the Cimbri being bright and glittering, adorned with the figures of beasts. The Celts were also fond of painting their shields, a practice which they had in most ancient times, and which, being adopted for the purpose of distinction, is clearly the origin of the science of heraldry, about which its professors and antiquaries are so ill agreed.
At Thermopylae, the Gauls had their shields painted in a certain manner; and the night being so dark as to prevent them from perceiving the figures, they were unable to recognize their own troops, and consequently fell into complete confusion.
When society is rude and unsettled,it is not to be expected that individuals will have distinctive symbols or marks; a whole tribe adopts a general recognizance: but the origin of coat armouris to be traced to a much more remote period than the era of justs and tournaments. Dr. Henry very ingeniously supposes that the introduction of clothing led to the transfer of the figures which characterized nobility, from the body to the shield. This is, probably, in some degree true, for the skin was stained for a mark of distinction; but insignia, I apprehend, were first exhibited on standards and shields; and it is probable that the practice was, at first, connected with a religious feeling, the figures being, perhaps, the symbols of gods.
In proof of this, we find that the Aestii carried the images of boars, to indicate the worship of the mother of the gods; and by this mark they were recognized and protected among their enemies. The Gauls carried the images from their sacred groves to battle. The princes of Milan, on Hannibal’s descent into Italy, took the ensigns of gold from the temple of Minerva, which ensigns they called immoveable, and marched with them against the Romans.’ That people did themselves retain something of this ancient custom; the eagles and other military ensigns being deposited in a sacellum with the tutelar gods, and, when displayed, they were placed together in the same rank.
The Celtic tribes of Britain had standards, or banners, figuratively termed sunbeams, in the bardic poems, each leading chief being provided with one. That of Fingal, of which Dr. Smith, of Campbell town, gives a description, was much respected as the king’s ensign; but the flag of Diarmid, who led the right wing of the army, seems to have been superior. In the original Gaelic, the description of “those of the seven principal chiefs is very particular, and so inimitably beautiful, that I cannot imagine,” says a writer, “how Mac Pherson has omitted it in his translation.” (Letter of the Rev. Donald Mac Leod to Dr. Blair.)
The materials of these banners it is not easy to discover. In the poem of “the Death of Fraoich,” conjectured to be of almost equal antiquity with Ossian,— bratach sroil, a silken flag, is mentioned, but it is doubtful whether this be not an interpolation. It is probable that the term now applied to silk, formerly meant only something of a very fine texture.
The Caledonian chiefs had hereditary standard bearers, and the office was reckoned one of much honor, to which a salary in land and other perquisites were attached. They continued to enjoy their trust and emoluments, under Sir Donald Mac Donald, of Slate, in the last century, and were retained by some chiefs to a more recent period. The Celtic name, Vergasilanus, is Fear go saelan, the man with the standard. A superstitious importance was, in many cases, attached to particular banners, which may at first have arisen from the religious veneration before alluded to.
In the island of Oronsay, near the tomb of Murchard Mac Duffaidh, an abbot, who died 1509, is, or was lately, a long pole fixed in memory of the ensign staff of his family, on the preservation of which depended the fate of the race. Clan na Faiter held three lands in Bracadale, Isle of Skye, for preserving the Braotach-shi of Mac Leod, which, tradition asserted, was only to be produced on three occasions. Pennant, who relates this story, says the third time was to preserve his own life; but we are not informed whether any other effect was to follow this last display. To owe his life to its appearance, was matter for lasting gratitude to the “fairy flag.”
The colors of the ancient banners, or their devices, are not distinctly known. “The dark wreaths of Erin’s standard,” (Dargo) the blended colors of Mac Druivel`s bratach, the beauteous green colored banner of the King of plains,” and the red and green meteors, as others are termed, do not give a very definite idea of their appearance. The banner of Gaul, a companion of Fingal, was called Briachail bhrocaill.
The Celts did not confine their distinguishing badges to their flags; they had, we have seen, long before the commencement of the era of Christianity, depicted them on their shields. The Germans are celebrated for the taste with which these were painted, the various colors being much admired. Tacitus speaks of the Arians, one of their tribes, as having been distinguished by black shields, but he describes them generally as ornamenting them with figures of animals, bears, bulls, wolves, deer, oxen, horses, dogs, and lynxes, being enumerated. The accompanying print, engraved and colored from the descriptions in the “Notitia Imperii” of Pancirollus, and the “Hieroglyphica” of Pierius, will shew that the Gallic and German auxiliary troops bore various devices on their shields, which were certainly, to all intents and purposes, coat armor; and in a tasteful arrangement of colors and design the British legions did not yield to their continental friends.
In the compositions of the bards we often find allusion made to painted targets. Sometimes they are called red, at other times spotted, varied, or chequered.
It is singular that the term breac, applied to the party colored shield, should be given to the coat or covering which became the family recognisance of the Gael! In the time of Spenser, the Irish also painted their round leathern targets “in rude fashion.”
Some of the figures depicted on the Celtic shields bear a close resemblance to those in modern coat armor. We recognize the star, the gyron, the carbuncle, the lozenge, the crescent, the griffin, the pall, the tressure, &c. that appear in forms as rude as in many old works on heraldry.
From the book: “The Scottish Gaël; or, Celtic Manners, as preserved among the Highlanders: being an historical and descriptive account of the inhabitants, antiquities and national peculiarities of Scotland; more particularly of the Northern or Gaelic parts, etc” by James Logan. | 4,934 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Empedocles was a Greek philosopher and scientist who lived in Sicily between 492 B.C. and 432 B.C. One of his theories was to describe things around us. Empedocles proposed that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and Earth. As an example, stone was believed to contain a higher amount of Earth than the other elements. The rabbit was believed to contain a higher amount of both water and fire than the other two elements.
Another Greek philosopher, Democritus, who lived from 460 B.C. to 370 B.C., developed another theory of matter. He believed that all matter was made of tiny parts. He demonstrated his idea by stating if someone continued to cut an object into smaller and smaller pieces, you would reach the point where the piece was so tiny that it could no longer be cut up and divided. Democritus called these small pieces of matter atomos, meaning "indivisible." He suggested that atomos, or atoms, were eternal and could not be destroyed. During his time, Democritus did not have the means that could prove or disprove his theory or even test it.
Was this article helpful? | <urn:uuid:98f807f0-a341-4d9b-bd2e-33dcc5170f43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.texaspowerfulsmart.com/nanotechnology-initiative/early-atomic-theory-by-empedocles-and-democritus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.989889 | 251 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.3037162125110... | 1 | Empedocles was a Greek philosopher and scientist who lived in Sicily between 492 B.C. and 432 B.C. One of his theories was to describe things around us. Empedocles proposed that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and Earth. As an example, stone was believed to contain a higher amount of Earth than the other elements. The rabbit was believed to contain a higher amount of both water and fire than the other two elements.
Another Greek philosopher, Democritus, who lived from 460 B.C. to 370 B.C., developed another theory of matter. He believed that all matter was made of tiny parts. He demonstrated his idea by stating if someone continued to cut an object into smaller and smaller pieces, you would reach the point where the piece was so tiny that it could no longer be cut up and divided. Democritus called these small pieces of matter atomos, meaning "indivisible." He suggested that atomos, or atoms, were eternal and could not be destroyed. During his time, Democritus did not have the means that could prove or disprove his theory or even test it.
Was this article helpful? | 256 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are many rumors that are so persistent; it seems impossible to disregard them no matter how hard everyone tries. One of these rumors is that Founding Father, Thomas Jefferson was a founding father in more than one way. Slave owners in Virginia had the right of droit du seigneur over their female slaves, meaning they were legally allowed to have sex with themi. There were men who certainly did exercise their right; nobody disputes this. The only dispute concerns whether Thomas Jefferson, a vocal opponent of slavery, was one of those men.
Contrary evidence proves the answer to that scandalous question. Thomas Jefferson had a concubine, named Sally Hemings, and together they produced children. Sally Hemings’ grandmother, a full-blooded African American, was property of Mr. John Wayles. Mr. Wayles later became the father-in-law of Jefferson. An Englishman named Captain, impregnated her, and produced a girl, Elizabeth who became known as Betty. When she matured, she produced six children fathered by John Wayles. Sally Hemings was one of those children. That made Sally 75% white, in spite of being a slave.
Sally herself produced six children. Wayle’s also had legitimate children, the eldest being Martha. Martha became the wife of Thomas Jefferson, thus making Sally Hemings the half-sister of Martha. Upon the death of Wayles, Thomas Jefferson inherited 11,000 acres of land and 135 slaves, including a baby Sally Hemings. Thomas Jefferson was the son of Peter and Jane Rudolph Jefferson. His father died when he was 14, and Thomas inherited 2,750 acres and 50 slaves. As a wealthy man, he was able to marry the wealthy Martha Wayles. They were married ten years, until her death in 1782.
Together they had six children. Jefferson loved her dearly, and never remarried. Historians claim he was celibate for the remainder of his life, and that is why he can not be the father of Hemings’ children. Jefferson was indeed celibate, meaning unmarried, however he was not chaste. This controversial piece of history was brought to the public’s eye on September 1st, 1802. A Scottish-born journalist, James Thomson Callender, published the first public report on the Jefferson-Hemings relationship in the Richmond Recorder newspaperii. Callender printed the story to get back at Jefferson.
Not so long after Callender arrived in America, he was arrested, tried, convicted and sentenced by Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase to nine months in prison for writing defamatory material. Callender was freed from jail on a pardon issued by Jefferson himself. Yet, Callender wanted more from Jefferson. Callender wanted to be appointed the postmaster of Richmond. Jefferson refused to appoint a man who had just gotten out of jail for sending false material through the mail. Callender demanded blackmail money from Jefferson, saying he would reveal a secret about him if he didn’t give him money.
Jefferson declared that he had nothing to hide and refused. The outcome was the story that Thomas Jefferson fathered children by his slave, Sally Hemings. After the story was published, many songs, rhymes and newspaper stories were circulated regarding Jefferson and Hemings. Since then, the story has been “re-discovered” plenty of times, and historians continue to try their hardest to get down the whole truth. The relationship between Hemings and Jefferson began in France. Jefferson was appointed the U. S. Ambassador to France in 1786.
In July 1787, he had his nine-year old daughter join him in Paris, to prevent her from getting an epidemic of whooping cough that was going around in America. The epidemic had just killed his other daughter, Lucy. His nine-year-old daughter’s name was Maria, but went by Polly. A 14-year-old slave named Sally Hemings accompanied Polly on the trip. There is no particular reason why Sally was picked. The most likely reason is that Sally was the closest friend of Polly. Or perhaps she was selected because she was nearly white and would adjust better in France. For whatever reason, Sally was the one selected. | <urn:uuid:ee9328db-c52d-4dae-aaf2-ef35701e91a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/martha-wayles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.988026 | 870 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | There are many rumors that are so persistent; it seems impossible to disregard them no matter how hard everyone tries. One of these rumors is that Founding Father, Thomas Jefferson was a founding father in more than one way. Slave owners in Virginia had the right of droit du seigneur over their female slaves, meaning they were legally allowed to have sex with themi. There were men who certainly did exercise their right; nobody disputes this. The only dispute concerns whether Thomas Jefferson, a vocal opponent of slavery, was one of those men.
Contrary evidence proves the answer to that scandalous question. Thomas Jefferson had a concubine, named Sally Hemings, and together they produced children. Sally Hemings’ grandmother, a full-blooded African American, was property of Mr. John Wayles. Mr. Wayles later became the father-in-law of Jefferson. An Englishman named Captain, impregnated her, and produced a girl, Elizabeth who became known as Betty. When she matured, she produced six children fathered by John Wayles. Sally Hemings was one of those children. That made Sally 75% white, in spite of being a slave.
Sally herself produced six children. Wayle’s also had legitimate children, the eldest being Martha. Martha became the wife of Thomas Jefferson, thus making Sally Hemings the half-sister of Martha. Upon the death of Wayles, Thomas Jefferson inherited 11,000 acres of land and 135 slaves, including a baby Sally Hemings. Thomas Jefferson was the son of Peter and Jane Rudolph Jefferson. His father died when he was 14, and Thomas inherited 2,750 acres and 50 slaves. As a wealthy man, he was able to marry the wealthy Martha Wayles. They were married ten years, until her death in 1782.
Together they had six children. Jefferson loved her dearly, and never remarried. Historians claim he was celibate for the remainder of his life, and that is why he can not be the father of Hemings’ children. Jefferson was indeed celibate, meaning unmarried, however he was not chaste. This controversial piece of history was brought to the public’s eye on September 1st, 1802. A Scottish-born journalist, James Thomson Callender, published the first public report on the Jefferson-Hemings relationship in the Richmond Recorder newspaperii. Callender printed the story to get back at Jefferson.
Not so long after Callender arrived in America, he was arrested, tried, convicted and sentenced by Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase to nine months in prison for writing defamatory material. Callender was freed from jail on a pardon issued by Jefferson himself. Yet, Callender wanted more from Jefferson. Callender wanted to be appointed the postmaster of Richmond. Jefferson refused to appoint a man who had just gotten out of jail for sending false material through the mail. Callender demanded blackmail money from Jefferson, saying he would reveal a secret about him if he didn’t give him money.
Jefferson declared that he had nothing to hide and refused. The outcome was the story that Thomas Jefferson fathered children by his slave, Sally Hemings. After the story was published, many songs, rhymes and newspaper stories were circulated regarding Jefferson and Hemings. Since then, the story has been “re-discovered” plenty of times, and historians continue to try their hardest to get down the whole truth. The relationship between Hemings and Jefferson began in France. Jefferson was appointed the U. S. Ambassador to France in 1786.
In July 1787, he had his nine-year old daughter join him in Paris, to prevent her from getting an epidemic of whooping cough that was going around in America. The epidemic had just killed his other daughter, Lucy. His nine-year-old daughter’s name was Maria, but went by Polly. A 14-year-old slave named Sally Hemings accompanied Polly on the trip. There is no particular reason why Sally was picked. The most likely reason is that Sally was the closest friend of Polly. Or perhaps she was selected because she was nearly white and would adjust better in France. For whatever reason, Sally was the one selected. | 870 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Similar to a human’s fingerprints, the nose print of dogs are unique.
The sense of smell of a dog is legendary. However, did you know that their noses have as many as 300 million receptors? While a human being’s nose has only about 5 million receptors.
A German Shepherd Rin Tin Tin was nominated for an Academy award.
The eye of a dog has a part that is called the tapetum lucidum, which allows the night vision.
Yawning is also contagious for dogs. Research has found out that the sound of the yawn of a human being can cause yawning from your dog. And it is more likely to happen four times once it is the yawn of someone he knows.
Dogs usually sleep in a curl up position while sleeping since they are protecting their organs. This is somewhat their form of self-defense from their days on the wild, when they were weak for the attacks of the predators.
A dog’s blood pressure goes down once you pet him, similar to a human being.
Dogs are not colorblind. In fact, they can see yellow and blue as well.
Dalmatians are completely born white. And eventually, they develop their spots as these Dalmatian pups grow older.
When a dog kicks backward after he went to the bathroom, it is definitely not to cover it up. However, it is a sign of a mark to their territory through utilizing their feet’s scent gland. | <urn:uuid:2206906c-da9d-4a21-a932-4adf3a215a72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://petclever.net/blogs/news/10-fun-facts-about-dogs-you-might-not-know-of | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.987185 | 307 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3048734962940216,... | 11 | Similar to a human’s fingerprints, the nose print of dogs are unique.
The sense of smell of a dog is legendary. However, did you know that their noses have as many as 300 million receptors? While a human being’s nose has only about 5 million receptors.
A German Shepherd Rin Tin Tin was nominated for an Academy award.
The eye of a dog has a part that is called the tapetum lucidum, which allows the night vision.
Yawning is also contagious for dogs. Research has found out that the sound of the yawn of a human being can cause yawning from your dog. And it is more likely to happen four times once it is the yawn of someone he knows.
Dogs usually sleep in a curl up position while sleeping since they are protecting their organs. This is somewhat their form of self-defense from their days on the wild, when they were weak for the attacks of the predators.
A dog’s blood pressure goes down once you pet him, similar to a human being.
Dogs are not colorblind. In fact, they can see yellow and blue as well.
Dalmatians are completely born white. And eventually, they develop their spots as these Dalmatian pups grow older.
When a dog kicks backward after he went to the bathroom, it is definitely not to cover it up. However, it is a sign of a mark to their territory through utilizing their feet’s scent gland. | 295 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was born on April, 15, 1452, in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno River in the territory of Florence. Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense, “da Vinci” simply means “of Vinci” the are in which he was born. His full name, literally means, “Leonardo son of Mes(ser) Piero from Vinci.” Leonardo spent his first five years of life in the hamlet of Anchiano, then went on to live in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle in the small town of Vinci. Of his childhood, Leonardo only recorded two incidents in later life. One incident, which he regards as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second incident occurred while exploring in the mountains; he discovered a cave and was both terrified and driven by curiosity at the prospect of some great monster lurking inside.
At age fourteen, in 1466 Leonardo was apprenticed to Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, one of the most successful artists of that time. Leonardo was had the opportunity to learn a vast range of technical skills and had the opportunity to learn drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, paster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the more artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modeling. At the age of twenty, in 1472, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of St. Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine. However, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him, even after his father set him up in his own workshop. A pen and ink drawing of Arno valley, drawn on August 5, 1473 is dated as Leonardo’s earliest known work.
In 1476 court records show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy, and later acquitted. Record of his work and whereabouts are absent from that time until 1478. However it is still assumed that Leonardo had his own workshop in Florence between 1476 and 1481. In 1478 he gained an important commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard and “The Adoration of the Magi” in 1481 for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. However the commission was interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan. Between 1482 and 1499, Leonardo worked in Milan, and was commissioned to paint the “Virgin of the Rocks” and “The Last Supper.”
He returned to Florence in 1500, and on his return, he and his household guests were provided with a workshop where Leonardo created the cartoon of “The Virgin and Child and St. John the Baptist,” a work that gained such a high level of admiration that all types of people flocked to see it. In 1502 Leonardo acted as a military architect and engineer and traveled through italy with his patron. When he rejoined the Guild of St. Luke. he returned to Florence where he spent two years designing and painting a great mural of the Battle of Anghiari. In 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan, where his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him.
Leonardo continued to move throughout Europe, spending most of his time working in Milan and Rome. Throughout his life, Leonardo attracted the curiosity of other for his remarkable talents and lifestyle choices. He was a vegetarian and took to to, as Vasari described, purchasing caged birds and releasing them. Leonardo kept his private life secret, however his sexuality has been the subject of speculation for years. He does not appear to have had any close relationships with women, and has described his feelings for a male student, Melzi, as both loving and intensely passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that his relationships with men could have been of a sexual or erotic nature. After producing some of the most famous paintings in the world, like the “Mona Lisa,” and being revered for his technologial ingenuity, Leonardo died at the age of 67 on May 2, 1519. | <urn:uuid:419521ad-b8bc-411f-b145-fbc3c7dceea1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biographyarchive.com/biography-of-leonardo-da-vinci.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.989388 | 884 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.56301391124725... | 14 | Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci was born on April, 15, 1452, in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno River in the territory of Florence. Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense, “da Vinci” simply means “of Vinci” the are in which he was born. His full name, literally means, “Leonardo son of Mes(ser) Piero from Vinci.” Leonardo spent his first five years of life in the hamlet of Anchiano, then went on to live in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle in the small town of Vinci. Of his childhood, Leonardo only recorded two incidents in later life. One incident, which he regards as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. The second incident occurred while exploring in the mountains; he discovered a cave and was both terrified and driven by curiosity at the prospect of some great monster lurking inside.
At age fourteen, in 1466 Leonardo was apprenticed to Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio, one of the most successful artists of that time. Leonardo was had the opportunity to learn a vast range of technical skills and had the opportunity to learn drafting, chemistry, metallurgy, metal working, paster casting, leather working, mechanics and carpentry as well as the more artistic skills of drawing, painting, sculpting and modeling. At the age of twenty, in 1472, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of St. Luke, the guild of artists and doctors of medicine. However, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him, even after his father set him up in his own workshop. A pen and ink drawing of Arno valley, drawn on August 5, 1473 is dated as Leonardo’s earliest known work.
In 1476 court records show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy, and later acquitted. Record of his work and whereabouts are absent from that time until 1478. However it is still assumed that Leonardo had his own workshop in Florence between 1476 and 1481. In 1478 he gained an important commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard and “The Adoration of the Magi” in 1481 for the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto. However the commission was interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan. Between 1482 and 1499, Leonardo worked in Milan, and was commissioned to paint the “Virgin of the Rocks” and “The Last Supper.”
He returned to Florence in 1500, and on his return, he and his household guests were provided with a workshop where Leonardo created the cartoon of “The Virgin and Child and St. John the Baptist,” a work that gained such a high level of admiration that all types of people flocked to see it. In 1502 Leonardo acted as a military architect and engineer and traveled through italy with his patron. When he rejoined the Guild of St. Luke. he returned to Florence where he spent two years designing and painting a great mural of the Battle of Anghiari. In 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan, where his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him.
Leonardo continued to move throughout Europe, spending most of his time working in Milan and Rome. Throughout his life, Leonardo attracted the curiosity of other for his remarkable talents and lifestyle choices. He was a vegetarian and took to to, as Vasari described, purchasing caged birds and releasing them. Leonardo kept his private life secret, however his sexuality has been the subject of speculation for years. He does not appear to have had any close relationships with women, and has described his feelings for a male student, Melzi, as both loving and intensely passionate. It has been claimed since the 16th century that his relationships with men could have been of a sexual or erotic nature. After producing some of the most famous paintings in the world, like the “Mona Lisa,” and being revered for his technologial ingenuity, Leonardo died at the age of 67 on May 2, 1519. | 906 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry VIII facts for kids
|King of England and Ireland (more...)|
|Reign||21 April 1509 – 28 January 1547|
|Coronation||24 June 1509|
|Regent||Queen Catherine (1513 absence in France)|
28 June 1491|
Greenwich Palace, Greenwich, Kent, England
|Died||28 January 1547
Palace of Whitehall, London, England
|Burial||St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, England|
m. 1543, widowed 1547
|House||House of Tudor|
|Mother||Elizabeth of York|
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was the King of England from 1509 until his death. He is perhaps one of England's most famous monarchs because he and Thomas Cranmer the Archbishop of Canterbury split from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, and he married six times.
Henry was born at Greenwich Palace on 28 June 1491, as the second son of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He had an elder brother, who was called Arthur, Prince of Wales, and two sisters, who were called Margaret and Mary. Arthur should have been king after their father died, but he died before his father, making Henry next in line for the throne. Henry married Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon. He is credited as a talented composer and author. However, King Henry VIII was famously unpredictable and temperamental with many of his subjects executed under his orders, including two of his own wives.
His physical decline dominated his later reign and he became hugely obese. As he lay dying in 1547, Henry's last words are reported to have been "monks monks monks", with certain historians believing it a reference to the monks he evicted during the dissolution of the monasteries. He died at the age of 55 in 1547, on the day which would have been his father's King Henry VII 90th Birthday
Henry VIII was born in Greenwich. His mother and father, Elizabeth of York and Henry VII saw little of their children. Henry was their second son. He had his own servants and minstrels, including a fool named John Goose. He even had a whipping boy who was punished for Henry when he did something wrong. Prince Henry enjoyed music and was very good at it. At the age of 10 he could play many instruments, including the fife, harp, viola and drums. Henry VIII was a scholar, linguist, musician and athlete at his early age. He could speak fluent Latin, French and Spanish. He had the best tutors and he also had to learn jousting, archery, hunting and other military arts. Henry was very religious.
Henry's older brother was called Arthur. Arthur married a Spanish princess, Catalina de Aragon (Catherine of Aragon). He was fifteen years old. Prince Arthur died a few months later. He died of tuberculosis, but some say he died of plague or sweating sickness. After his brother died, Henry VIII bonded closely with Catalina de Aragon. Later, they got married. The couple had trouble getting married because in Leviticus 21, ‘If a brother is to marry the wife of a brother they will remain childless’. That meant that Catherine had to swear that her marriage with Arthur had not been perfect.
Young Prince Henry was now the heir to the throne. While his father was alive he was watched closely, because the King feared for the safety of his only remaining male heir. Henry could go out only through a private door, and then he was watched by specially appointed people. No one could speak to Henry. He spent most of his time in his room, which could only be entered through his father’s bedroom. Henry never spoke in public, unless it was to answer a question from his father. He kept his enthusiastic personality under control on public occasions because he feared his father's temper. He was given little training for his future role as King by his father, and relied heavily on his counselors in the early years of his reign. In 1509, Henry VII died of tuberculosis as well and his son became King Henry VIII. He was 18 when he was crowned king and Catherine was crowned queen consort .
The most important event that happened in England when Henry was the king was the country's change in religion. As his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only had one daughter, and they did not have any sons to be his heirs, Henry asked the Pope to give them a divorce. The Pope would not do this. Catherine's nephew was Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and he was very powerful. Also, Catherine's family ruled Spain, which was the largest Catholic country. Henry then chose a new Archbishop of Canterbury, a man called Thomas Cranmer. Henry knew that Cranmer would do what he wanted, and Cranmer agreed that Henry could have a divorce from Catherine. The Pope was so angry that he excommunicated Henry, meaning Henry was thrown out of the church.
Henry fought back. He switched from opposition to the Protestant Reformation and instead opposed Roman Catholicism. In 1534, he passed the Act of Supremacy, which meant that the king, not the pope, was the head of the church in England. This established the new Church of England. He then forced all priests and bishops to accept him as the new leader. Anyone who refused was punished.
Henry VIII spent a lot of time at a magnificent building named Hampton Court that belonged to his friend, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. He spent the equivalent of £18 million renovating the Court and building things such as tennis courts and jousting yards. However Cardinal Wolsey failed to get an anulment for Henry when he wished to divorce Catherine of Aragon. Many people think that this is the reason why Henry sacked Cardinal Wolsey and took Hampton Court from him.
Protestants thought that monasteries, in which Roman Catholic monks and nuns lived, had more money and land than the monks and nuns needed. Henry forced the monks and nuns to move out of the monasteries. Then Henry gave their money and land to men who supported him. Most of the men who received money and land from the closed monasteries were Protestants. This event was called the Dissolution of the monasteries.
After his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, who was younger than Catherine and still able to have children. When Anne, just like Catherine, only had a daughter and no sons, Henry blamed her for treason and had her beheaded by a French swordsman. He then started looking for another wife. Henry's most loyal official, Thomas Cromwell, helped him to find a way to get rid of Anne, by finding people who said that she had been the lover of several other men. Anne was put on trial and found guilty, and she was executed.
Henry's third wife was Jane Seymour. She soon gave birth to a son called Edward. Although this made Henry very happy, a few days later Jane died. Henry had loved her very much and he never got over his sadness at her death. He lost interest in everything, and became bigger in size. He became angry with Thomas Cromwell when Cromwell suggested that he should get married again after Jane's death.
After a while, Henry changed his mind. As he still only had one son, he realised that it might be a good idea to marry again, and he agreed to marry Anne of Cleves, a German princess. When Anne arrived, Henry did not think she was as pretty as she looked in the pictures he had seen, and he was not satisfied with her. Anne was also unhappy, and agreed to be divorced from Henry after only a few months. In the meantime, Henry had noticed a young lady at court, called Catherine Howard, and thought that she might make a good wife. Catherine Howard was a cousin of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Catherine got married in 1540, but Catherine was much younger than Henry and she soon got tired of him and started to flirt with other men. After they had been married for just over a year, Henry found out that Catherine had been having an affair with someone else. She was found guilty of treason and was executed, just like Anne Boleyn had been a few years before.
Henry's sixth and last wife was called Catherine Parr. She was a woman in her thirties who had already been married twice. Her first two husbands had been much older than she was, and both had died. Henry thought that she would be more sensible and faithful than his other wives, and he turned out to be right. Catherine Parr stayed married to Henry for over three years, until he died, but they did not have any children.
In 1520, an event named; 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold', took place in Calais which belonged to Britain rather than France at the time. It was organised by Britain (and therefore Henry VIII) to celebrate peace between France and England because they had been at war for a long time. Music, dancing, food, wine and culture dominated the event and millions of pounds was spent on the event (in modern day money). It is clear that no expense was spared. The event lasted for two and a half weeks. Henry famously wrestled King Francis I of France and lost.
After divorcing Catherine of Aragon, Henry began to suffer many different ailments, he never again regained health. He died on 28 January 1547 and was buried in Windsor Castle. Henry was the father of two queens and one king. They were Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England, and Edward VI of England. None of them had any children of their own.
Henry often liked to be captured in his portraits with either food or pets. He had many pets. Henry was often seen with his dog. He owned a white pug and was very aware of how much his dog represented him as a rich wealthy man.
In 1536, the Act of Union was passed under Henry's rule which had a long lasting effect on Wales as a nation. The Act of Union meant that Welsh people were forced to speak English and things such as road signs were translated in to English. The Royal family, who were based in London, were now officially in charge of Wales. However the Act also meant that Welsh citizens were given the same legal rights as the English so there was an up side to this new law.
Images for kids
Eighteen-year-old Henry VIII after his coronation in 1509
Catherine of Aragon, Henry's first queen
Portrait of Anne Boleyn, Henry's second queen; a later copy of an original painted c. 1534
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in 1526
Henry's Italian-made suit of armour, c. 1544. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Depiction of Henry embarking at Dover, c. 1520
Henry VIII Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | <urn:uuid:991666ae-e744-43f4-91d7-5eeaa441289e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.kiddle.co/Henry_VIII | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.994489 | 2,284 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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|King of England and Ireland (more...)|
|Reign||21 April 1509 – 28 January 1547|
|Coronation||24 June 1509|
|Regent||Queen Catherine (1513 absence in France)|
28 June 1491|
Greenwich Palace, Greenwich, Kent, England
|Died||28 January 1547
Palace of Whitehall, London, England
|Burial||St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, England|
m. 1543, widowed 1547
|House||House of Tudor|
|Mother||Elizabeth of York|
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was the King of England from 1509 until his death. He is perhaps one of England's most famous monarchs because he and Thomas Cranmer the Archbishop of Canterbury split from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope, and he married six times.
Henry was born at Greenwich Palace on 28 June 1491, as the second son of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He had an elder brother, who was called Arthur, Prince of Wales, and two sisters, who were called Margaret and Mary. Arthur should have been king after their father died, but he died before his father, making Henry next in line for the throne. Henry married Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon. He is credited as a talented composer and author. However, King Henry VIII was famously unpredictable and temperamental with many of his subjects executed under his orders, including two of his own wives.
His physical decline dominated his later reign and he became hugely obese. As he lay dying in 1547, Henry's last words are reported to have been "monks monks monks", with certain historians believing it a reference to the monks he evicted during the dissolution of the monasteries. He died at the age of 55 in 1547, on the day which would have been his father's King Henry VII 90th Birthday
Henry VIII was born in Greenwich. His mother and father, Elizabeth of York and Henry VII saw little of their children. Henry was their second son. He had his own servants and minstrels, including a fool named John Goose. He even had a whipping boy who was punished for Henry when he did something wrong. Prince Henry enjoyed music and was very good at it. At the age of 10 he could play many instruments, including the fife, harp, viola and drums. Henry VIII was a scholar, linguist, musician and athlete at his early age. He could speak fluent Latin, French and Spanish. He had the best tutors and he also had to learn jousting, archery, hunting and other military arts. Henry was very religious.
Henry's older brother was called Arthur. Arthur married a Spanish princess, Catalina de Aragon (Catherine of Aragon). He was fifteen years old. Prince Arthur died a few months later. He died of tuberculosis, but some say he died of plague or sweating sickness. After his brother died, Henry VIII bonded closely with Catalina de Aragon. Later, they got married. The couple had trouble getting married because in Leviticus 21, ‘If a brother is to marry the wife of a brother they will remain childless’. That meant that Catherine had to swear that her marriage with Arthur had not been perfect.
Young Prince Henry was now the heir to the throne. While his father was alive he was watched closely, because the King feared for the safety of his only remaining male heir. Henry could go out only through a private door, and then he was watched by specially appointed people. No one could speak to Henry. He spent most of his time in his room, which could only be entered through his father’s bedroom. Henry never spoke in public, unless it was to answer a question from his father. He kept his enthusiastic personality under control on public occasions because he feared his father's temper. He was given little training for his future role as King by his father, and relied heavily on his counselors in the early years of his reign. In 1509, Henry VII died of tuberculosis as well and his son became King Henry VIII. He was 18 when he was crowned king and Catherine was crowned queen consort .
The most important event that happened in England when Henry was the king was the country's change in religion. As his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only had one daughter, and they did not have any sons to be his heirs, Henry asked the Pope to give them a divorce. The Pope would not do this. Catherine's nephew was Charles V, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and he was very powerful. Also, Catherine's family ruled Spain, which was the largest Catholic country. Henry then chose a new Archbishop of Canterbury, a man called Thomas Cranmer. Henry knew that Cranmer would do what he wanted, and Cranmer agreed that Henry could have a divorce from Catherine. The Pope was so angry that he excommunicated Henry, meaning Henry was thrown out of the church.
Henry fought back. He switched from opposition to the Protestant Reformation and instead opposed Roman Catholicism. In 1534, he passed the Act of Supremacy, which meant that the king, not the pope, was the head of the church in England. This established the new Church of England. He then forced all priests and bishops to accept him as the new leader. Anyone who refused was punished.
Henry VIII spent a lot of time at a magnificent building named Hampton Court that belonged to his friend, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. He spent the equivalent of £18 million renovating the Court and building things such as tennis courts and jousting yards. However Cardinal Wolsey failed to get an anulment for Henry when he wished to divorce Catherine of Aragon. Many people think that this is the reason why Henry sacked Cardinal Wolsey and took Hampton Court from him.
Protestants thought that monasteries, in which Roman Catholic monks and nuns lived, had more money and land than the monks and nuns needed. Henry forced the monks and nuns to move out of the monasteries. Then Henry gave their money and land to men who supported him. Most of the men who received money and land from the closed monasteries were Protestants. This event was called the Dissolution of the monasteries.
After his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn, who was younger than Catherine and still able to have children. When Anne, just like Catherine, only had a daughter and no sons, Henry blamed her for treason and had her beheaded by a French swordsman. He then started looking for another wife. Henry's most loyal official, Thomas Cromwell, helped him to find a way to get rid of Anne, by finding people who said that she had been the lover of several other men. Anne was put on trial and found guilty, and she was executed.
Henry's third wife was Jane Seymour. She soon gave birth to a son called Edward. Although this made Henry very happy, a few days later Jane died. Henry had loved her very much and he never got over his sadness at her death. He lost interest in everything, and became bigger in size. He became angry with Thomas Cromwell when Cromwell suggested that he should get married again after Jane's death.
After a while, Henry changed his mind. As he still only had one son, he realised that it might be a good idea to marry again, and he agreed to marry Anne of Cleves, a German princess. When Anne arrived, Henry did not think she was as pretty as she looked in the pictures he had seen, and he was not satisfied with her. Anne was also unhappy, and agreed to be divorced from Henry after only a few months. In the meantime, Henry had noticed a young lady at court, called Catherine Howard, and thought that she might make a good wife. Catherine Howard was a cousin of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Catherine got married in 1540, but Catherine was much younger than Henry and she soon got tired of him and started to flirt with other men. After they had been married for just over a year, Henry found out that Catherine had been having an affair with someone else. She was found guilty of treason and was executed, just like Anne Boleyn had been a few years before.
Henry's sixth and last wife was called Catherine Parr. She was a woman in her thirties who had already been married twice. Her first two husbands had been much older than she was, and both had died. Henry thought that she would be more sensible and faithful than his other wives, and he turned out to be right. Catherine Parr stayed married to Henry for over three years, until he died, but they did not have any children.
In 1520, an event named; 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold', took place in Calais which belonged to Britain rather than France at the time. It was organised by Britain (and therefore Henry VIII) to celebrate peace between France and England because they had been at war for a long time. Music, dancing, food, wine and culture dominated the event and millions of pounds was spent on the event (in modern day money). It is clear that no expense was spared. The event lasted for two and a half weeks. Henry famously wrestled King Francis I of France and lost.
After divorcing Catherine of Aragon, Henry began to suffer many different ailments, he never again regained health. He died on 28 January 1547 and was buried in Windsor Castle. Henry was the father of two queens and one king. They were Mary I of England, Elizabeth I of England, and Edward VI of England. None of them had any children of their own.
Henry often liked to be captured in his portraits with either food or pets. He had many pets. Henry was often seen with his dog. He owned a white pug and was very aware of how much his dog represented him as a rich wealthy man.
In 1536, the Act of Union was passed under Henry's rule which had a long lasting effect on Wales as a nation. The Act of Union meant that Welsh people were forced to speak English and things such as road signs were translated in to English. The Royal family, who were based in London, were now officially in charge of Wales. However the Act also meant that Welsh citizens were given the same legal rights as the English so there was an up side to this new law.
Images for kids
Eighteen-year-old Henry VIII after his coronation in 1509
Catherine of Aragon, Henry's first queen
Portrait of Anne Boleyn, Henry's second queen; a later copy of an original painted c. 1534
Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in 1526
Henry's Italian-made suit of armour, c. 1544. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Depiction of Henry embarking at Dover, c. 1520
Henry VIII Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 2,348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A clear definition of the word parable, followed by an explanation of the nature meaning in the fact that the higher debt was exactly ten times the lesser debt. Parables. The word parable is from the root word “paraballo” or in the Greek “ parabole.” This compound word comes from “para” which means. It has also led to a seemingly endless series of variations of exactly just what was the "one point" of each parable. A study of the many interpretations shows a.
What exactly is a parable? Jesus used them a lot. But how much do we really understand about the parables of Jesus? What He was trying to. But the lawyer in the parable asked Jesus, “Who is my neighbour?” In other words, he was asking “Who exactly is it that I should love?. Jesus used stories – called parables – to teach people. They illustrated what he was saying and were designed to make people think about how the teaching.
Why did Jesus often speak using parables instead of teaching more clearly? the message of these parables, we must recognize exactly what a parable is, and . The accepted answer to this question (as of Nov 14, ) states that the parable relates to avoiding humiliation. Respectfully, I do not think this. The parable conveys to the hearer religious truth exactly in proportion to his faith and intelligence; to the dull and uninspired it is a mere story, “seeing they see. get their meaning but then after one or two more readings, we start wondering and thinking about what exactly these parables are trying to say to us. I have to tell. What exactly is a parable? The Hebrew word that is translated as “parable” in Ezekiel is translated as “proverb” in the book of Proverbs. It refers to a.
I am having trouble understanding the parable given in Luke I have 4 questions that I would like you to answer: 1) What exactly is the steward doing in . Parables. The Lord used parables to teach, but what exactly is a parable? I looked up the definition for a 'parable' and this is what I found: A Parable is defined. Richard L. Rohrbaugh examines the Parable of the Talents' meaning in his Biblical Views column “Reading the Bible Through Ancient Eyes” in. From a historical perspective, parable exegesis is released from its close . that the parables given to us in the early Christian texts were told by Jesus in exactly.
You may be surprised at the word "difficult" – after all, isn't a parable just an earthly depended upon obedience to the Jewish law, what exactly was required?. the parable as dark word, riddle, and allegory was as available to Jesus as to Mark', and .. passage which gives to misteyrin exactly the same sense as Pesiqta. The Parable of the Mustard Seed is a short parable of Jesus Christ, He knew exactly what He had to choose as an example to put forth a. what exactly is the "form" of figurative speech which Jesus is using, or, in other words, to have passed through a Hegelian development of thesis in parable.
exposition of Old Testament Parables will reveal that they fall into three of the terms used we are ready to answer the question, "What exactly is a parable?. | <urn:uuid:55991bac-6fab-41de-9e5e-361eab90c8bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bdzorqtq.tk/humor/what-exactly-is-a-parable.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.981063 | 721 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.065421491... | 1 | A clear definition of the word parable, followed by an explanation of the nature meaning in the fact that the higher debt was exactly ten times the lesser debt. Parables. The word parable is from the root word “paraballo” or in the Greek “ parabole.” This compound word comes from “para” which means. It has also led to a seemingly endless series of variations of exactly just what was the "one point" of each parable. A study of the many interpretations shows a.
What exactly is a parable? Jesus used them a lot. But how much do we really understand about the parables of Jesus? What He was trying to. But the lawyer in the parable asked Jesus, “Who is my neighbour?” In other words, he was asking “Who exactly is it that I should love?. Jesus used stories – called parables – to teach people. They illustrated what he was saying and were designed to make people think about how the teaching.
Why did Jesus often speak using parables instead of teaching more clearly? the message of these parables, we must recognize exactly what a parable is, and . The accepted answer to this question (as of Nov 14, ) states that the parable relates to avoiding humiliation. Respectfully, I do not think this. The parable conveys to the hearer religious truth exactly in proportion to his faith and intelligence; to the dull and uninspired it is a mere story, “seeing they see. get their meaning but then after one or two more readings, we start wondering and thinking about what exactly these parables are trying to say to us. I have to tell. What exactly is a parable? The Hebrew word that is translated as “parable” in Ezekiel is translated as “proverb” in the book of Proverbs. It refers to a.
I am having trouble understanding the parable given in Luke I have 4 questions that I would like you to answer: 1) What exactly is the steward doing in . Parables. The Lord used parables to teach, but what exactly is a parable? I looked up the definition for a 'parable' and this is what I found: A Parable is defined. Richard L. Rohrbaugh examines the Parable of the Talents' meaning in his Biblical Views column “Reading the Bible Through Ancient Eyes” in. From a historical perspective, parable exegesis is released from its close . that the parables given to us in the early Christian texts were told by Jesus in exactly.
You may be surprised at the word "difficult" – after all, isn't a parable just an earthly depended upon obedience to the Jewish law, what exactly was required?. the parable as dark word, riddle, and allegory was as available to Jesus as to Mark', and .. passage which gives to misteyrin exactly the same sense as Pesiqta. The Parable of the Mustard Seed is a short parable of Jesus Christ, He knew exactly what He had to choose as an example to put forth a. what exactly is the "form" of figurative speech which Jesus is using, or, in other words, to have passed through a Hegelian development of thesis in parable.
exposition of Old Testament Parables will reveal that they fall into three of the terms used we are ready to answer the question, "What exactly is a parable?. | 700 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Like black smoke
Portable wealth in the form of money, skills and services emerged.
Like black smoke audio
The demand for agricultural workers gave survivors a new bargaining power. It spread to the east causing millions of deaths. Changes in the size of civilization led to changes in trade, the church, music and art and many other things. It then spread through China, killing approximately 35 million people. Carving was changed. Since there wasn't very many farmers to make food, the price of food went up during the plague. Ashes, ashes: the church burned the dead when burying them became to laborious. The plague is more effective when it attacks weakened people and Europe at the time was already weakened by exhaustion of the soil due to poor farming, the introduction of more sheep which reduced the land available for corn, and persistent Scottish invasions. Pneumonic plague : It was transmitted through droplets sprayed from the lungs and mouth of an infected person. A pocket full of posies: used to stop the odor of rotting bodies which was at one point thought to cause the plague, it was also used widely by doctors to protect them from the infected plague patients.
Carving was changed. For example when something happened during the black death here was always an effect to it.
The poor people saw so much death they wanted to enjoy life. Even the abundant death was used for laughter.
Likewise, both articles have the main idea about discussing the black death. Funeral processions were used as jokes.
Coffins had pictures of corpses on the lid, usually showing a very flattering likeness of the body inside wearing their best clothes.
based on 101 review | <urn:uuid:3b69e742-9f7e-41d4-942e-3e586b880585> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nufihabohel.dellrichards.com/like-black-smoke366489822fa.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.981452 | 337 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.1448927074670... | 2 | Like black smoke
Portable wealth in the form of money, skills and services emerged.
Like black smoke audio
The demand for agricultural workers gave survivors a new bargaining power. It spread to the east causing millions of deaths. Changes in the size of civilization led to changes in trade, the church, music and art and many other things. It then spread through China, killing approximately 35 million people. Carving was changed. Since there wasn't very many farmers to make food, the price of food went up during the plague. Ashes, ashes: the church burned the dead when burying them became to laborious. The plague is more effective when it attacks weakened people and Europe at the time was already weakened by exhaustion of the soil due to poor farming, the introduction of more sheep which reduced the land available for corn, and persistent Scottish invasions. Pneumonic plague : It was transmitted through droplets sprayed from the lungs and mouth of an infected person. A pocket full of posies: used to stop the odor of rotting bodies which was at one point thought to cause the plague, it was also used widely by doctors to protect them from the infected plague patients.
Carving was changed. For example when something happened during the black death here was always an effect to it.
The poor people saw so much death they wanted to enjoy life. Even the abundant death was used for laughter.
Likewise, both articles have the main idea about discussing the black death. Funeral processions were used as jokes.
Coffins had pictures of corpses on the lid, usually showing a very flattering likeness of the body inside wearing their best clothes.
based on 101 review | 339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is why the mystery of Amelia Earhart endures 80 years later
Corrections and clarifications: An earlier version of this story misstated the date Earhart disappeared.
Eighty years ago Amelia Earhart disappeared during the last leg of her quest to fly around the world.
Although decades have passed since her last radio call on July 2, 1937, the mystery of her disappearance has captivated the minds of many. After she vanished, the United States government conducted its largest ever search for a lost aircraft, but turned up empty-handed.
Today the search continues. A team of researchers is using bone-sniffing dogs in hopes of finding her remains on a remote Pacific island, where they believe she may have died as a castaway.
While many pilots disappeared without a trace at the time, Earhart's disappearance was never forgotten, in part because of her mass celebrity during her lifetime, according to Dorothy Cochrane, a curator in the general aviation aeronautics department at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.
"She was one of the largest figures in celebrity status in the country at the time, her name was known by everyone," Cochrane said.
Earhart launched her aviation career in 1928, when she was approached by New York publisher George Palmer Putnam and asked if she wanted to be the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. Earhart, who was a social worker and flew in her spare time, said yes, but later noted that she was just a passenger on the trip, keeping the log and not actually flying the plane.
In 1932, she got her chance in the pilot's seat, when she flew across the Atlantic. Her journey marked the first time a woman had ever achieved the feat.
"She had a lot of courage and dared to be different at a time when women didn't have many opportunities," Cochrane said. "She made her way in a man’s world, and made her own career and used this success and hard work to encourage others."
Earhart later married Putnam, who managed her career and was a "public relations genius," according to Ric Gillespie, executive director of The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR). He said Putnam ensured that every record-breaking flight or stunt that Earhart did was heavily covered by the press.
"Earhart was the perfect public representative for promoting aviation because she was a woman, she was articulate, and to beat it all, her name was Amelia Earhart; she was born with a stage name," he said.
Earhart traveled around the country speaking to schools and at events about aviation and encouraging young people to follow their dreams, Cochrane said.
And then just as her celebrity was at its peak, she vanished. Gillespie said it didn't take long for the "theories to start popping up."
People wondered whether she was captured by the Japanese, or if she simply was tired of the fame and slunk off to live her life in anonymity. While the U.S. government concluded that she ran out of gas and crashed into the sea somewhere near Howland Island in the Pacific Ocean, TIGHAR believes they have evidence that she may have died as a castaway on a remote Pacific island.
The group hopes to find bones, which could prove whether the theory is correct once and for all. Even if DNA analysis proves their theory is correct, people will likely still hold on to whatever theory they believe about Earhart's disappearance, according to Gillespie, who wrote Finding Amelia: The True Story of the Earhart Disappearance.
"It's such an iconic mystery, and people hold on to that mystery," he said. "They love the mystery."
While Cochrane sides with the U.S. government on what happened to Earhart, she said Earhart's spirit and message of perseverance "still resonate today."
So, why do we want to know what happened to her?
Because she showed generations that anything is possible, Cochrane said.
Follow Mary Bowerman on Twitter: @MaryBowerman | <urn:uuid:80731945-ae36-484b-b2d1-bbb7be3090cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/06/30/why-mystery-amelia-earhart-endures-80-years-later/439102001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.983636 | 834 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.43629240989685... | 6 | This is why the mystery of Amelia Earhart endures 80 years later
Corrections and clarifications: An earlier version of this story misstated the date Earhart disappeared.
Eighty years ago Amelia Earhart disappeared during the last leg of her quest to fly around the world.
Although decades have passed since her last radio call on July 2, 1937, the mystery of her disappearance has captivated the minds of many. After she vanished, the United States government conducted its largest ever search for a lost aircraft, but turned up empty-handed.
Today the search continues. A team of researchers is using bone-sniffing dogs in hopes of finding her remains on a remote Pacific island, where they believe she may have died as a castaway.
While many pilots disappeared without a trace at the time, Earhart's disappearance was never forgotten, in part because of her mass celebrity during her lifetime, according to Dorothy Cochrane, a curator in the general aviation aeronautics department at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.
"She was one of the largest figures in celebrity status in the country at the time, her name was known by everyone," Cochrane said.
Earhart launched her aviation career in 1928, when she was approached by New York publisher George Palmer Putnam and asked if she wanted to be the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. Earhart, who was a social worker and flew in her spare time, said yes, but later noted that she was just a passenger on the trip, keeping the log and not actually flying the plane.
In 1932, she got her chance in the pilot's seat, when she flew across the Atlantic. Her journey marked the first time a woman had ever achieved the feat.
"She had a lot of courage and dared to be different at a time when women didn't have many opportunities," Cochrane said. "She made her way in a man’s world, and made her own career and used this success and hard work to encourage others."
Earhart later married Putnam, who managed her career and was a "public relations genius," according to Ric Gillespie, executive director of The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR). He said Putnam ensured that every record-breaking flight or stunt that Earhart did was heavily covered by the press.
"Earhart was the perfect public representative for promoting aviation because she was a woman, she was articulate, and to beat it all, her name was Amelia Earhart; she was born with a stage name," he said.
Earhart traveled around the country speaking to schools and at events about aviation and encouraging young people to follow their dreams, Cochrane said.
And then just as her celebrity was at its peak, she vanished. Gillespie said it didn't take long for the "theories to start popping up."
People wondered whether she was captured by the Japanese, or if she simply was tired of the fame and slunk off to live her life in anonymity. While the U.S. government concluded that she ran out of gas and crashed into the sea somewhere near Howland Island in the Pacific Ocean, TIGHAR believes they have evidence that she may have died as a castaway on a remote Pacific island.
The group hopes to find bones, which could prove whether the theory is correct once and for all. Even if DNA analysis proves their theory is correct, people will likely still hold on to whatever theory they believe about Earhart's disappearance, according to Gillespie, who wrote Finding Amelia: The True Story of the Earhart Disappearance.
"It's such an iconic mystery, and people hold on to that mystery," he said. "They love the mystery."
While Cochrane sides with the U.S. government on what happened to Earhart, she said Earhart's spirit and message of perseverance "still resonate today."
So, why do we want to know what happened to her?
Because she showed generations that anything is possible, Cochrane said.
Follow Mary Bowerman on Twitter: @MaryBowerman | 829 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What Should Toddlers Know Before Preschool?
While you might think that your child can start school with a blank slate, being ready to learn often means coming to the table with some prior knowledge. Although your toddler's preschool teacher isn't likely to demand that she starts class knowing how to conduct a full-length physics experiment, or even read and write for that matter, she will need to know some basics 4. What your toddler should know before beginning preschool may vary depending on her school and her exact age, but will typically include academic basics as well as simple self-care.
Before your toddler starts preschool he should have at least a basic vocabulary to work with 4. According to the child development experts at PBS Parents, between ages 2 and 3 years, most toddlers can understand between 500 and 900 words and speak roughly 570 words.The U.S. Department of Education, in their guide "Helping Your Preschool Child," suggests that you talk to your young child often and encourage him to speak about what he is doing and how he is feeling 1. While you won't find a precise vocabulary list that every Pre-K requires, it's often helpful for toddlers to come into the school environment understanding basic words for colors, numbers and names of classroom objects such as a chair or shelf.
Keeping cool and collected certainly isn't a trademark of many toddlers. That said, when your child enters preschool her teacher will expect that she has at least some degree of self-control 2. While it's normal -- according to the pediatric pros at the KidsHealth website -- for toddlers age 2 and under to act out when they feel frustrated, you can help your child get a grip on her feelings before she starts school 2. Praising your child when she shows restraint can help her to show off her self-control more often as she prepares for preschool 2. You can also use a technique such as a timeout to help her to calm down and practice controlling her often unruly emotions. While her preschool teacher won't expect her to manage her feelings in the same way as a teen, your toddler should understand that it's not acceptable to throw constant tantrums or get aggressive when she doesn't get her way 4.
Don't expect that your toddler will master English literature or biochem before he starts preschool. If you are worrying that his lack of academic skills will hamper his education, keep in mind that his Pre-K teacher will expect him to come to the class with only a very basic arsenal when it comes to academics. The National Association for the Education of Young Children notes that children begin to develop math skills early on. Given that the early childhood pros see math skills as something that a toddler can learn, your tot should know simple concepts such as numbers and shapes. This may only mean that your toddler can count up to four or five or say the word "circle" when he sees a ball. Even a very basic knowledge of numbers -- or other academic areas such as early literacy -- is acceptable as your child starts preschool. If you are looking for a more specific list of what your child should know, consult your state's early learning standards.
Starting preschool means that your child will have to act more independently than she does when you chase after her at home. Instead of having a one-on-one, doting relationship, your little learner will have to share the attention of one or possibly two teachers. This isn't to say that your toddler will have to take care of her every need by herself, but that she should have basic self-care knowledge, like knowing how to use the bathroom, dressing herself, washing her hands and feeding herself with minimal adult assistance. The educational experts at Zero to Three suggest playing games with your toddler prior to staring preschool to help her develop self-care abilities 4. For example, you can time her when she puts on her pants in the morning to see if she can set a new record every day. This will make self-care fun and more than just a daily task.
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While you might think that your child can start school with a blank slate, being ready to learn often means coming to the table with some prior knowledge. Although your toddler's preschool teacher isn't likely to demand that she starts class knowing how to conduct a full-length physics experiment, or even read and write for that matter, she will need to know some basics 4. What your toddler should know before beginning preschool may vary depending on her school and her exact age, but will typically include academic basics as well as simple self-care.
Before your toddler starts preschool he should have at least a basic vocabulary to work with 4. According to the child development experts at PBS Parents, between ages 2 and 3 years, most toddlers can understand between 500 and 900 words and speak roughly 570 words.The U.S. Department of Education, in their guide "Helping Your Preschool Child," suggests that you talk to your young child often and encourage him to speak about what he is doing and how he is feeling 1. While you won't find a precise vocabulary list that every Pre-K requires, it's often helpful for toddlers to come into the school environment understanding basic words for colors, numbers and names of classroom objects such as a chair or shelf.
Keeping cool and collected certainly isn't a trademark of many toddlers. That said, when your child enters preschool her teacher will expect that she has at least some degree of self-control 2. While it's normal -- according to the pediatric pros at the KidsHealth website -- for toddlers age 2 and under to act out when they feel frustrated, you can help your child get a grip on her feelings before she starts school 2. Praising your child when she shows restraint can help her to show off her self-control more often as she prepares for preschool 2. You can also use a technique such as a timeout to help her to calm down and practice controlling her often unruly emotions. While her preschool teacher won't expect her to manage her feelings in the same way as a teen, your toddler should understand that it's not acceptable to throw constant tantrums or get aggressive when she doesn't get her way 4.
Don't expect that your toddler will master English literature or biochem before he starts preschool. If you are worrying that his lack of academic skills will hamper his education, keep in mind that his Pre-K teacher will expect him to come to the class with only a very basic arsenal when it comes to academics. The National Association for the Education of Young Children notes that children begin to develop math skills early on. Given that the early childhood pros see math skills as something that a toddler can learn, your tot should know simple concepts such as numbers and shapes. This may only mean that your toddler can count up to four or five or say the word "circle" when he sees a ball. Even a very basic knowledge of numbers -- or other academic areas such as early literacy -- is acceptable as your child starts preschool. If you are looking for a more specific list of what your child should know, consult your state's early learning standards.
Starting preschool means that your child will have to act more independently than she does when you chase after her at home. Instead of having a one-on-one, doting relationship, your little learner will have to share the attention of one or possibly two teachers. This isn't to say that your toddler will have to take care of her every need by herself, but that she should have basic self-care knowledge, like knowing how to use the bathroom, dressing herself, washing her hands and feeding herself with minimal adult assistance. The educational experts at Zero to Three suggest playing games with your toddler prior to staring preschool to help her develop self-care abilities 4. For example, you can time her when she puts on her pants in the morning to see if she can set a new record every day. This will make self-care fun and more than just a daily task.
- Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images | 822 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eating is one of the most important activities that people do everyday. “All humans eat to survive. They also eat to express appreciation, for a sense of belonging, as part of family customs, and for self-realization” (Rodriguez, n.d.). People eat to satisfy their hunger. The nutrients that food can provide also help people become stronger and healthier both physically and mentally.
Eating habits differ from one culture to another. Food types and cuisines also vary across countries. However, no matter how different people are when it comes to their eating habits and to the food they eat, it is essential to remember that eating will not be beneficial if this does not include healthy food products. It will also not be beneficial if people do not observe healthy eating habits.
Many people question why they need to eat healthy when they have lived their life without doing so but still remain disease-free. What these people do not realize, however, is that some diseases take time to manifest themselves and can only be seen or detected when it is too late.
There are numerous benefits of eating healthy, which include preventing the development of “heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, some forms of blindness, and birth defects” (Gilbert, Junge & Allison, 2003, p.19).
Eating healthy also improves one’s mood and outlook in life, which can in turn improve his or her relationships with the people around him or her. It can reduce one’s stress levels and can provide the energy to be able to do more things in life (Bruton, 2007). Eating healthier would also decreases the chances of becoming overweight and battling obesity, which is one of the most serious problems that the United States is facing at this time.
The number one reason as to why people prefer to practice unhealthy eating is because the food products that are healthy are not as tasty and delicious compared to the food that they normally eat.
Further, Weinstein (2004, p.98) indicates that there are three reasons why people choose to eat unhealthy foods: “(1) they are conditioned to have an emotional attachment to certain foods; (2) they are bombarded by the relentless advertising and marketing campaigns of the manufacturers of these food products; and (3) they have hormonal imbalances.” These things make it difficult for people to change their eating habits and become healthier.
Aside from the numerous diseases and illnesses that people may develop from unhealthy eating, they may also develop eating disorders that can affect their growth, development, and mental status. Anorexia is an eating disorder that the person becomes too thin but he or she still does not eat because of fear of getting fat (Medline Plus, 2009).
This is a serious eating disorder because anorexia can lead to death. Numerous fashion models have been reported to have died due to anorexia mainly because of the demands of the industry but also because they do not know how to eat properly and healthily.
Many teenagers are conscious about their bodies and how they look. They choose not to eat at all to become thinner and lose weight. What they do not know is that this will only make their health much worse. These young people need to be educated that to be able to achieve and maintain the body that they want, they would have to practice healthy eating habits and a positive lifestyle.
Another eating disorder is bulimia, which is the act of overeating and then feeling guilty about it afterwards and purging the contents of one ‘s stomach by vomiting or the use of laxatives (Medline Plus, 2009).
People who suffer from this type of eating disorder believe that purging themselves will not make them gain weight, which makes overeating acceptable. Overeating allows them to lose self-control and the act of purging is a way for them to compensate for their actions. Like anorexia, bulimia can also lead to death and serious physical and mental problems.
Binge-eating is eating in such a way that the person loses self-control and overeats. This leads to obesity. People who are unable to practice good eating habits and eat healthy food products become overweight and obese, which can lead to heart problems and diabetes. Overeating along with an unhealthy lifestyle can make a person overweight and obese.
This will make life difficult for the individual because he or she will not be able to do all the things that he or she needs to do and has greater chances of having low self-esteem and confidence because they do not feel good about themselves and how they look. | <urn:uuid:5b0ece4d-f0c0-405f-a1b7-0121307cfb55> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-healthy-eating-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.98 | 943 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.07758259773... | 4 | Eating is one of the most important activities that people do everyday. “All humans eat to survive. They also eat to express appreciation, for a sense of belonging, as part of family customs, and for self-realization” (Rodriguez, n.d.). People eat to satisfy their hunger. The nutrients that food can provide also help people become stronger and healthier both physically and mentally.
Eating habits differ from one culture to another. Food types and cuisines also vary across countries. However, no matter how different people are when it comes to their eating habits and to the food they eat, it is essential to remember that eating will not be beneficial if this does not include healthy food products. It will also not be beneficial if people do not observe healthy eating habits.
Many people question why they need to eat healthy when they have lived their life without doing so but still remain disease-free. What these people do not realize, however, is that some diseases take time to manifest themselves and can only be seen or detected when it is too late.
There are numerous benefits of eating healthy, which include preventing the development of “heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, some forms of blindness, and birth defects” (Gilbert, Junge & Allison, 2003, p.19).
Eating healthy also improves one’s mood and outlook in life, which can in turn improve his or her relationships with the people around him or her. It can reduce one’s stress levels and can provide the energy to be able to do more things in life (Bruton, 2007). Eating healthier would also decreases the chances of becoming overweight and battling obesity, which is one of the most serious problems that the United States is facing at this time.
The number one reason as to why people prefer to practice unhealthy eating is because the food products that are healthy are not as tasty and delicious compared to the food that they normally eat.
Further, Weinstein (2004, p.98) indicates that there are three reasons why people choose to eat unhealthy foods: “(1) they are conditioned to have an emotional attachment to certain foods; (2) they are bombarded by the relentless advertising and marketing campaigns of the manufacturers of these food products; and (3) they have hormonal imbalances.” These things make it difficult for people to change their eating habits and become healthier.
Aside from the numerous diseases and illnesses that people may develop from unhealthy eating, they may also develop eating disorders that can affect their growth, development, and mental status. Anorexia is an eating disorder that the person becomes too thin but he or she still does not eat because of fear of getting fat (Medline Plus, 2009).
This is a serious eating disorder because anorexia can lead to death. Numerous fashion models have been reported to have died due to anorexia mainly because of the demands of the industry but also because they do not know how to eat properly and healthily.
Many teenagers are conscious about their bodies and how they look. They choose not to eat at all to become thinner and lose weight. What they do not know is that this will only make their health much worse. These young people need to be educated that to be able to achieve and maintain the body that they want, they would have to practice healthy eating habits and a positive lifestyle.
Another eating disorder is bulimia, which is the act of overeating and then feeling guilty about it afterwards and purging the contents of one ‘s stomach by vomiting or the use of laxatives (Medline Plus, 2009).
People who suffer from this type of eating disorder believe that purging themselves will not make them gain weight, which makes overeating acceptable. Overeating allows them to lose self-control and the act of purging is a way for them to compensate for their actions. Like anorexia, bulimia can also lead to death and serious physical and mental problems.
Binge-eating is eating in such a way that the person loses self-control and overeats. This leads to obesity. People who are unable to practice good eating habits and eat healthy food products become overweight and obese, which can lead to heart problems and diabetes. Overeating along with an unhealthy lifestyle can make a person overweight and obese.
This will make life difficult for the individual because he or she will not be able to do all the things that he or she needs to do and has greater chances of having low self-esteem and confidence because they do not feel good about themselves and how they look. | 930 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The definition of cleanliness has changed over the centuries. Today we know about germs and how diseases can spread, we have things like antibacterial soaps and sprays, in some households there is both a shower and a bathtub and we have machines that do our laundry. If you think of the 17th Century in that perspective, you might be glad that you can not actually smell it. It stank and by our hygiene standards, it was really filthy….
When you think Versailles, you think of the grand golden palace and its vast gardens, but you do not necessarily think of filth. Yet it was a part of Versailles just like the Sun symbol. Thousands of people frequented the palace daily, up to five thousand when there was a fancy entertainment or reception, and a small army was needed to keep it at least somewhat clean. While the noble occupants of Versailles had to keep their own apartments clean, the public rooms and those of the Royal Family were cleaned by this small army. The public rooms during the nights and early mornings, the private rooms of the King and his family whenever they were empty. Servants collected plates and glasses, maids cleaned the furniture and mirrors, sweepers took care of the floors before the polishers arrived to make the parquet shine by polishing it with coloured wax.
Since Versailles was pretty much always a construction side, there was also all the dust and dirt caused by the construction work to take care of. While there was building work going on at one part of the chateau, others needed patching already. A place that is occupied by so many people shows signs of usage pretty quickly. Scratches on the floor, damaged tapestry and furniture, crumbling paint on the ceiling and those large wall paintings, windows that do not close proper, dirty chimneys, round corners, dust beneath the beds and on top of them, smelly curtains and dirty carpets….. to fix those and give the place a proper wiping, the whole palace needed to be cleared, because the longer the court stayed at one place, the dirtier it got. It was not a new problem and one reason why the court moved from residence to residence in the early 17th century. When the court moved, all furniture was taken with it, which gave those charged with the cleaning of the places the chance to finally give everything the proper wipe it needed so badly. As the court settled in Versailles, this was a bit of a problem. King and court hardly moved anymore, thus getting the whole place clean was a bit more difficult. Sometimes there was only a single chance during the whole year to give Versailles the basic cleaning, mostly when the court went to Fontainebleau.
Dirt is not the only thing that collects when a place is heavily frequented, bad smells become a problem too. Versailles had a bit of a natural odor issue caused by the very land it was built on. The former march land had quite the foul smell at some spots, especially during the summer, which mingled with the scents of sweat given off by the courtiers and their garments.
Contrary to popular belief, people did actually bathe back then, but they did not do it as often as we do now. Bathing, especially in warm water, was considered bad for the health. As we know, warm water opens the pores of the skin and people were already aware of it back then. Since their water was mostly not as clean as ours is now, they thought that all the kinds of diseases could then, when the pores are opened, sneak into the body via the skin and bring possible death. Generally it was thought that running water was safer than standing water and that the longer water did not move, the more dangerous it became. Baths in rivers, properly dressed for the occasion of course, were quite common during the warm months, but actual baths in tubs a bit more sparse.
Not only because of the whole pore issue, but also because having a warm bath was a bit of a luxurious thing not everyone could afford. Clean water needed to be fetched, heated, and carried through endless corridors to be poured into a heavy tub made of metal laid out with linen, so the bather did not burn their behind on the hot metal, then the tub needed to be emptied again, while the bather, as it was recommended, held rest or napped for a while after the act of bathing. Soap was expensive and so were the scented oils that were poured into the water. All in all, it was quite the undertaking that required a lot of people to have it executed. Bathing was also something that was usually done in company and Louis XIV is the best example for it. Oui, he actually had more than three baths. The Sun King had a whole apartment built on the ground floor of Versailles for the purpose of bathing. It even had running water and its highlight was a large marble tub in which he spent many merry hours in company of Madame de Montespan. Several smaller tubs were also part of this apartment, in which Louis could bathe in company of a friend or two, before retiring into the vast enclosed resting room. Anne d’Autriche and Marie de’ Medici also had large marble tubs in which they bathed. Louis XIV’s grand tub was octagonal and made of a single block of marble. It can be entered by the means of four small steps and has two holes in it through which water could be pumped. Those holes are thought to have been covered by stylish golden dolphins. This monster of a tub still exists and is in possession of the chateau de Versailles. (If you watch the series Versailles, you have actually seen it. George wallows in it with a Nymph in the first episode.)
Bathing is quite the difficult topic. Some seem to have done it more frequently, others did not and the reasons for it are vast. Not only was it considered by most to be bad for the health and a bit of a luxury thing, it was also considered to be more of a sensual thing. Physicians could not quite agree whether it is good or bad either. Some were of the opinion that bathing was entirely unnecessary, while others recommended it in certain situations to improve the health. Bathing in cold water was never seen as particularly dangerous, if the water is running, and thus executed more often during the warm months. Here the physicians agreed that it improves the health and clears the mind.
Even-though people might not have had a weekly bath, does not mean they were filthy. By their own standards, they were rather clean…. most of them. When getting out of bed, washing ones hands and face was standard and a quick wash of the rest of the body followed in form of ‘rubbing’. Some used a wet cloth for this, some preferred to be rubbed down with perfumes, others used what was considered to be the safest, alcohol. Louis XIV in particular was rubbed down with cloths soaked in alcohol every day. (Louis did not like perfumes too much and preferred the alcohol wash. He once said to Madame de Montespan that perfumes give him a headache, but it might have been more of a personal thing then, since they were arguing in a closed carriage and by saying ‘your perfume gives me a headache’ he might have meant something slightly different…..)
This being rubbed down was part of the toilette, the act of getting up and dressed, which was, depending on the rank of the person, something that happened more or less in public. Like during the Lever of the King, a Princesse would get ready for the day while receiving many visitors. Just like today, some people were more fussy with their personal hygiene than others. While Louis XIV can be seen as someone who was fussy with it, the Princesse de Condé, wife of le Grand Condé, is said to have given off an odour from her armpits that was difficult to ignore.
This quick wash in the mornings was actually considered to be enough, because the thing what was thought to keep a person clean, was not necessarily washing and water. It was linen. Undergarments and bed-sheets were made of linen and it was thought that this fabric would absorb dirt and smells. Thus changing the sheets daily was a must, just as changing ones under garments. Louis XIV changed his linen shirt several times a day and so did most of the noblemen. It was not only just to stay clean, but also to show off ones wealth. The more often a man would change his shirt and the whiter those shirts were, the richer and the more attractive he was.
Good teeth were also considered attractive and to keep them in good shape, the 17th century courtier had different kinds of powders which were rubbed onto the teeth. Those powders could consist of basically everything, from crushed and dried herbs to powdered sage or even ash. The courtiers also had different kinds of mouthwashes at their disposal, some consisting of vinegar or wine, others honey and all sort of sweet things. To rub those powders on the teeth, the fingers could be used or small wooden devices wrapped in linen. All of it was, of course, not half as effective as the toothbrushes and toothpaste we have today and again, some were more fussy with it than others. As Louis XIV married Marie-Thérèse, her teeth were in quite the bad state already. She was very fond of chocolate and everything sweet. Today we know that sweet things are not really good for the teeth, back then they did not know that. Sugar was something only the rich could afford and to show off that they could afford it, it was added to most dishes and even to the powders that were supposed to keep the teeth clean. There was no such thing as dental care either and the mouth odour of most courtiers was most likely breathtaking even if they tried their best to keep their teeth clean.
Even-though a courtier could do everything in their power to stay clean, with baths, being rubbed down, cleaning their teeth, they could still smell awful due to the garments they wore. While the linen of the undergarments, chemises and shirts could be boiled and washed relatively easily, the fabrics that were worn above the undergarments could not be cleaned so easily. Depending on the rank and wealth of the courtier, they would either have a lot or just very little outfits to choose from. While Madame de Montespan had a vast choice of outfits, a lesser ranking lady would only have a handful, which she would alter with different kinds of shawls, lace, brooches or pearls. No matter if many or only few outfits were at hand, they were rather difficult to keep clean. Court outfits had to be made out of specific fabrics and especially the State Robes, those that were worn for the grand fetes or receptions, did cost more than some nobles earned in a year. Washing those fabrics was in some cases nearly impossible. Stains could be carefully rubbed out, but that was pretty much it. To freshen a State Robe up, it was hung in a breeze. If one has more than one of those, one Robe could enjoy the breeze, while a other was worn, but most of the lesser nobility only had one of them, because they were that expensive. Those outfits sparkling with gems were worn several times a year and when there was a grand fete even several days in a row. They did get rather smelly after a while. The issue was not just present with the State Robes, but also the outfits the courtiers would wear everyday. Although they were not proper outfits for the balls, they were still made of expensive fabrics that were adorned with gems here and there.
Another cause of bad smells were the cesspools. In their rooms, the courtiers had chamber pots, which they used for their daily business. The members of the Royal Family had a bit more comforts there. Their apartments included a small room, which was sometimes also used to store the linen or candles, in which a sort of toilet chair was placed. Those had a hole on the seat under which the chamber pot could be placed on the floor or fastened to the actual chair. On the floor plans, those rooms are discreetly called Gaderobes, but they were also known as Cabinets des Affaires. While today this sort of business is something done in private, the courtiers of Versailles were not that worried about their privacy in that department. Some received visitors while on the loo or placed themselves on it while in company. Louis XIV’s closest family was allowed to enter his Cabinet des Affaires and Versailles had about 274 of these toilet chairs during his reign. Doing the business was not the problem, getting rid of it was. The chamber pots had to be carried all the way through the chateau to the nearest and foul-smelling sewage pit. Since that was quite the hassle, the contains were often simply thrown out of the windows. To clean oneself up after the business was done, small pieces of cloth were used. Louis XIV had two servants that were charged with cleaning his pot and handing him the cloth. (A more proper toilet was installed under Louis XV, it even had a water flush.)
Versailles also had public toilets, but considering how many people were in need of those, it were far too few. Those public loos were installed below the public staircases in hopes that the ventilation caused by the passersby would keep the evil smells away. It did not work. Some of the public loos were in miserable conditions and others prone to spill over. If the latter was the case, the contains oozed into the walls and floors. That seemed to have happened quite often with one of the public loos, so often that those living in the apartments close-by fled their rooms and complained the mess soaked through the walls. The rooms close to the loos were obviously not much favoured. Voltaire once lodged close to one of the public loos, in which also the contents of the chamber pots were emptied, and described it as the ‘worst smelling shithole of all of Versailles‘. The pipes through which the waste was supposed to be transported away, got blocked often as well. One of those pipes went straight through the Cuisine de la Reine, where the meals for the Queen were prepared, and leaked all over the place. The catastrophic conditions of the public loos, got many people to simply do their business somewhere else in the palace, for example in the galleries. All of this did not just cause a terrible stench, but also all sorts of vermin.
To fight the bad smells caused by the courtiers, their garments and the leaking loos, perfume was used. Plenty of it. Liselotte von der Pfalz apparently used so much of it, that the Dauphine fainted several times due to it. Perfumes did not necessarily make things better. The already foul air mingled with the scents of different perfumes, some quite terrible smelling by themselves, and created an odour that was hard to endure. To fight this again, courtiers carried little richly embroidered bags with them that were filled with well-smelling herbs or flower petals. Vases with Potpourri were placed in the apartments and public rooms and their scents varied depending on the seasons. Herbs were also burned frequently to make the air better.
What did Versailles smell like? Like all the things above, plus stale water. Stale water from the many fountains and reservoirs, as well as from the emptying of tubs and basins on the small court yards. All in all, not too pleasant. | <urn:uuid:c272af43-6407-4971-bbef-efb54e9a128a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://partylike1660.com/17th-century-hygiene-or-the-many-smells-of-versailles/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.991566 | 3,271 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.383305907249... | 3 | The definition of cleanliness has changed over the centuries. Today we know about germs and how diseases can spread, we have things like antibacterial soaps and sprays, in some households there is both a shower and a bathtub and we have machines that do our laundry. If you think of the 17th Century in that perspective, you might be glad that you can not actually smell it. It stank and by our hygiene standards, it was really filthy….
When you think Versailles, you think of the grand golden palace and its vast gardens, but you do not necessarily think of filth. Yet it was a part of Versailles just like the Sun symbol. Thousands of people frequented the palace daily, up to five thousand when there was a fancy entertainment or reception, and a small army was needed to keep it at least somewhat clean. While the noble occupants of Versailles had to keep their own apartments clean, the public rooms and those of the Royal Family were cleaned by this small army. The public rooms during the nights and early mornings, the private rooms of the King and his family whenever they were empty. Servants collected plates and glasses, maids cleaned the furniture and mirrors, sweepers took care of the floors before the polishers arrived to make the parquet shine by polishing it with coloured wax.
Since Versailles was pretty much always a construction side, there was also all the dust and dirt caused by the construction work to take care of. While there was building work going on at one part of the chateau, others needed patching already. A place that is occupied by so many people shows signs of usage pretty quickly. Scratches on the floor, damaged tapestry and furniture, crumbling paint on the ceiling and those large wall paintings, windows that do not close proper, dirty chimneys, round corners, dust beneath the beds and on top of them, smelly curtains and dirty carpets….. to fix those and give the place a proper wiping, the whole palace needed to be cleared, because the longer the court stayed at one place, the dirtier it got. It was not a new problem and one reason why the court moved from residence to residence in the early 17th century. When the court moved, all furniture was taken with it, which gave those charged with the cleaning of the places the chance to finally give everything the proper wipe it needed so badly. As the court settled in Versailles, this was a bit of a problem. King and court hardly moved anymore, thus getting the whole place clean was a bit more difficult. Sometimes there was only a single chance during the whole year to give Versailles the basic cleaning, mostly when the court went to Fontainebleau.
Dirt is not the only thing that collects when a place is heavily frequented, bad smells become a problem too. Versailles had a bit of a natural odor issue caused by the very land it was built on. The former march land had quite the foul smell at some spots, especially during the summer, which mingled with the scents of sweat given off by the courtiers and their garments.
Contrary to popular belief, people did actually bathe back then, but they did not do it as often as we do now. Bathing, especially in warm water, was considered bad for the health. As we know, warm water opens the pores of the skin and people were already aware of it back then. Since their water was mostly not as clean as ours is now, they thought that all the kinds of diseases could then, when the pores are opened, sneak into the body via the skin and bring possible death. Generally it was thought that running water was safer than standing water and that the longer water did not move, the more dangerous it became. Baths in rivers, properly dressed for the occasion of course, were quite common during the warm months, but actual baths in tubs a bit more sparse.
Not only because of the whole pore issue, but also because having a warm bath was a bit of a luxurious thing not everyone could afford. Clean water needed to be fetched, heated, and carried through endless corridors to be poured into a heavy tub made of metal laid out with linen, so the bather did not burn their behind on the hot metal, then the tub needed to be emptied again, while the bather, as it was recommended, held rest or napped for a while after the act of bathing. Soap was expensive and so were the scented oils that were poured into the water. All in all, it was quite the undertaking that required a lot of people to have it executed. Bathing was also something that was usually done in company and Louis XIV is the best example for it. Oui, he actually had more than three baths. The Sun King had a whole apartment built on the ground floor of Versailles for the purpose of bathing. It even had running water and its highlight was a large marble tub in which he spent many merry hours in company of Madame de Montespan. Several smaller tubs were also part of this apartment, in which Louis could bathe in company of a friend or two, before retiring into the vast enclosed resting room. Anne d’Autriche and Marie de’ Medici also had large marble tubs in which they bathed. Louis XIV’s grand tub was octagonal and made of a single block of marble. It can be entered by the means of four small steps and has two holes in it through which water could be pumped. Those holes are thought to have been covered by stylish golden dolphins. This monster of a tub still exists and is in possession of the chateau de Versailles. (If you watch the series Versailles, you have actually seen it. George wallows in it with a Nymph in the first episode.)
Bathing is quite the difficult topic. Some seem to have done it more frequently, others did not and the reasons for it are vast. Not only was it considered by most to be bad for the health and a bit of a luxury thing, it was also considered to be more of a sensual thing. Physicians could not quite agree whether it is good or bad either. Some were of the opinion that bathing was entirely unnecessary, while others recommended it in certain situations to improve the health. Bathing in cold water was never seen as particularly dangerous, if the water is running, and thus executed more often during the warm months. Here the physicians agreed that it improves the health and clears the mind.
Even-though people might not have had a weekly bath, does not mean they were filthy. By their own standards, they were rather clean…. most of them. When getting out of bed, washing ones hands and face was standard and a quick wash of the rest of the body followed in form of ‘rubbing’. Some used a wet cloth for this, some preferred to be rubbed down with perfumes, others used what was considered to be the safest, alcohol. Louis XIV in particular was rubbed down with cloths soaked in alcohol every day. (Louis did not like perfumes too much and preferred the alcohol wash. He once said to Madame de Montespan that perfumes give him a headache, but it might have been more of a personal thing then, since they were arguing in a closed carriage and by saying ‘your perfume gives me a headache’ he might have meant something slightly different…..)
This being rubbed down was part of the toilette, the act of getting up and dressed, which was, depending on the rank of the person, something that happened more or less in public. Like during the Lever of the King, a Princesse would get ready for the day while receiving many visitors. Just like today, some people were more fussy with their personal hygiene than others. While Louis XIV can be seen as someone who was fussy with it, the Princesse de Condé, wife of le Grand Condé, is said to have given off an odour from her armpits that was difficult to ignore.
This quick wash in the mornings was actually considered to be enough, because the thing what was thought to keep a person clean, was not necessarily washing and water. It was linen. Undergarments and bed-sheets were made of linen and it was thought that this fabric would absorb dirt and smells. Thus changing the sheets daily was a must, just as changing ones under garments. Louis XIV changed his linen shirt several times a day and so did most of the noblemen. It was not only just to stay clean, but also to show off ones wealth. The more often a man would change his shirt and the whiter those shirts were, the richer and the more attractive he was.
Good teeth were also considered attractive and to keep them in good shape, the 17th century courtier had different kinds of powders which were rubbed onto the teeth. Those powders could consist of basically everything, from crushed and dried herbs to powdered sage or even ash. The courtiers also had different kinds of mouthwashes at their disposal, some consisting of vinegar or wine, others honey and all sort of sweet things. To rub those powders on the teeth, the fingers could be used or small wooden devices wrapped in linen. All of it was, of course, not half as effective as the toothbrushes and toothpaste we have today and again, some were more fussy with it than others. As Louis XIV married Marie-Thérèse, her teeth were in quite the bad state already. She was very fond of chocolate and everything sweet. Today we know that sweet things are not really good for the teeth, back then they did not know that. Sugar was something only the rich could afford and to show off that they could afford it, it was added to most dishes and even to the powders that were supposed to keep the teeth clean. There was no such thing as dental care either and the mouth odour of most courtiers was most likely breathtaking even if they tried their best to keep their teeth clean.
Even-though a courtier could do everything in their power to stay clean, with baths, being rubbed down, cleaning their teeth, they could still smell awful due to the garments they wore. While the linen of the undergarments, chemises and shirts could be boiled and washed relatively easily, the fabrics that were worn above the undergarments could not be cleaned so easily. Depending on the rank and wealth of the courtier, they would either have a lot or just very little outfits to choose from. While Madame de Montespan had a vast choice of outfits, a lesser ranking lady would only have a handful, which she would alter with different kinds of shawls, lace, brooches or pearls. No matter if many or only few outfits were at hand, they were rather difficult to keep clean. Court outfits had to be made out of specific fabrics and especially the State Robes, those that were worn for the grand fetes or receptions, did cost more than some nobles earned in a year. Washing those fabrics was in some cases nearly impossible. Stains could be carefully rubbed out, but that was pretty much it. To freshen a State Robe up, it was hung in a breeze. If one has more than one of those, one Robe could enjoy the breeze, while a other was worn, but most of the lesser nobility only had one of them, because they were that expensive. Those outfits sparkling with gems were worn several times a year and when there was a grand fete even several days in a row. They did get rather smelly after a while. The issue was not just present with the State Robes, but also the outfits the courtiers would wear everyday. Although they were not proper outfits for the balls, they were still made of expensive fabrics that were adorned with gems here and there.
Another cause of bad smells were the cesspools. In their rooms, the courtiers had chamber pots, which they used for their daily business. The members of the Royal Family had a bit more comforts there. Their apartments included a small room, which was sometimes also used to store the linen or candles, in which a sort of toilet chair was placed. Those had a hole on the seat under which the chamber pot could be placed on the floor or fastened to the actual chair. On the floor plans, those rooms are discreetly called Gaderobes, but they were also known as Cabinets des Affaires. While today this sort of business is something done in private, the courtiers of Versailles were not that worried about their privacy in that department. Some received visitors while on the loo or placed themselves on it while in company. Louis XIV’s closest family was allowed to enter his Cabinet des Affaires and Versailles had about 274 of these toilet chairs during his reign. Doing the business was not the problem, getting rid of it was. The chamber pots had to be carried all the way through the chateau to the nearest and foul-smelling sewage pit. Since that was quite the hassle, the contains were often simply thrown out of the windows. To clean oneself up after the business was done, small pieces of cloth were used. Louis XIV had two servants that were charged with cleaning his pot and handing him the cloth. (A more proper toilet was installed under Louis XV, it even had a water flush.)
Versailles also had public toilets, but considering how many people were in need of those, it were far too few. Those public loos were installed below the public staircases in hopes that the ventilation caused by the passersby would keep the evil smells away. It did not work. Some of the public loos were in miserable conditions and others prone to spill over. If the latter was the case, the contains oozed into the walls and floors. That seemed to have happened quite often with one of the public loos, so often that those living in the apartments close-by fled their rooms and complained the mess soaked through the walls. The rooms close to the loos were obviously not much favoured. Voltaire once lodged close to one of the public loos, in which also the contents of the chamber pots were emptied, and described it as the ‘worst smelling shithole of all of Versailles‘. The pipes through which the waste was supposed to be transported away, got blocked often as well. One of those pipes went straight through the Cuisine de la Reine, where the meals for the Queen were prepared, and leaked all over the place. The catastrophic conditions of the public loos, got many people to simply do their business somewhere else in the palace, for example in the galleries. All of this did not just cause a terrible stench, but also all sorts of vermin.
To fight the bad smells caused by the courtiers, their garments and the leaking loos, perfume was used. Plenty of it. Liselotte von der Pfalz apparently used so much of it, that the Dauphine fainted several times due to it. Perfumes did not necessarily make things better. The already foul air mingled with the scents of different perfumes, some quite terrible smelling by themselves, and created an odour that was hard to endure. To fight this again, courtiers carried little richly embroidered bags with them that were filled with well-smelling herbs or flower petals. Vases with Potpourri were placed in the apartments and public rooms and their scents varied depending on the seasons. Herbs were also burned frequently to make the air better.
What did Versailles smell like? Like all the things above, plus stale water. Stale water from the many fountains and reservoirs, as well as from the emptying of tubs and basins on the small court yards. All in all, not too pleasant. | 3,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798).
Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published by his wife in the year of his death, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's poet laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850.
The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in what is now named Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland, part of the scenic region in northwestern England known as the Lake District. William's sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was captain, the Earl of Abergavenny, was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Wordsworth's father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit large portions of verse to memory, including works by Milton, Shakespeare and Spenser. William was also allowed to use his father's library. William also spent time at his mother's parents' house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle, who also lived there. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide.
Wordsworth was taught to read by his mother and attended, first, a tiny school of low quality in Cockermouth, then a school in Penrith for the children of upper-class families, where he was taught by Ann Birkett, who insisted on instilling in her students traditions that included pursuing both scholarly and local activities, especially the festivals around Easter, May Day and Shrove Tuesday. Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, who later became his wife.
After the death of Wordsworth's mother, in 1778, his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire (now in Cumbria) and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for another nine years.
Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine. That same year he began attending St John's College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791. He returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy.
RELATIONSHIP WITH ANNETTE VALLON
In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement. He fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britain's tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his declared wish to marry Annette, but he supported her and his daughter as best he could in later life. The Reign of Terror left Wordsworth thoroughly disillusioned with the French Revolution and the outbreak of armed hostilities between Britain and France prevented him from seeing Annette and his daughter for some years.
With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette and Caroline in Calais. The purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson. Afterwards he wrote the sonnet "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free," recalling a seaside walk with the 9-year-old Caroline, whom he had never seen before that visit. Mary was anxious that Wordsworth should do more for Caroline. Upon Caroline's marriage, in 1816, Wordsworth settled £30 a year on her (equivalent to £1360 as of the year 2000), payments which continued until 1835, when they were replaced by a capital settlement.
FIRST PUBLICATION AND LYRICAL BALLADS
The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. In 1795 he received a legacy of 900 pounds from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet.
It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. In 1797, Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy moved from Racedown in Dorset where he had lived for two years with his sister Dorothy to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced Lyrical Ballads (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement. The volume gave neither Wordsworth's nor Coleridge's name as author. One of Wordsworth's most famous poems, "Tintern Abbey", was published in this collection, along with Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems. It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802. In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the "real language of men" and avoids the poetic diction of much 18th-century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility", and calls his own poems in the book "experimental". A fourth and final edition of Lyrical Ballads was published in 1805.
Between 1795-97, Wordsworth wrote his only play, The Borderers, a verse tragedy set during the reign of King Henry III of England, when Englishmen in the North Country came into conflict with Scottish rovers. He attempted to get the play staged in November 1797, but it was rejected by Thomas Harris, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, who proclaimed it "impossible that the play should succeed in the representation". The rebuff was not received lightly by Wordsworth and the play was not published until 1842, after substantial revision.
GERMANY AND MOVE TO THE LAKE DISTRICT
Wordsworth, Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany in the autumn of 1798. While Coleridge was intellectually stimulated by the journey, its main effect on Wordsworth was to produce homesickness. During the harsh winter of 1798–99 Wordsworth lived with Dorothy in Goslar, and, despite extreme stress and loneliness, began work on the autobiographical piece that was later titled The Prelude. He wrote a number of other famous poems in Goslar, including "The Lucy poems". In the Autumn of 1799, Wordsworth and his sister returned to England and visited the Hutchinson family at Sockburn. When Coleridge arrived back in England he travelled to the North with their publisher Joseph Cottle to meet Wordsworth and undertake a proposed tour of the Lake District. This was the immediate cause of the siblings settling at Dove Cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District, this time with another poet, Robert Southey nearby. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey came to be known as the "Lake Poets". Throughout this period many of Wordsworth's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief.
MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN
In 1802, Lowther's heir, William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, paid the 4,000 pounds owed to Wordsworth's father through Lowther's failure to pay his aide. It was this repayment that afforded Wordsworth the financial means to marry. On 4 October, following his visit with Dorothy to France to arrange matters with Annette, Wordsworth married his childhood friend Mary Hutchinson. Dorothy continued to live with the couple and grew close to Mary. The following year Mary gave birth to the first of five children, three of whom predeceased her and William:
- John Wordsworth (18 June 1803 – 1875). Married four times:
- Isabella Curwen (d. 1848) had six children: Jane, Henry, William, John, Charles and Edward.
- Helen Ross (d. 1854). No children.
- Mary Ann Dolan (d. after 1858) had one daughter Dora (b. 1858).
- Mary Gamble. No children.
- Dora Wordsworth (16 August 1804 – 9 July 1847). Married Edward Quillinan in 1841.
- Thomas Wordsworth (15 June 1806 – 1 December 1812).
- Catherine Wordsworth (6 September 1808 – 4 June 1812).
- William "Willy" Wordsworth (12 May 1810 – 1883). Married Fanny Graham and had four children: Mary Louisa, William, Reginald, Gordon
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL WORK AND POEMS IN TWO VOLUMES
Wordsworth had for years been making plans to write a long philosophical poem in three parts, which he intended to call The Recluse. In 1798–99 he started an autobiographical poem, which he referred to as the "poem to Coleridge" and which he planned would serve as an appendix to a larger work called The Recluse. In 1804 he began expanding this autobiographical work, having decided to make it a prologue rather than an appendix. He completed this work, now generally referred to as the first version of The Prelude, in 1805, but refused to publish such a personal work until he had completed the whole of The Recluse. The death of his brother John, also in 1805, affected him strongly and may have influenced his decisions about these works.
Wordsworth's philosophical allegiances as articulated in The Prelude and in such shorter works as "Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey" have been a source of critical debate. It was long supposed that Wordsworth relied chiefly on Coleridge for philosophical guidance, but more recently scholars have suggested that Wordsworth's ideas may have been formed years before he and Coleridge became friends in the mid-1790s. In particular, while he was in revolutionary Paris in 1792, the 22-year-old Wordsworth made the acquaintance of the mysterious traveler John "Walking" Stewart (1747–1822), who was nearing the end of his thirty years of wandering, on foot, from Madras, India, through Persia and Arabia, across Africa and Europe, and up through the fledgling United States. By the time of their association, Stewart had published an ambitious work of original materialist philosophy entitled The Apocalypse of Nature (London, 1791), to which many of Wordsworth's philosophical sentiments may well be indebted.
In 1807 Wordsworth published Poems in Two Volumes, including "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood". Up to this point Wordsworth was known only for Lyrical Ballads, and he hoped that this new collection would cement his reputation. Its reception was lukewarm, however.
In 1810, Wordsworth and Coleridge were estranged over the latter's opium addiction, and in 1812, his son Thomas died at the age of 6, six months after the death of 3-year-old Catherine. The following year he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, and the stipend of £400 a year made him financially secure. In 1813, he and his family, including Dorothy, moved to Rydal Mount, Ambleside (between Grasmere and Rydal Water), where he spent the rest of his life.
In 1814 Wordsworth published The Excursion as the second part of the three-part work The Recluse, even though he had not completed the first part or the third part, and never did. He did, however, write a poetic Prospectus to "The Recluse" in which he laid out the structure and intention of the whole work. The Prospectus contains some of Wordsworth's most famous lines on the relation between the human mind and nature:
... my voice proclaims
How exquisitely the individual Mind
(And the progressive powers perhaps no less
Of the whole species) to the external World
Is fitted:—and how exquisitely, too—
Theme this but little heard of among Men,
The external World is fitted to the Mind;
And the creation (by no lower name
Can it be called) which they with blended might
Some modern critics suggest that there was a decline in his work beginning around the mid-1810s, perhaps because most of the concerns that characterised his early poems (loss, death, endurance, separation and abandonment) had been resolved in his writings and his life. By 1820, he was enjoying considerable success accompanying a reversal in the contemporary critical opinion of his earlier works.
Following the death of his friend the painter William Green in 1823, Wordsworth also mended his relations with Coleridge. The two were fully reconciled by 1828, when they toured the Rhineland together. Dorothy suffered from a severe illness in 1829 that rendered her an invalid for the remainder of her life. Coleridge and Charles Lamb both died in 1834, their loss being a difficult blow to Wordsworth. The following year saw the passing of James Hogg. Despite the death of many contemporaries, the popularity of his poetry ensured a steady stream of young friends and admirers to replace those he lost.
Wordsworth's youthful political radicalism, unlike Coleridge's, never led him to rebel against his religious upbringing. He remarked in 1812 that he was willing to shed his blood for the established Church of England, reflected in the Ecclesiastical Sketches of 1822. This religious conservatism also colours The Excursion (1814), a long poem that became extremely popular during the nineteenth century; it features three central characters, the Wanderer; the Solitary, who has experienced the hopes and miseries of the French Revolution; and the Pastor, who dominates the last third of the poem.
LAUREATESHIP AND OTHER HONOURS
Wordsworth remained a formidable presence in his later years. In 1837, the Scottish poet and playwright Joanna Baillie reflected on her long acquaintance with Wordsworth. "He looks like a man that one must not speak to unless one has some sensible thing to say. However he does occasionally converse cheerfully & well; and when one knows how benevolent & excellent he is, it disposes one to be very much pleased with him."
In 1838, Wordsworth received an honorary doctorate in Civil Law from the University of Durham and the following year he was awarded the same honorary degree by the University of Oxford, when John Keble praised him as the "poet of humanity", praise greatly appreciated by Wordsworth. (It has been argued that Wordsworth was a great influence on Keble's immensely popular book of devotional poetry, The Christian Year (1827).) In 1842, the government awarded him a Civil List pension of £300 a year.
Following the death of Robert Southey in 1843 Wordsworth became Poet Laureate. He initially refused the honour, saying that he was too old, but accepted when the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, assured him that "you shall have nothing required of you". Wordsworth thus became the only poet laureate to write no official verses. The sudden death of his daughter Dora in 1847 at age 42 was difficult for the aging poet to take and in his depression, he completely gave up writing new material.
William Wordsworth died at home at Rydal Mount from an aggravated case of pleurisy on 23 April 1850, and was buried at St Oswald's Church, Grasmere. His widow Mary published his lengthy autobiographical "poem to Coleridge" as The Prelude several months after his death. Though it failed to arouse much interest at that time, it has since come to be widely recognised as his masterpiece.
IN POPULAR CULTURE
Wordsworth has appeared as a character in works of fiction, including:
- William Kinsolving – Mister Christian. 1996
- Val McDermid – The Grave Tattoo. 2006
- "The Wordsmiths at Gorsemere" by Sue Limb. 2008
- Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems (1798)
- "Simon Lee"
- "We are Seven"
- "Lines Written in Early Spring"
- "Expostulation and Reply"
- "The Tables Turned"
- "The Thorn"
- "Lines Composed A Few Miles above Tintern Abbey"
- Lyrical Ballads, with Other Poems (1800)
- Preface to the Lyrical Ballads
- "Strange fits of passion have I known"
- "She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways"
- "Three years she grew"
- "A Slumber Did my Spirit Seal"
- "I travelled among unknown men"
- "Lucy Gray"
- "The Two April Mornings"
- "The Solitary Reaper"
- "The Ruined Cottage"
- "The Kitten At Play"
- Poems, in Two Volumes (1807)
- "Resolution and Independence"
- "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" Also known as "Daffodils"
- "My Heart Leaps Up"
- "Ode: Intimations of Immortality"
- "Ode to Duty"
- "The Solitary Reaper"
- "Elegiac Stanzas"
- "Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802"
- "London, 1802"
- "The World Is Too Much with Us"
- "French Revolution" (1810)
- Guide to the Lakes (1810)
- "To the Cuckoo"
- The Excursion (1814)
- Laodamia (1815, 1845)
- The White Doe of Rylstone (1815)
- Peter Bell (1819)
- Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1822)
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-0.26045390963554... | 2 | William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication Lyrical Ballads (1798).
Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semi-autobiographical poem of his early years that he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published by his wife in the year of his death, before which it was generally known as "the poem to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's poet laureate from 1843 until his death from pleurisy on 23 April 1850.
The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in what is now named Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland, part of the scenic region in northwestern England known as the Lake District. William's sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was captain, the Earl of Abergavenny, was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Wordsworth's father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. He was frequently away from home on business, so the young William and his siblings had little involvement with him and remained distant from him until his death in 1783. However, he did encourage William in his reading, and in particular set him to commit large portions of verse to memory, including works by Milton, Shakespeare and Spenser. William was also allowed to use his father's library. William also spent time at his mother's parents' house in Penrith, Cumberland, where he was exposed to the moors, but did not get along with his grandparents or his uncle, who also lived there. His hostile interactions with them distressed him to the point of contemplating suicide.
Wordsworth was taught to read by his mother and attended, first, a tiny school of low quality in Cockermouth, then a school in Penrith for the children of upper-class families, where he was taught by Ann Birkett, who insisted on instilling in her students traditions that included pursuing both scholarly and local activities, especially the festivals around Easter, May Day and Shrove Tuesday. Wordsworth was taught both the Bible and the Spectator, but little else. It was at the school in Penrith that he met the Hutchinsons, including Mary, who later became his wife.
After the death of Wordsworth's mother, in 1778, his father sent him to Hawkshead Grammar School in Lancashire (now in Cumbria) and sent Dorothy to live with relatives in Yorkshire. She and William did not meet again for another nine years.
Wordsworth made his debut as a writer in 1787 when he published a sonnet in The European Magazine. That same year he began attending St John's College, Cambridge. He received his BA degree in 1791. He returned to Hawkshead for the first two summers of his time at Cambridge, and often spent later holidays on walking tours, visiting places famous for the beauty of their landscape. In 1790 he went on a walking tour of Europe, during which he toured the Alps extensively, and visited nearby areas of France, Switzerland, and Italy.
RELATIONSHIP WITH ANNETTE VALLON
In November 1791, Wordsworth visited Revolutionary France and became enchanted with the Republican movement. He fell in love with a French woman, Annette Vallon, who in 1792 gave birth to their daughter Caroline. Financial problems and Britain's tense relations with France forced him to return to England alone the following year. The circumstances of his return and his subsequent behaviour raised doubts as to his declared wish to marry Annette, but he supported her and his daughter as best he could in later life. The Reign of Terror left Wordsworth thoroughly disillusioned with the French Revolution and the outbreak of armed hostilities between Britain and France prevented him from seeing Annette and his daughter for some years.
With the Peace of Amiens again allowing travel to France, in 1802 Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy visited Annette and Caroline in Calais. The purpose of the visit was to prepare Annette for the fact of his forthcoming marriage to Mary Hutchinson. Afterwards he wrote the sonnet "It is a beauteous evening, calm and free," recalling a seaside walk with the 9-year-old Caroline, whom he had never seen before that visit. Mary was anxious that Wordsworth should do more for Caroline. Upon Caroline's marriage, in 1816, Wordsworth settled £30 a year on her (equivalent to £1360 as of the year 2000), payments which continued until 1835, when they were replaced by a capital settlement.
FIRST PUBLICATION AND LYRICAL BALLADS
The year 1793 saw the first publication of poems by Wordsworth, in the collections An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches. In 1795 he received a legacy of 900 pounds from Raisley Calvert and became able to pursue a career as a poet.
It was also in 1795 that he met Samuel Taylor Coleridge in Somerset. The two poets quickly developed a close friendship. In 1797, Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy moved from Racedown in Dorset where he had lived for two years with his sister Dorothy to Alfoxton House, Somerset, just a few miles away from Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. Together Wordsworth and Coleridge (with insights from Dorothy) produced Lyrical Ballads (1798), an important work in the English Romantic movement. The volume gave neither Wordsworth's nor Coleridge's name as author. One of Wordsworth's most famous poems, "Tintern Abbey", was published in this collection, along with Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner". The second edition, published in 1800, had only Wordsworth listed as the author, and included a preface to the poems. It was augmented significantly in the next edition, published in 1802. In this preface, which some scholars consider a central work of Romantic literary theory, Wordsworth discusses what he sees as the elements of a new type of verse, one that is based on the "real language of men" and avoids the poetic diction of much 18th-century verse. Wordsworth also gives his famous definition of poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility", and calls his own poems in the book "experimental". A fourth and final edition of Lyrical Ballads was published in 1805.
Between 1795-97, Wordsworth wrote his only play, The Borderers, a verse tragedy set during the reign of King Henry III of England, when Englishmen in the North Country came into conflict with Scottish rovers. He attempted to get the play staged in November 1797, but it was rejected by Thomas Harris, the manager of the Covent Garden Theatre, who proclaimed it "impossible that the play should succeed in the representation". The rebuff was not received lightly by Wordsworth and the play was not published until 1842, after substantial revision.
GERMANY AND MOVE TO THE LAKE DISTRICT
Wordsworth, Dorothy and Coleridge travelled to Germany in the autumn of 1798. While Coleridge was intellectually stimulated by the journey, its main effect on Wordsworth was to produce homesickness. During the harsh winter of 1798–99 Wordsworth lived with Dorothy in Goslar, and, despite extreme stress and loneliness, began work on the autobiographical piece that was later titled The Prelude. He wrote a number of other famous poems in Goslar, including "The Lucy poems". In the Autumn of 1799, Wordsworth and his sister returned to England and visited the Hutchinson family at Sockburn. When Coleridge arrived back in England he travelled to the North with their publisher Joseph Cottle to meet Wordsworth and undertake a proposed tour of the Lake District. This was the immediate cause of the siblings settling at Dove Cottage in Grasmere in the Lake District, this time with another poet, Robert Southey nearby. Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey came to be known as the "Lake Poets". Throughout this period many of Wordsworth's poems revolved around themes of death, endurance, separation and grief.
MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN
In 1802, Lowther's heir, William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, paid the 4,000 pounds owed to Wordsworth's father through Lowther's failure to pay his aide. It was this repayment that afforded Wordsworth the financial means to marry. On 4 October, following his visit with Dorothy to France to arrange matters with Annette, Wordsworth married his childhood friend Mary Hutchinson. Dorothy continued to live with the couple and grew close to Mary. The following year Mary gave birth to the first of five children, three of whom predeceased her and William:
- John Wordsworth (18 June 1803 – 1875). Married four times:
- Isabella Curwen (d. 1848) had six children: Jane, Henry, William, John, Charles and Edward.
- Helen Ross (d. 1854). No children.
- Mary Ann Dolan (d. after 1858) had one daughter Dora (b. 1858).
- Mary Gamble. No children.
- Dora Wordsworth (16 August 1804 – 9 July 1847). Married Edward Quillinan in 1841.
- Thomas Wordsworth (15 June 1806 – 1 December 1812).
- Catherine Wordsworth (6 September 1808 – 4 June 1812).
- William "Willy" Wordsworth (12 May 1810 – 1883). Married Fanny Graham and had four children: Mary Louisa, William, Reginald, Gordon
AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL WORK AND POEMS IN TWO VOLUMES
Wordsworth had for years been making plans to write a long philosophical poem in three parts, which he intended to call The Recluse. In 1798–99 he started an autobiographical poem, which he referred to as the "poem to Coleridge" and which he planned would serve as an appendix to a larger work called The Recluse. In 1804 he began expanding this autobiographical work, having decided to make it a prologue rather than an appendix. He completed this work, now generally referred to as the first version of The Prelude, in 1805, but refused to publish such a personal work until he had completed the whole of The Recluse. The death of his brother John, also in 1805, affected him strongly and may have influenced his decisions about these works.
Wordsworth's philosophical allegiances as articulated in The Prelude and in such shorter works as "Lines written a few miles above Tintern Abbey" have been a source of critical debate. It was long supposed that Wordsworth relied chiefly on Coleridge for philosophical guidance, but more recently scholars have suggested that Wordsworth's ideas may have been formed years before he and Coleridge became friends in the mid-1790s. In particular, while he was in revolutionary Paris in 1792, the 22-year-old Wordsworth made the acquaintance of the mysterious traveler John "Walking" Stewart (1747–1822), who was nearing the end of his thirty years of wandering, on foot, from Madras, India, through Persia and Arabia, across Africa and Europe, and up through the fledgling United States. By the time of their association, Stewart had published an ambitious work of original materialist philosophy entitled The Apocalypse of Nature (London, 1791), to which many of Wordsworth's philosophical sentiments may well be indebted.
In 1807 Wordsworth published Poems in Two Volumes, including "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood". Up to this point Wordsworth was known only for Lyrical Ballads, and he hoped that this new collection would cement his reputation. Its reception was lukewarm, however.
In 1810, Wordsworth and Coleridge were estranged over the latter's opium addiction, and in 1812, his son Thomas died at the age of 6, six months after the death of 3-year-old Catherine. The following year he received an appointment as Distributor of Stamps for Westmorland, and the stipend of £400 a year made him financially secure. In 1813, he and his family, including Dorothy, moved to Rydal Mount, Ambleside (between Grasmere and Rydal Water), where he spent the rest of his life.
In 1814 Wordsworth published The Excursion as the second part of the three-part work The Recluse, even though he had not completed the first part or the third part, and never did. He did, however, write a poetic Prospectus to "The Recluse" in which he laid out the structure and intention of the whole work. The Prospectus contains some of Wordsworth's most famous lines on the relation between the human mind and nature:
... my voice proclaims
How exquisitely the individual Mind
(And the progressive powers perhaps no less
Of the whole species) to the external World
Is fitted:—and how exquisitely, too—
Theme this but little heard of among Men,
The external World is fitted to the Mind;
And the creation (by no lower name
Can it be called) which they with blended might
Some modern critics suggest that there was a decline in his work beginning around the mid-1810s, perhaps because most of the concerns that characterised his early poems (loss, death, endurance, separation and abandonment) had been resolved in his writings and his life. By 1820, he was enjoying considerable success accompanying a reversal in the contemporary critical opinion of his earlier works.
Following the death of his friend the painter William Green in 1823, Wordsworth also mended his relations with Coleridge. The two were fully reconciled by 1828, when they toured the Rhineland together. Dorothy suffered from a severe illness in 1829 that rendered her an invalid for the remainder of her life. Coleridge and Charles Lamb both died in 1834, their loss being a difficult blow to Wordsworth. The following year saw the passing of James Hogg. Despite the death of many contemporaries, the popularity of his poetry ensured a steady stream of young friends and admirers to replace those he lost.
Wordsworth's youthful political radicalism, unlike Coleridge's, never led him to rebel against his religious upbringing. He remarked in 1812 that he was willing to shed his blood for the established Church of England, reflected in the Ecclesiastical Sketches of 1822. This religious conservatism also colours The Excursion (1814), a long poem that became extremely popular during the nineteenth century; it features three central characters, the Wanderer; the Solitary, who has experienced the hopes and miseries of the French Revolution; and the Pastor, who dominates the last third of the poem.
LAUREATESHIP AND OTHER HONOURS
Wordsworth remained a formidable presence in his later years. In 1837, the Scottish poet and playwright Joanna Baillie reflected on her long acquaintance with Wordsworth. "He looks like a man that one must not speak to unless one has some sensible thing to say. However he does occasionally converse cheerfully & well; and when one knows how benevolent & excellent he is, it disposes one to be very much pleased with him."
In 1838, Wordsworth received an honorary doctorate in Civil Law from the University of Durham and the following year he was awarded the same honorary degree by the University of Oxford, when John Keble praised him as the "poet of humanity", praise greatly appreciated by Wordsworth. (It has been argued that Wordsworth was a great influence on Keble's immensely popular book of devotional poetry, The Christian Year (1827).) In 1842, the government awarded him a Civil List pension of £300 a year.
Following the death of Robert Southey in 1843 Wordsworth became Poet Laureate. He initially refused the honour, saying that he was too old, but accepted when the Prime Minister, Robert Peel, assured him that "you shall have nothing required of you". Wordsworth thus became the only poet laureate to write no official verses. The sudden death of his daughter Dora in 1847 at age 42 was difficult for the aging poet to take and in his depression, he completely gave up writing new material.
William Wordsworth died at home at Rydal Mount from an aggravated case of pleurisy on 23 April 1850, and was buried at St Oswald's Church, Grasmere. His widow Mary published his lengthy autobiographical "poem to Coleridge" as The Prelude several months after his death. Though it failed to arouse much interest at that time, it has since come to be widely recognised as his masterpiece.
IN POPULAR CULTURE
Wordsworth has appeared as a character in works of fiction, including:
- William Kinsolving – Mister Christian. 1996
- Val McDermid – The Grave Tattoo. 2006
- "The Wordsmiths at Gorsemere" by Sue Limb. 2008
- Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems (1798)
- "Simon Lee"
- "We are Seven"
- "Lines Written in Early Spring"
- "Expostulation and Reply"
- "The Tables Turned"
- "The Thorn"
- "Lines Composed A Few Miles above Tintern Abbey"
- Lyrical Ballads, with Other Poems (1800)
- Preface to the Lyrical Ballads
- "Strange fits of passion have I known"
- "She Dwelt among the Untrodden Ways"
- "Three years she grew"
- "A Slumber Did my Spirit Seal"
- "I travelled among unknown men"
- "Lucy Gray"
- "The Two April Mornings"
- "The Solitary Reaper"
- "The Ruined Cottage"
- "The Kitten At Play"
- Poems, in Two Volumes (1807)
- "Resolution and Independence"
- "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" Also known as "Daffodils"
- "My Heart Leaps Up"
- "Ode: Intimations of Immortality"
- "Ode to Duty"
- "The Solitary Reaper"
- "Elegiac Stanzas"
- "Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802"
- "London, 1802"
- "The World Is Too Much with Us"
- "French Revolution" (1810)
- Guide to the Lakes (1810)
- "To the Cuckoo"
- The Excursion (1814)
- Laodamia (1815, 1845)
- The White Doe of Rylstone (1815)
- Peter Bell (1819)
- Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1822)
- The Prelude (1850) | 4,339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gen. Israel Putnam famously left his plow in the ground when he heard about the battle of Lexington and immediately rode the 100 miles from his farm in Brooklyn, Conn., to Cambridge. He told a farmhand to tell his wife where he was going.
Known as Old Put, he was one of the most interesting and vigorous characters of the American Revolution. He was a reckless fighter who survived a shipwreck in Cuba, galloped down a rocky cliff to escape the British and risked his life to save a burning powder magazine. During the French and Indian War he served as a Rogers’ Ranger. Mohawk Indians captured him and came close to burning him alive until it rained and a French officer intervened.
Putnam had a substantial home by then, cleared fields and a flock of sheep. Year after year, a she-wolf attacked his and his neighbors’ flock. Finally, Putnam and his neighbors got together and decided to pursue the wolf until she was dead.
They spotted her one winter night and followed her to a stream six miles away. Then she turned and entered the cave. The men set up a guard, gathered a crowd of men and boys with guns and dogs and lit a fire at the mouth of the cave.
Hours passed and the wolf remained inside. Finally, Israel Putnam persuaded his neighbors to let him go into the cave with a torch. They tied a rope around his ankle and prepared to pull him out when he kicked.
The den’s narrow passageway sloped down fifteen feet, then ran horizontally about 10 feet more and rose gradually 16 feet. He crawled into the cave – you couldn’t stand up in it — and saw the she-wolf’s eyeballs three yards away from him. He kicked the rope, and was dragged out so quickly he lost his shirt. Putnam then crawled back into the cave with a gun and shot the wolf. His neighbors dragged him out again, nearly overcome by smoke. He revived and crawled back into the cave a third time, where he found the dead wolf, seized her by the ears and kicked the rope. The dead wolf and the live young farmer were dragged out together. The story was told many times during Putnam’s military career.
Putnam’s Wolf Den is on the National Register of Historic Places, and can be found in Mashamoquet Brook State Park.
At the turn of the 20th century, author Clifton Johnson visited Old Put’s old stomping grounds in Pomfret. In his 1915 book Highways & Byways of New England, Johnson tells of visiting the Wolf Den and of meeting an old New Englander.
“We had that plough of Putnam’s on exhibition here once,” said the old man. “And by gosh! When I saw it I didn’t blame Putnam for leaving it in the field. It was nothing but a crooked stick shod with iron, and I’ll be darned if I’d put it in the barn if it was mine.” | <urn:uuid:0b3726f8-fcdd-445d-9e40-8137c51838dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/legend-israel-putnam-wolf-den/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.985167 | 638 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.356880217790... | 5 | Gen. Israel Putnam famously left his plow in the ground when he heard about the battle of Lexington and immediately rode the 100 miles from his farm in Brooklyn, Conn., to Cambridge. He told a farmhand to tell his wife where he was going.
Known as Old Put, he was one of the most interesting and vigorous characters of the American Revolution. He was a reckless fighter who survived a shipwreck in Cuba, galloped down a rocky cliff to escape the British and risked his life to save a burning powder magazine. During the French and Indian War he served as a Rogers’ Ranger. Mohawk Indians captured him and came close to burning him alive until it rained and a French officer intervened.
Putnam had a substantial home by then, cleared fields and a flock of sheep. Year after year, a she-wolf attacked his and his neighbors’ flock. Finally, Putnam and his neighbors got together and decided to pursue the wolf until she was dead.
They spotted her one winter night and followed her to a stream six miles away. Then she turned and entered the cave. The men set up a guard, gathered a crowd of men and boys with guns and dogs and lit a fire at the mouth of the cave.
Hours passed and the wolf remained inside. Finally, Israel Putnam persuaded his neighbors to let him go into the cave with a torch. They tied a rope around his ankle and prepared to pull him out when he kicked.
The den’s narrow passageway sloped down fifteen feet, then ran horizontally about 10 feet more and rose gradually 16 feet. He crawled into the cave – you couldn’t stand up in it — and saw the she-wolf’s eyeballs three yards away from him. He kicked the rope, and was dragged out so quickly he lost his shirt. Putnam then crawled back into the cave with a gun and shot the wolf. His neighbors dragged him out again, nearly overcome by smoke. He revived and crawled back into the cave a third time, where he found the dead wolf, seized her by the ears and kicked the rope. The dead wolf and the live young farmer were dragged out together. The story was told many times during Putnam’s military career.
Putnam’s Wolf Den is on the National Register of Historic Places, and can be found in Mashamoquet Brook State Park.
At the turn of the 20th century, author Clifton Johnson visited Old Put’s old stomping grounds in Pomfret. In his 1915 book Highways & Byways of New England, Johnson tells of visiting the Wolf Den and of meeting an old New Englander.
“We had that plough of Putnam’s on exhibition here once,” said the old man. “And by gosh! When I saw it I didn’t blame Putnam for leaving it in the field. It was nothing but a crooked stick shod with iron, and I’ll be darned if I’d put it in the barn if it was mine.” | 617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay on Sophocles’ Oedipus the King
Sophocles’ King Oedipus is one of the world’s most famous plays. Aristotle has defined Tragedy in his Poetics,”Tragedy, then, is an imitation of a noble and complete action, having the proper magnitude; it employs language that has been artistically enhanced . . . ; it is presented in dramatic, not narrative form, and achieves, through the representation of pitiable and fearful incidents, the catharsis of such incidents” (Chapter6; Golden11).
He defined Tragic Hero as a person of high or noble character who has a flaw or error; because of which misfortune fall on him resulting in his downfall from high to low position. He recognizes his mistake and results in catharsis or purgation of pity and fear. King Oedipus is the protagonist, the tragic hero of the play.
He holds a high position in society. He is the ruler of Thebes and loved and respected by his country men. But he has a flaw or error of character. His flaw is his ignorance. And in his ignorance, he plays a part in all the events that occur which subsequently results in his downfall.
So from the play it can be inferred that it is destiny which played an important part in his tragedy or downfall. It is true that he had free will to take actions which he did. But It can be well argued that it is destiny which shaped his character and inspired him to take decisions and his later actions.
Sophocles’ play King Oedipus is the story of how the protagonist without his knowledge kills his own father Laius, arrives in Thebes, solves a riddle and saves the people from Sphinx. He becomes the king of Thebes and marries queen Jocasta, his mother. In this way he helps to prove the prophecy of Apollo to be true.
Tragedy struck him and he fell in to such a low position that it arouses pity and fear in us. We feel pity for him because he falls to a very low position from his status of a king and a self-confident man and fear because we identify ourselves with him.
In the play King Oedipus, we find that it is destiny who rules the lives of Jocasta, Laius and Oedipus. From the dialouge of Jocasta, as she expresses her feelings to Oedipus, we find that laius has left their child in the mountains to die when they heard the prophesy of an oracle that (their unborn child will kill his father and marry his mother).
Jocasta says to Oedipus: “ As for the child, it was but three days old, When Laius, its ankles pierced and pinned together, gave it to be cast away by others on the trackless mountain side”, in lines (25-27) Page22. On the other hand, Oedipus, (the child of Jocasta and Laius) was raised by Polybus and Merope, childless king queen of Corinth.
He was told by the oracle of Apollo that he would kill his father and marry his mother. He left Corinth, never to return again so that this prophesy does not come true as he says to Jocasta:“ Forgo the sight of all my dearest ones, And never tread again my native earth; Or else to wed my mother and slay my sire, Polybus, who begat me and upreared?”, in lines (20-22) Page25. But in spite of their efforts and actions, the prophecy of the oracle comes true. It is his fate or it is the wish of god that King Oedipus should meet his tragic end.
If we analyze the character of Oedipus, we find that he is a powerful personality. He is a firm and popular ruler. People acknowledge not only his political power (which they have conferred upon him) but also his pre-eminence among human beings for wisdom and for dealing with things which they don’t understand: “Upraise, O chief of men, upraise our State! Look to thy laurels! for thy zeal of yore Our country’s savior thou art justly hailed: O never may we thus record thy reign:– “He raised us up only to cast us down.” Uplift us, build our city on a rock. Thy happy star ascendant brought us luck, O let it not decline!” lines (20-224) Page2.
Moreover he has immense self-confidence and self-assurance. From the very beginning of the play, we find that he takes full responsibility for any crisis. He takes on the crisis as a personal challenge. Of course the motive behind his taking on the problem is for the benefit of his citizens. His self-confidence is also not unjustified.
People trust him because he has gained their trust. In the past he has solved their problem of the Sphnix with his intellect and in their present crisis, he does not want to let them down. As the play proceeds, we see that he is ready to solve the problem at all cost. Even when he realizes that he can be a part in the murder of King Laius, he doesn’t stop in his investigation.
We also come to the conclusion that he tries to solve the problem in his own terms. He is very confident of his capabilities and investigates the problem in his own way. He believes what is true according to his concept of truth, he is not ready to accept other’s opinion not even Jocasta. This is very much evident from the quarrel scene between Oedipus and Teiresias.
When Teiresias says to him: “the accursed polluter of this land is you”. He is ready to refute him and even goes to the extent of reminding others that it was he who solved the problem in the past not Teiresias. He reacts in this manner with the priest because he is positive, he is clear to himself that he has not played a part in the murder of the king.
When Teiresias says:” Thou the accursed polluter of this land”. Line (16) Page10, Oedipus’s interpretation is clear enough: Teiresias must be lying, and he must have a secret agenda.
In this respect we can visualize him as a Proud or Egoistic person. But his qualities of self-confidence and self-assurance which results in his fall also are the qualities which make him the hero of the play. His ability to step in the front and make decisions and act to meet the crisis are the qualities which helped him to protect the country from the Sphnix and made him great king who he is. In the end of the play we see that he eventually finds the murderer of Laius and cleans the city of plague.
Looking back in to the play, we find that there is a deep connection between the hero’s free choice of action and its inevitable outcome. We find that Oedipus was free to turn in different direction if he wanted; he was not compelled to take the decisions which he took. Oedipus is doomed from the beginning because he is the sort of person he is.
Someone with a very different character would not have suffered Oedipus’s life. He would have compromised his sense of freedom in the name of prudence, custom, politics, or survival. So it can be said that it is destiny which molded him as the person he is and compelled him to take actions which he did and which in the end resulted in his downfall.
His flaw or error as a tragic character is his ignorance. He is ignorant that the man he killed was his father, and in his ignorance he marries his mother. He is also ignorant of the power of god which is powerfully, complex and hostile. Oedipus who lives life in his own terms and who gives full expression to his free will, defies the Almighty( goes against the rule of the cosmos) culminating in his destruction.
Oedipus defies fate. He makes his own decisions and lives with the consequences that brings with it. And he remains the same from the beginning till the end. At the end of the play we find how he suffers and endures a living death (he blinds himself and ask for his exile) for this reason.
The most memorable feature of Oedipus is that he does not bend in face of adversity. When he realizes that he has committed the crime, he punishes himself and endures it. He is a great character not only because he holds a high position in society but also because in spite of his stubbornness and egoist, he is a good person who truly cares for his subject. He is truly a great tragic character who teaches us the power of fortitude.
Dr. Larry A. Brown : Aristotle on Green Tragedy 8 Feb 2007. 10 Feb 2007.
Ian Jhonston wrote on: Fate, Freedom, and the Tragic Experience: An Introductory Lecture on Sophocles’s Oedipus the King . Last revised in August 2004. 8 Feb 2007. 10 Fe b 2007.
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0.3264920115470... | 1 | Essay on Sophocles’ Oedipus the King
Sophocles’ King Oedipus is one of the world’s most famous plays. Aristotle has defined Tragedy in his Poetics,”Tragedy, then, is an imitation of a noble and complete action, having the proper magnitude; it employs language that has been artistically enhanced . . . ; it is presented in dramatic, not narrative form, and achieves, through the representation of pitiable and fearful incidents, the catharsis of such incidents” (Chapter6; Golden11).
He defined Tragic Hero as a person of high or noble character who has a flaw or error; because of which misfortune fall on him resulting in his downfall from high to low position. He recognizes his mistake and results in catharsis or purgation of pity and fear. King Oedipus is the protagonist, the tragic hero of the play.
He holds a high position in society. He is the ruler of Thebes and loved and respected by his country men. But he has a flaw or error of character. His flaw is his ignorance. And in his ignorance, he plays a part in all the events that occur which subsequently results in his downfall.
So from the play it can be inferred that it is destiny which played an important part in his tragedy or downfall. It is true that he had free will to take actions which he did. But It can be well argued that it is destiny which shaped his character and inspired him to take decisions and his later actions.
Sophocles’ play King Oedipus is the story of how the protagonist without his knowledge kills his own father Laius, arrives in Thebes, solves a riddle and saves the people from Sphinx. He becomes the king of Thebes and marries queen Jocasta, his mother. In this way he helps to prove the prophecy of Apollo to be true.
Tragedy struck him and he fell in to such a low position that it arouses pity and fear in us. We feel pity for him because he falls to a very low position from his status of a king and a self-confident man and fear because we identify ourselves with him.
In the play King Oedipus, we find that it is destiny who rules the lives of Jocasta, Laius and Oedipus. From the dialouge of Jocasta, as she expresses her feelings to Oedipus, we find that laius has left their child in the mountains to die when they heard the prophesy of an oracle that (their unborn child will kill his father and marry his mother).
Jocasta says to Oedipus: “ As for the child, it was but three days old, When Laius, its ankles pierced and pinned together, gave it to be cast away by others on the trackless mountain side”, in lines (25-27) Page22. On the other hand, Oedipus, (the child of Jocasta and Laius) was raised by Polybus and Merope, childless king queen of Corinth.
He was told by the oracle of Apollo that he would kill his father and marry his mother. He left Corinth, never to return again so that this prophesy does not come true as he says to Jocasta:“ Forgo the sight of all my dearest ones, And never tread again my native earth; Or else to wed my mother and slay my sire, Polybus, who begat me and upreared?”, in lines (20-22) Page25. But in spite of their efforts and actions, the prophecy of the oracle comes true. It is his fate or it is the wish of god that King Oedipus should meet his tragic end.
If we analyze the character of Oedipus, we find that he is a powerful personality. He is a firm and popular ruler. People acknowledge not only his political power (which they have conferred upon him) but also his pre-eminence among human beings for wisdom and for dealing with things which they don’t understand: “Upraise, O chief of men, upraise our State! Look to thy laurels! for thy zeal of yore Our country’s savior thou art justly hailed: O never may we thus record thy reign:– “He raised us up only to cast us down.” Uplift us, build our city on a rock. Thy happy star ascendant brought us luck, O let it not decline!” lines (20-224) Page2.
Moreover he has immense self-confidence and self-assurance. From the very beginning of the play, we find that he takes full responsibility for any crisis. He takes on the crisis as a personal challenge. Of course the motive behind his taking on the problem is for the benefit of his citizens. His self-confidence is also not unjustified.
People trust him because he has gained their trust. In the past he has solved their problem of the Sphnix with his intellect and in their present crisis, he does not want to let them down. As the play proceeds, we see that he is ready to solve the problem at all cost. Even when he realizes that he can be a part in the murder of King Laius, he doesn’t stop in his investigation.
We also come to the conclusion that he tries to solve the problem in his own terms. He is very confident of his capabilities and investigates the problem in his own way. He believes what is true according to his concept of truth, he is not ready to accept other’s opinion not even Jocasta. This is very much evident from the quarrel scene between Oedipus and Teiresias.
When Teiresias says to him: “the accursed polluter of this land is you”. He is ready to refute him and even goes to the extent of reminding others that it was he who solved the problem in the past not Teiresias. He reacts in this manner with the priest because he is positive, he is clear to himself that he has not played a part in the murder of the king.
When Teiresias says:” Thou the accursed polluter of this land”. Line (16) Page10, Oedipus’s interpretation is clear enough: Teiresias must be lying, and he must have a secret agenda.
In this respect we can visualize him as a Proud or Egoistic person. But his qualities of self-confidence and self-assurance which results in his fall also are the qualities which make him the hero of the play. His ability to step in the front and make decisions and act to meet the crisis are the qualities which helped him to protect the country from the Sphnix and made him great king who he is. In the end of the play we see that he eventually finds the murderer of Laius and cleans the city of plague.
Looking back in to the play, we find that there is a deep connection between the hero’s free choice of action and its inevitable outcome. We find that Oedipus was free to turn in different direction if he wanted; he was not compelled to take the decisions which he took. Oedipus is doomed from the beginning because he is the sort of person he is.
Someone with a very different character would not have suffered Oedipus’s life. He would have compromised his sense of freedom in the name of prudence, custom, politics, or survival. So it can be said that it is destiny which molded him as the person he is and compelled him to take actions which he did and which in the end resulted in his downfall.
His flaw or error as a tragic character is his ignorance. He is ignorant that the man he killed was his father, and in his ignorance he marries his mother. He is also ignorant of the power of god which is powerfully, complex and hostile. Oedipus who lives life in his own terms and who gives full expression to his free will, defies the Almighty( goes against the rule of the cosmos) culminating in his destruction.
Oedipus defies fate. He makes his own decisions and lives with the consequences that brings with it. And he remains the same from the beginning till the end. At the end of the play we find how he suffers and endures a living death (he blinds himself and ask for his exile) for this reason.
The most memorable feature of Oedipus is that he does not bend in face of adversity. When he realizes that he has committed the crime, he punishes himself and endures it. He is a great character not only because he holds a high position in society but also because in spite of his stubbornness and egoist, he is a good person who truly cares for his subject. He is truly a great tragic character who teaches us the power of fortitude.
Dr. Larry A. Brown : Aristotle on Green Tragedy 8 Feb 2007. 10 Feb 2007.
Ian Jhonston wrote on: Fate, Freedom, and the Tragic Experience: An Introductory Lecture on Sophocles’s Oedipus the King . Last revised in August 2004. 8 Feb 2007. 10 Fe b 2007.
Sophocles’ King Oedipus | 1,937 | ENGLISH | 1 |
08 February 2019
Mary Queen of Scots was executed at Fotheringay Castle on 8 February 1587, after almost twenty years in captivity.
The execution of Mary Queen of Scots took place on 8 February 1587, at Fotheringay Castle in England.
Mary had been held prisoner in several different English castles on the orders of her cousin Queen Elizabeth of England since fleeing to England in 1568. During her years in captivity, Mary was the focus of various plots to bring about her release and to restore her to the throne of Scotland.
The execution of Mary Queen of Scots took place in the Great Hall of Fotheringay Castle, in front of witnesses who included her maid servants Jane Kennedy and Elizabeth Curle. The two-foot high scaffold constructed for the execution was draped in black and the dukes of Shrewsbury and Kent accompanied Mary to the execution as witnesses, along with her companions
Mary's body was embalmed and her coffin was taken to Peterborough Cathedral following a Protestant service. Mary's son King James VI ordered her body to be exhumed in 1612 and she was reburied in Westminster Abbey. | <urn:uuid:a6db86e8-ad45-4d00-849d-ee108439be28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyscotland.com/history/scottish-kings-and-queens/mary-queen-of-scots/mary-queen-of-scots-was-executed-on-this-day-in-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00331.warc.gz | en | 0.984772 | 235 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Mary Queen of Scots was executed at Fotheringay Castle on 8 February 1587, after almost twenty years in captivity.
The execution of Mary Queen of Scots took place on 8 February 1587, at Fotheringay Castle in England.
Mary had been held prisoner in several different English castles on the orders of her cousin Queen Elizabeth of England since fleeing to England in 1568. During her years in captivity, Mary was the focus of various plots to bring about her release and to restore her to the throne of Scotland.
The execution of Mary Queen of Scots took place in the Great Hall of Fotheringay Castle, in front of witnesses who included her maid servants Jane Kennedy and Elizabeth Curle. The two-foot high scaffold constructed for the execution was draped in black and the dukes of Shrewsbury and Kent accompanied Mary to the execution as witnesses, along with her companions
Mary's body was embalmed and her coffin was taken to Peterborough Cathedral following a Protestant service. Mary's son King James VI ordered her body to be exhumed in 1612 and she was reburied in Westminster Abbey. | 250 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bernardino Luís Machado, (born March 28, 1851, Rio de Janeiro—died April 29, 1944, Porto, Port.), Brazilian-born political leader who was twice president of Portugal (1915–17, 1925–26).
A professor at Coimbra University, Lisbon, from 1879, Machado was elected twice to the chamber of peers as representative of the university (1890, 1894). He was also minister of public works (1893) and created the first labour court in Portugal. In 1902, after espousing republicanism, he was elected president of the governing board of the Republican Party. With the overthrow of the monarchy (1910), he served as minister of foreign affairs (1910–11), deputy to the constituent assembly and senator (1911), and minister (later ambassador) to Brazil (1912). While he was prime minister and minister of the interior in 1914, he wished to commit Portugal to the side of Great Britain in World War I, but Portugal did not formally join the Allies until March 1916. Elected president on Aug. 6, 1915, he was overthrown by the rightist revolution of Dec. 8, 1917. He became president again on Dec. 11, 1925, but was once more deposed (May 28, 1926) by a military revolt, which soon brought Gen. António Oscar de Fragoso Carmona to power. Machado went into exile, but in 1940 he was allowed to return home. | <urn:uuid:8119395b-e1ea-444b-9bdd-2635f249637a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/print/article/354518 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.982552 | 306 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.486612468957901,... | 3 | Bernardino Luís Machado, (born March 28, 1851, Rio de Janeiro—died April 29, 1944, Porto, Port.), Brazilian-born political leader who was twice president of Portugal (1915–17, 1925–26).
A professor at Coimbra University, Lisbon, from 1879, Machado was elected twice to the chamber of peers as representative of the university (1890, 1894). He was also minister of public works (1893) and created the first labour court in Portugal. In 1902, after espousing republicanism, he was elected president of the governing board of the Republican Party. With the overthrow of the monarchy (1910), he served as minister of foreign affairs (1910–11), deputy to the constituent assembly and senator (1911), and minister (later ambassador) to Brazil (1912). While he was prime minister and minister of the interior in 1914, he wished to commit Portugal to the side of Great Britain in World War I, but Portugal did not formally join the Allies until March 1916. Elected president on Aug. 6, 1915, he was overthrown by the rightist revolution of Dec. 8, 1917. He became president again on Dec. 11, 1925, but was once more deposed (May 28, 1926) by a military revolt, which soon brought Gen. António Oscar de Fragoso Carmona to power. Machado went into exile, but in 1940 he was allowed to return home. | 380 | ENGLISH | 1 |
August 2, 1937, was a black day for marijuana. It was on this day that the Marihuana Tax Act was enacted. Also known as H.R. 6385, the act was drafted by the head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN), Harry Anslinger, and on April 14, 1937, it was introduced into the 75th Congress by Robert L. Doughton, a Republican from North Carolina.
It was redrafted as H.R. 6906 and remained in effect until 1970 when Congress repealed it, a year after Leary v. United States, a case heard by the Supreme Court which ultimately concluded that it was unconstitutional.
According to the new law, importers had to register and pay $24 per annum in tax. Sellers had to purchase marijuana stamps but would simply be arrested if they actually tried to buy any. It is also probable that very few, if any, stamps existed at that stage (they were made available during the 1940s).
The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 is often misunderstood. In theory, it wasn’t total prohibition of cannabis. Instead, it implemented a host of taxes, restrictions, and regulations that made it almost impossible to purchase or sell weed in practice. As a result, when the Act became law on October 1, 1937, arrests followed swiftly. Moses Baca was arrested in Denver within a day for possession, while Samuel Caldwell was arrested a couple of days later for sale.
The interesting thing is that marijuana was not classified as a major health issue in the early 1930s, even though those who wanted to get rid of weed had begun their propaganda campaign much earlier. So how come the Marihuana Tax Act was pushed through so quickly, despite opposition from the American Medical Association (AMA)? Read on to find out.
Marijuana has been used for its healing properties for thousands of years. However, the ‘West’ was slower than most to reach this conclusion. In the 1830s, an Irish doctor, by the name of Sir William Brooke O’Shaughnessy, learned that cannabis extracts were effective against symptoms of cholera such as vomiting, while he was in India.
Within a few decades, marijuana was widely used to treat conditions such as insomnia, inflammation, migraines, and stomach aches in the United States. There was no such thing as regulations until the early 20th century. As there were no illegal drugs, heroin, cocaine, and other illicit substances were widely available.
Things began to change with the implementation of the Pure Food and Drug Act, signed into law on June 30, 1906,by President Theodore Roosevelt. On the surface, it was a good decision because it ensured accurate labeling. The aim was to improve the health and safety of food and to educate people. However, it also helped lay the groundwork for a series of prohibitions. Cannabis was classified as one of the drugs that required special labeling.
The 1914 Harrison Act helped make opiates illegal by placing a hefty tax on prescriptions, it also allowed for federal regulations. Once the federal government got started, it didn’t stop. The Volstead Act of 1919, enforced in 1920, prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages.
It was also at this time that the public’s attitude towards marijuana changed. In 1907, the Poison Act in California classified cannabis as a poison. In 1911, Massachusetts became the first state to prohibit marijuana. It was followed by New York, Maine, Wyoming, and Texas before 1920.
At the International Opium Convention in 1925, the United States supported the regulation of hashish, also known as Indian hemp. The Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act was first drafted in 1925 and finalized seven years later. The FBN encouraged states to adopt the act, which included uniform safeguards for trafficking narcotics in all states.
The FBN itself was formed in 1930 and its boss, Harry Anslinger, was tasked with outlawing all recreational drugs. In 1936, the United States refused to sign the final version of the Geneva Trafficking Convention act because it was deemed too lenient. Even so, weed was not completely outlawed across the United States.
In 1930, only 16 states had passed laws prohibiting marijuana, yet seven years later, there was no state opposition to the Marihuana Tax Act. The AMA was against the act and even argued against it in court. The AMA did not believe that weed was the killer drug of lore and suggested adding it to the Harrison Act instead. So, why did Anslinger find it so easy to implement his precious act?
Prejudice, Propaganda, and Power
It was an old-fashioned fear of immigrants that helped drive marijuana prohibition. As most people know, there was a significant increase in Mexican migrants into the United States from 1910 onwards. The violent Mexican revolution began in that year and claimed millions of lives.
Families fled across the northern border into the relative safety of the United States. From the very beginning, state and national media tried to turn public opinion against the immigrants. They were branded as violent, lazy criminals bent on destroying the American way of life.
Marijuana was a popular recreational drug amongst the immigrants, so it was easy to include it in the various character assassinations that appeared during this era. According to the media, cannabis was the main reason why the immigrants committed so many violent crimes. The drug was associated with African-Americans who were also on the receiving end of terrible treatment.
Even so, cannabis use was on the rise in states where it was legal in the 1930s. Something had to be done. It was at this stage that wealthy tycoons with a vested interest in outlawing weed came on the scene. There was Andrew Mellon, America’s wealthiest man, who was the Secretary of the Treasury and also had a significant investment in the DuPont company. The Treasury was behind the Federal Bureau of Narcotics.
The DuPont’s developed nylon in the 1930s. Hemp fiber was a significant rival to nylon, so it benefitted the DuPont’s and Mellon to remove weed from the scene. Then there was William Randolph Hearst, the media magnate. He also made a fortune in the logging and timber industry. As hemp was fast becoming seen as a cheaper and more effective substitute for paper pulp, Hearst was worried that his assets would take a major hit. What he didn’t know was that hemp lacks the cellulose concentration to be an effective substitute for paper.
Hearst used the power of the media to wage a propaganda war on marijuana. Soon, readers were told stories of how cannabis made people go crazy and murder their families. All of these ‘reports’ were complete works of fiction, but they had the desired effect.
The nadir of the propaganda effort, and perhaps the low point in movie history, was the 1936 release of Reefer Madness. It is an appalling piece of garbage that told lies about the damage marijuana could do. Its $100,000 budget was a fortune at the time. In the film, a group of teenagers is lured into trying cannabis by a shady dealer and commit all manner of atrocities including attempted rape, manslaughter, and suicide.
It was one of a long list of anti-marijuana releases at the time which also included Marihuana in 1936, Assassin of Youth in 1937, and Devil’s Harvest in 1942. Despite the poor quality of these movies and the laughably transparent narrative in print media, the propaganda war was a success. There was minimal opposition to the Marihuana Tax Act in 1937, and it ensured that cannabis remained underground for decades.
Prohibition and Beyond
Oddly enough, the U.S. Government did not strictly enforce the act during World War II, when it suited them. When Japanese forces took the Philippines in 1942, the U.S. Army and Department of Agriculture urged farmers to grow fiber hemp. The mysterious tax stamps soon appeared and were given to farmers.
In the final three years of the war, 400,000 acres of land were cultivated with hemp even though the Marihuana Tax Act remained unchanged. Commercial hemp was grown in the United States until the middle of the 1950s. When Leary v. United States ruled the Act unconstitutional, it was repealed in 1970. Alas, the Controlled Substances Act was introduced in its stead, and cannabis remained prohibited.
During the 1960s and 1970s, public opinion was overwhelmingly against marijuana legalization, even as the drug became popular amongst the white middle class. In 1996, California became the first state in the modern era to legalize medicinal marijuana. It took over a decade before Washington state, and Colorado became the first to legalize recreational cannabis in 2010.
As at the beginning of 2020, 33 states plus D.C. allow medicinal marijuana, while 11 of these states, plus D.C., allow recreational weed with limits on possession ranging from an ounce to 2.5 ounces in Maine. Even as marijuana becomes legal in various states, it remains illegal on a federal level. In theory, the government could ignore states’ rights and arrest users and sellers in every state. The war on marijuana may have begun a century ago, but its legacy is still felt today. | <urn:uuid:65e507c0-0318-48dc-ad1d-3cb8f126ee9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marijuanabreak.com/history-of-the-marihuana-tax-act | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.984972 | 1,892 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.405301451683044... | 4 | August 2, 1937, was a black day for marijuana. It was on this day that the Marihuana Tax Act was enacted. Also known as H.R. 6385, the act was drafted by the head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN), Harry Anslinger, and on April 14, 1937, it was introduced into the 75th Congress by Robert L. Doughton, a Republican from North Carolina.
It was redrafted as H.R. 6906 and remained in effect until 1970 when Congress repealed it, a year after Leary v. United States, a case heard by the Supreme Court which ultimately concluded that it was unconstitutional.
According to the new law, importers had to register and pay $24 per annum in tax. Sellers had to purchase marijuana stamps but would simply be arrested if they actually tried to buy any. It is also probable that very few, if any, stamps existed at that stage (they were made available during the 1940s).
The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 is often misunderstood. In theory, it wasn’t total prohibition of cannabis. Instead, it implemented a host of taxes, restrictions, and regulations that made it almost impossible to purchase or sell weed in practice. As a result, when the Act became law on October 1, 1937, arrests followed swiftly. Moses Baca was arrested in Denver within a day for possession, while Samuel Caldwell was arrested a couple of days later for sale.
The interesting thing is that marijuana was not classified as a major health issue in the early 1930s, even though those who wanted to get rid of weed had begun their propaganda campaign much earlier. So how come the Marihuana Tax Act was pushed through so quickly, despite opposition from the American Medical Association (AMA)? Read on to find out.
Marijuana has been used for its healing properties for thousands of years. However, the ‘West’ was slower than most to reach this conclusion. In the 1830s, an Irish doctor, by the name of Sir William Brooke O’Shaughnessy, learned that cannabis extracts were effective against symptoms of cholera such as vomiting, while he was in India.
Within a few decades, marijuana was widely used to treat conditions such as insomnia, inflammation, migraines, and stomach aches in the United States. There was no such thing as regulations until the early 20th century. As there were no illegal drugs, heroin, cocaine, and other illicit substances were widely available.
Things began to change with the implementation of the Pure Food and Drug Act, signed into law on June 30, 1906,by President Theodore Roosevelt. On the surface, it was a good decision because it ensured accurate labeling. The aim was to improve the health and safety of food and to educate people. However, it also helped lay the groundwork for a series of prohibitions. Cannabis was classified as one of the drugs that required special labeling.
The 1914 Harrison Act helped make opiates illegal by placing a hefty tax on prescriptions, it also allowed for federal regulations. Once the federal government got started, it didn’t stop. The Volstead Act of 1919, enforced in 1920, prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages.
It was also at this time that the public’s attitude towards marijuana changed. In 1907, the Poison Act in California classified cannabis as a poison. In 1911, Massachusetts became the first state to prohibit marijuana. It was followed by New York, Maine, Wyoming, and Texas before 1920.
At the International Opium Convention in 1925, the United States supported the regulation of hashish, also known as Indian hemp. The Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act was first drafted in 1925 and finalized seven years later. The FBN encouraged states to adopt the act, which included uniform safeguards for trafficking narcotics in all states.
The FBN itself was formed in 1930 and its boss, Harry Anslinger, was tasked with outlawing all recreational drugs. In 1936, the United States refused to sign the final version of the Geneva Trafficking Convention act because it was deemed too lenient. Even so, weed was not completely outlawed across the United States.
In 1930, only 16 states had passed laws prohibiting marijuana, yet seven years later, there was no state opposition to the Marihuana Tax Act. The AMA was against the act and even argued against it in court. The AMA did not believe that weed was the killer drug of lore and suggested adding it to the Harrison Act instead. So, why did Anslinger find it so easy to implement his precious act?
Prejudice, Propaganda, and Power
It was an old-fashioned fear of immigrants that helped drive marijuana prohibition. As most people know, there was a significant increase in Mexican migrants into the United States from 1910 onwards. The violent Mexican revolution began in that year and claimed millions of lives.
Families fled across the northern border into the relative safety of the United States. From the very beginning, state and national media tried to turn public opinion against the immigrants. They were branded as violent, lazy criminals bent on destroying the American way of life.
Marijuana was a popular recreational drug amongst the immigrants, so it was easy to include it in the various character assassinations that appeared during this era. According to the media, cannabis was the main reason why the immigrants committed so many violent crimes. The drug was associated with African-Americans who were also on the receiving end of terrible treatment.
Even so, cannabis use was on the rise in states where it was legal in the 1930s. Something had to be done. It was at this stage that wealthy tycoons with a vested interest in outlawing weed came on the scene. There was Andrew Mellon, America’s wealthiest man, who was the Secretary of the Treasury and also had a significant investment in the DuPont company. The Treasury was behind the Federal Bureau of Narcotics.
The DuPont’s developed nylon in the 1930s. Hemp fiber was a significant rival to nylon, so it benefitted the DuPont’s and Mellon to remove weed from the scene. Then there was William Randolph Hearst, the media magnate. He also made a fortune in the logging and timber industry. As hemp was fast becoming seen as a cheaper and more effective substitute for paper pulp, Hearst was worried that his assets would take a major hit. What he didn’t know was that hemp lacks the cellulose concentration to be an effective substitute for paper.
Hearst used the power of the media to wage a propaganda war on marijuana. Soon, readers were told stories of how cannabis made people go crazy and murder their families. All of these ‘reports’ were complete works of fiction, but they had the desired effect.
The nadir of the propaganda effort, and perhaps the low point in movie history, was the 1936 release of Reefer Madness. It is an appalling piece of garbage that told lies about the damage marijuana could do. Its $100,000 budget was a fortune at the time. In the film, a group of teenagers is lured into trying cannabis by a shady dealer and commit all manner of atrocities including attempted rape, manslaughter, and suicide.
It was one of a long list of anti-marijuana releases at the time which also included Marihuana in 1936, Assassin of Youth in 1937, and Devil’s Harvest in 1942. Despite the poor quality of these movies and the laughably transparent narrative in print media, the propaganda war was a success. There was minimal opposition to the Marihuana Tax Act in 1937, and it ensured that cannabis remained underground for decades.
Prohibition and Beyond
Oddly enough, the U.S. Government did not strictly enforce the act during World War II, when it suited them. When Japanese forces took the Philippines in 1942, the U.S. Army and Department of Agriculture urged farmers to grow fiber hemp. The mysterious tax stamps soon appeared and were given to farmers.
In the final three years of the war, 400,000 acres of land were cultivated with hemp even though the Marihuana Tax Act remained unchanged. Commercial hemp was grown in the United States until the middle of the 1950s. When Leary v. United States ruled the Act unconstitutional, it was repealed in 1970. Alas, the Controlled Substances Act was introduced in its stead, and cannabis remained prohibited.
During the 1960s and 1970s, public opinion was overwhelmingly against marijuana legalization, even as the drug became popular amongst the white middle class. In 1996, California became the first state in the modern era to legalize medicinal marijuana. It took over a decade before Washington state, and Colorado became the first to legalize recreational cannabis in 2010.
As at the beginning of 2020, 33 states plus D.C. allow medicinal marijuana, while 11 of these states, plus D.C., allow recreational weed with limits on possession ranging from an ounce to 2.5 ounces in Maine. Even as marijuana becomes legal in various states, it remains illegal on a federal level. In theory, the government could ignore states’ rights and arrest users and sellers in every state. The war on marijuana may have begun a century ago, but its legacy is still felt today. | 2,014 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born a slave during the Civil War, Ida B. Wells was among the first generation of African-Americans who, in the wake of emancipation, had to define themselves in a radically new way — and had to fight back attempts by the mainstream white society to impose on them a definition from the outside.
As James West Davidson writes in his stellar ‘They Say’: Ida B. Wells and the Reconstruction of Race, freedom for blacks threatened to upend the white assertion that African-Americans were lesser human beings. Race — and the separation of the races — suddenly became much more significant.
The struggle arose out of the vacuum created when emancipation eliminated the legal categories of slave and free. If the law of the land prescribed a status, slave, which could be upheld and regulated, race was a useful concept but not necessarily paramount.
Once the legal props of slavery disappeared, however, it became much more difficult for one group of people to justify keeping another in an inferior position. Race was the key. A line was drawn — a color line, as Wells called it — that during the 1880s and 1890s was increasingly buttressed by new laws, customs, and sanctions, until that single drop of “black blood” was sufficient to make the line sharp, bright, and unyielding.
Lynching was one horrific result.
And, often, these murders of blacks — through hanging, shooting, drowning, fire or some combination of these and other methods — were committed in the name of racial purity.
They were committed frequently because of the white perception/fantasy that a black had tried to rape a white woman, or simply considered the possibility — and, therefore, taint “pure” white blood.
Before emancipation, white society was much less righteous about such racial mingling. For one thing, any attempt by a mob to lynch a slave was an attack on the property of the white owner. Indeed, as Davidson notes, there were cases of white women who had mixed-race babies without leading immediately to violence.
Even more significant was that whites were often responsible for the race-mingling that did take place — a white master or overseer forcing a female slave to have sex.
“I’ll never forget”
Wells’s father Jim, for instance, was the mulatto son of a black slave named Peggy and her white master. The white man was kind to Jim and put him into an apprenticeship as a carpenter, and the master’s wife Miss Polly put up with the awkward situation quietly.
Until her husband died.
During Wells’s childhood, she found out what happened then when she overheard a remark from her father during a visit by his mother. Wells recalled, many decades later, that Peggy suggested to Jim that he visit the aging Miss Polly, but he responded bitterly:
“Mother, I never want to see that old woman as long as I live. I’ll never forget how she had you stripped and whipped the day after the old man died, and I am never going to see her.”
For Wells, it was a startling glimpse into this aspect of slavery and its impact on her people and, even more, on her family.
Ladylike or assertive?
In the aftermath of the Civil War, white society, particularly in the South, identified black men as sex-crazed, particularly toward white women, while dismissing black women as whores and sluts.
In fact, though — as the story of the first half of the life of Wells shows— many African-Americans modelled themselves of the Victorian white middle-class in terms of norms, expectations, manners and money-making.
However, growing into adulthood, Wells was caught in the tension between being ladylike (and submissive) or being assertive (and self-defining). She wanted to be a genteel middle-class African-American woman, but, too bright and too passionate and, ultimately, too angry, she found herself — she ended up defining herself — as an firebrand.
Not just as a black journalist, but even more as a black crusader against the lynching that was epidemic throughout the South.
“One woman’s steps to self-definition”
The title of Davidson’s book, ‘They Say,’ is indicative of the dilemma that blacks faced in the post-war era. Would African-Americans be defined by what they — whites — said? Or would blacks have their own say? Davidson writes that his book isn’t a biography of Wells:
Rather, it is an attempt to chart one woman’s steps toward personal and cultural self-definition — steps that were thwarted by a movement to hedge in African Americans according to the evolving racial constructs of the day.
Reconstruction in the political sense, under which the South was brought back into the Union, ended in 1877. But the reconstruction of race as a concept and as a social and political weapon continued through the final decades of the century and beyond.
Like many other black Americans, Wells found that she could forge her own identity only by challenging and contesting the second-class citizenship that emerged out of that reconstruction of race.
And Wells discovered the lynching was at the heart of that reconstruction.
“She refused to let others define her”
As a young adult, Wells wanted to live a normal life in an abnormal time, but it was not to be:
When she came to Memphis in 1881, Ida B. Wells was not bent toward a career as an agitator.
She went to church, enjoyed the theater, shopped at the department stores, sought to join in the same middle-class life that so many whites and more than a few blacks enjoyed.
She was driven to her life’s work because she refused to let others define her.
Ida B. Wells is an important figure in American history as a chronicler of lynching and a crusader against it. She should be more widely known.
‘They Say’ by James West Davidson does her justice and is a great place to start learning her story.
Patrick T. Reardon | <urn:uuid:1d57af51-798b-4d4c-a40b-4fd1c4b57496> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://patricktreardon.com/book-review-they-say-ida-b-wells-and-the-reconstruction-of-race-by-james-west-davidson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.981409 | 1,290 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.015089370310306... | 3 | Born a slave during the Civil War, Ida B. Wells was among the first generation of African-Americans who, in the wake of emancipation, had to define themselves in a radically new way — and had to fight back attempts by the mainstream white society to impose on them a definition from the outside.
As James West Davidson writes in his stellar ‘They Say’: Ida B. Wells and the Reconstruction of Race, freedom for blacks threatened to upend the white assertion that African-Americans were lesser human beings. Race — and the separation of the races — suddenly became much more significant.
The struggle arose out of the vacuum created when emancipation eliminated the legal categories of slave and free. If the law of the land prescribed a status, slave, which could be upheld and regulated, race was a useful concept but not necessarily paramount.
Once the legal props of slavery disappeared, however, it became much more difficult for one group of people to justify keeping another in an inferior position. Race was the key. A line was drawn — a color line, as Wells called it — that during the 1880s and 1890s was increasingly buttressed by new laws, customs, and sanctions, until that single drop of “black blood” was sufficient to make the line sharp, bright, and unyielding.
Lynching was one horrific result.
And, often, these murders of blacks — through hanging, shooting, drowning, fire or some combination of these and other methods — were committed in the name of racial purity.
They were committed frequently because of the white perception/fantasy that a black had tried to rape a white woman, or simply considered the possibility — and, therefore, taint “pure” white blood.
Before emancipation, white society was much less righteous about such racial mingling. For one thing, any attempt by a mob to lynch a slave was an attack on the property of the white owner. Indeed, as Davidson notes, there were cases of white women who had mixed-race babies without leading immediately to violence.
Even more significant was that whites were often responsible for the race-mingling that did take place — a white master or overseer forcing a female slave to have sex.
“I’ll never forget”
Wells’s father Jim, for instance, was the mulatto son of a black slave named Peggy and her white master. The white man was kind to Jim and put him into an apprenticeship as a carpenter, and the master’s wife Miss Polly put up with the awkward situation quietly.
Until her husband died.
During Wells’s childhood, she found out what happened then when she overheard a remark from her father during a visit by his mother. Wells recalled, many decades later, that Peggy suggested to Jim that he visit the aging Miss Polly, but he responded bitterly:
“Mother, I never want to see that old woman as long as I live. I’ll never forget how she had you stripped and whipped the day after the old man died, and I am never going to see her.”
For Wells, it was a startling glimpse into this aspect of slavery and its impact on her people and, even more, on her family.
Ladylike or assertive?
In the aftermath of the Civil War, white society, particularly in the South, identified black men as sex-crazed, particularly toward white women, while dismissing black women as whores and sluts.
In fact, though — as the story of the first half of the life of Wells shows— many African-Americans modelled themselves of the Victorian white middle-class in terms of norms, expectations, manners and money-making.
However, growing into adulthood, Wells was caught in the tension between being ladylike (and submissive) or being assertive (and self-defining). She wanted to be a genteel middle-class African-American woman, but, too bright and too passionate and, ultimately, too angry, she found herself — she ended up defining herself — as an firebrand.
Not just as a black journalist, but even more as a black crusader against the lynching that was epidemic throughout the South.
“One woman’s steps to self-definition”
The title of Davidson’s book, ‘They Say,’ is indicative of the dilemma that blacks faced in the post-war era. Would African-Americans be defined by what they — whites — said? Or would blacks have their own say? Davidson writes that his book isn’t a biography of Wells:
Rather, it is an attempt to chart one woman’s steps toward personal and cultural self-definition — steps that were thwarted by a movement to hedge in African Americans according to the evolving racial constructs of the day.
Reconstruction in the political sense, under which the South was brought back into the Union, ended in 1877. But the reconstruction of race as a concept and as a social and political weapon continued through the final decades of the century and beyond.
Like many other black Americans, Wells found that she could forge her own identity only by challenging and contesting the second-class citizenship that emerged out of that reconstruction of race.
And Wells discovered the lynching was at the heart of that reconstruction.
“She refused to let others define her”
As a young adult, Wells wanted to live a normal life in an abnormal time, but it was not to be:
When she came to Memphis in 1881, Ida B. Wells was not bent toward a career as an agitator.
She went to church, enjoyed the theater, shopped at the department stores, sought to join in the same middle-class life that so many whites and more than a few blacks enjoyed.
She was driven to her life’s work because she refused to let others define her.
Ida B. Wells is an important figure in American history as a chronicler of lynching and a crusader against it. She should be more widely known.
‘They Say’ by James West Davidson does her justice and is a great place to start learning her story.
Patrick T. Reardon | 1,213 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Oliver Twist Short Summary
By Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist is about an orphan named Oliver who struggles to remain good in a society that does not offer any help.
An Overview of the Story
Oliver Twist is born in the 1830s in a certain workhouse in England. His mother died at his birth, and her name is not revealed. For the first nine years of his life, Oliver lives in an orphanage but is then transferred to a warehouse later. He is bullied by some boys here to ask for more food after their meals. Oliver becomes an apprentice for Mr. Sowerberry, who was an undertaker. Oliver gets into an altercation with another apprentice who insulted his mother, and he is forced to run away from the wrath of Sowerberry. He escapes to London.
There he is tired and starving when he meets a boy, Jack Dawkins who offers him some shelter. As it turns the owner of the shelter is Fagin, a criminal who turns orphans into pickpockets. Oliver gets his training and goes for his first stealing mission. He is caught after some confusion and escapes conviction for theft. Oliver is taken in by Mr. Brownlow, a man they had stolen from. A portrait in Brownlow’s house resembles Oliver. Later, two members of Fang’s gang kidnap Oliver and take him back to Fang.
Oliver is forced into burglary and ends up getting shot. The owner of the house, Mrs. Maylie and her niece Rose take him in, and he is even invited to spend summer with them in the countryside after they grow fond of him. Fagin is set on capturing Oliver again. The plan is revealed to Rose by Nancy, one of the gang members. Nancy gets murdered for it.
Oliver is reunited with Mr. Brownlow by the Maylies, and it is discovered that Oliver has a half-brother named Monks who have been looking for him to ensure that Oliver does not get a claim to the inheritance. Brownlow gets Monks to give Oliver his share of the inheritance. Rose is discovered to be Oliver’s aunt and the sister of Oliver’s mother. Fagin gets hanged for the crimes. Mr. Brownlow adopts Oliver. They relocate to the countryside with the Maylies to live in bliss | <urn:uuid:df73c534-7216-4c45-a161-b8c8d59e470e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/oliver-twist/oliver-twist-short-summary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.982183 | 468 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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By Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist is about an orphan named Oliver who struggles to remain good in a society that does not offer any help.
An Overview of the Story
Oliver Twist is born in the 1830s in a certain workhouse in England. His mother died at his birth, and her name is not revealed. For the first nine years of his life, Oliver lives in an orphanage but is then transferred to a warehouse later. He is bullied by some boys here to ask for more food after their meals. Oliver becomes an apprentice for Mr. Sowerberry, who was an undertaker. Oliver gets into an altercation with another apprentice who insulted his mother, and he is forced to run away from the wrath of Sowerberry. He escapes to London.
There he is tired and starving when he meets a boy, Jack Dawkins who offers him some shelter. As it turns the owner of the shelter is Fagin, a criminal who turns orphans into pickpockets. Oliver gets his training and goes for his first stealing mission. He is caught after some confusion and escapes conviction for theft. Oliver is taken in by Mr. Brownlow, a man they had stolen from. A portrait in Brownlow’s house resembles Oliver. Later, two members of Fang’s gang kidnap Oliver and take him back to Fang.
Oliver is forced into burglary and ends up getting shot. The owner of the house, Mrs. Maylie and her niece Rose take him in, and he is even invited to spend summer with them in the countryside after they grow fond of him. Fagin is set on capturing Oliver again. The plan is revealed to Rose by Nancy, one of the gang members. Nancy gets murdered for it.
Oliver is reunited with Mr. Brownlow by the Maylies, and it is discovered that Oliver has a half-brother named Monks who have been looking for him to ensure that Oliver does not get a claim to the inheritance. Brownlow gets Monks to give Oliver his share of the inheritance. Rose is discovered to be Oliver’s aunt and the sister of Oliver’s mother. Fagin gets hanged for the crimes. Mr. Brownlow adopts Oliver. They relocate to the countryside with the Maylies to live in bliss | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the dawn of the modern computing era teenager Laura Lehmer Gould and her brother Donald Lehmer were the youngest “un-programmers.” That is because ENIAC, one of the world’s first general-purpose computers, was programmed with an array of switches and cables. When each program had been run, someone had to return the cables to their proper storage box to be available for the next program. Shortly after the installation of the ENIAC their parents, Derrick Henry Lehmer and Emma Trotskaya Lehmer, who were well-known number theorists at the University of California at Berkeley, were invited to use the machine for mathematical research.
Designed to aid the war effort and completed in 1945 at the Moore School of the University of Pennsylvania by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, was a pioneering electronic digital computer. However, it was not a stored-program computer in the modern sense of the term. Historian David Alan Grier described it as more like an array of electronic adding machines and arithmetic units that were held together by a web of large electrical cables.1
The machine itself, which was about one thousand times faster than the electro-mechanical calculators of that time, occupied a large room and was evocative of a telephone switchboard of the era, with a plugboard array that could be rewired with cables of different lengths.
That’s where Gould and her brother came in.
As youngsters they would accompany their parents on cross-country car trips to gather valuable research time on the machine. The ENIAC would be programmed with plugboard-style cables that were operated in the manner of a mechanical telephone switchboard. While traveling with their parents, a babysitter wasn’t always available, and so the two children who were then in their early teens, would accompany their parents for the long programming sessions that often stretched into the evening. After the programs ran, their job was to aid in resetting the computer by laboriously disconnected all of the cables and placing them in boxes according to length.
“It was our job to strike when the program was over and put all of the cables in their appropriate boxes sorted by lengths,” she recalled.2
Neither brother nor sister remember precisely what programs their parents were developing. It is possible that they were exploring different methods for predicting the next prime number, but it is also conceivable that they were involved in some aspect of classified military research.
The ENIAC had been commissioned to help the United States Army calculate artillery trajectories. However, Donald Lehmer noted that his father was a pacifist: “He had no interest in doing anything that would kill people. I suspect he was thinking about prime numbers.”
Indeed, Dr. Lehmer briefly left the University of California during the height of the loyalty oath controversy to serve as the director of the National Bureau of Standards’ Institute for Numerical Analysis.
And indeed, the Lehmers had a long prior interest in building a computing device to speed up the problem of factoring. As early as 1930, they had proposed the idea of the design of an electric factoring machine to the Carnegie Institute of Technology.
They wrote: “[. . . ]To perform the operation with pencil and paper one must start with the million or so numbers among which the solution is known to lie. Actually to write out all these numbers is obviously impossible. [. . .] We therefore propose to construct a machine which will canvass a million numbers in about three minutes.”
The Lehmers’ son does have a clear memory of seeing a cloak-and-dagger operation at the ENIAC facility: “Things were kind of secret,” he recalled. “It could have been war activities. It seemed extremely clandestine. I remember going down a concrete staircase into a building. The doors were 20 feet high and 10 feet high. When we entered there was a big of rush of air as it was pressurized to keep the dirt out.”
He remembers that his parents would get access to the machine when it wasn’t running its official programs. He also has a clear memory of how painstaking it was to actually program the ENIAC.
“Now[a]days we load a program in a 10th of a second,” he said. “Then it took two or three days and then debugging. Once a program was running people were reluctant to give it up. They would post a guard and tell us, ‘don’t touch a thing.’”
Both children would go on to careers that were deeply influenced by computing. Laura became a linguist and would later work as a research scientist at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center. Donald would go on to become an engineer.
Laura would marry Severo Ornstein, who was one of a small team of engineers led by Wesley Cark who built the LINC, which is thought to be the first true personal computer. Later Ornstein was also one of the designers of the Interface Message Processors for the original ARPANET.
What both of the teenagers remember most clearly from the era were the long multiday cross-country drives the Lehmer family would make each summer from Berkeley to the ENIAC facility. Like most extending family outings, the trips were not without stress.
Laura Gould remembers sharing the backseat with her brother, occasionally uneasily: “Every once in awhile my father would blow up and pull the car over to the side of the road and say, ‘alright now get out and fight!’ And we would.”
Read “Unprogramming the ENIAC: Lehmer Child’s Play” on Medium. | <urn:uuid:f844cf0b-5c55-42fa-8971-cabf57ca0094> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://computerhistory.org/blog/unprogramming-the-eniac-lehmer-childs-play/?key=unprogramming-the-eniac-lehmer-childs-play | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00131.warc.gz | en | 0.983058 | 1,209 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.202296301722526... | 7 | At the dawn of the modern computing era teenager Laura Lehmer Gould and her brother Donald Lehmer were the youngest “un-programmers.” That is because ENIAC, one of the world’s first general-purpose computers, was programmed with an array of switches and cables. When each program had been run, someone had to return the cables to their proper storage box to be available for the next program. Shortly after the installation of the ENIAC their parents, Derrick Henry Lehmer and Emma Trotskaya Lehmer, who were well-known number theorists at the University of California at Berkeley, were invited to use the machine for mathematical research.
Designed to aid the war effort and completed in 1945 at the Moore School of the University of Pennsylvania by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, was a pioneering electronic digital computer. However, it was not a stored-program computer in the modern sense of the term. Historian David Alan Grier described it as more like an array of electronic adding machines and arithmetic units that were held together by a web of large electrical cables.1
The machine itself, which was about one thousand times faster than the electro-mechanical calculators of that time, occupied a large room and was evocative of a telephone switchboard of the era, with a plugboard array that could be rewired with cables of different lengths.
That’s where Gould and her brother came in.
As youngsters they would accompany their parents on cross-country car trips to gather valuable research time on the machine. The ENIAC would be programmed with plugboard-style cables that were operated in the manner of a mechanical telephone switchboard. While traveling with their parents, a babysitter wasn’t always available, and so the two children who were then in their early teens, would accompany their parents for the long programming sessions that often stretched into the evening. After the programs ran, their job was to aid in resetting the computer by laboriously disconnected all of the cables and placing them in boxes according to length.
“It was our job to strike when the program was over and put all of the cables in their appropriate boxes sorted by lengths,” she recalled.2
Neither brother nor sister remember precisely what programs their parents were developing. It is possible that they were exploring different methods for predicting the next prime number, but it is also conceivable that they were involved in some aspect of classified military research.
The ENIAC had been commissioned to help the United States Army calculate artillery trajectories. However, Donald Lehmer noted that his father was a pacifist: “He had no interest in doing anything that would kill people. I suspect he was thinking about prime numbers.”
Indeed, Dr. Lehmer briefly left the University of California during the height of the loyalty oath controversy to serve as the director of the National Bureau of Standards’ Institute for Numerical Analysis.
And indeed, the Lehmers had a long prior interest in building a computing device to speed up the problem of factoring. As early as 1930, they had proposed the idea of the design of an electric factoring machine to the Carnegie Institute of Technology.
They wrote: “[. . . ]To perform the operation with pencil and paper one must start with the million or so numbers among which the solution is known to lie. Actually to write out all these numbers is obviously impossible. [. . .] We therefore propose to construct a machine which will canvass a million numbers in about three minutes.”
The Lehmers’ son does have a clear memory of seeing a cloak-and-dagger operation at the ENIAC facility: “Things were kind of secret,” he recalled. “It could have been war activities. It seemed extremely clandestine. I remember going down a concrete staircase into a building. The doors were 20 feet high and 10 feet high. When we entered there was a big of rush of air as it was pressurized to keep the dirt out.”
He remembers that his parents would get access to the machine when it wasn’t running its official programs. He also has a clear memory of how painstaking it was to actually program the ENIAC.
“Now[a]days we load a program in a 10th of a second,” he said. “Then it took two or three days and then debugging. Once a program was running people were reluctant to give it up. They would post a guard and tell us, ‘don’t touch a thing.’”
Both children would go on to careers that were deeply influenced by computing. Laura became a linguist and would later work as a research scientist at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center. Donald would go on to become an engineer.
Laura would marry Severo Ornstein, who was one of a small team of engineers led by Wesley Cark who built the LINC, which is thought to be the first true personal computer. Later Ornstein was also one of the designers of the Interface Message Processors for the original ARPANET.
What both of the teenagers remember most clearly from the era were the long multiday cross-country drives the Lehmer family would make each summer from Berkeley to the ENIAC facility. Like most extending family outings, the trips were not without stress.
Laura Gould remembers sharing the backseat with her brother, occasionally uneasily: “Every once in awhile my father would blow up and pull the car over to the side of the road and say, ‘alright now get out and fight!’ And we would.”
Read “Unprogramming the ENIAC: Lehmer Child’s Play” on Medium. | 1,140 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ruler of England for 45 years, Elizabeth had a profound effect on literature produced while she was queen. A writer herself, her personal literary production is primarily letters and speeches written for various political purposes such as addressing Parliament or negotiating with foreign powers. She also wrote at least 15 poems. The stability of her long reign and her emphasis on courtly behavior that included the ability to write creatively contributed to the immense literary production of this period, some of which focused on her.
Elizabeth was born to Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife. At birth, Elizabeth disappointed her parents because she was not male, so she was not considered able to succeed Henry as sovereign and lived in the shadow of her older half sister, Mary Tudor, later Mary I, daughter of Henry and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry demanded an act of succession from Parliament that allowed his older and then his younger daughter to inherit the throne if he
should fail to provide a legitimate son. Approximately two years after Elizabeth's birth, Anne Boleyn was tried on charges of adulterous treason and beheaded. Henry then married Jane Seymour, by whom he had a son, Edward, who displaced Mary and Elizabeth as Henry's heir. However, all accounts indicate that Elizabeth and Edward enjoyed a cordial relationship, particularly under the Protestant influence of Henry's sixth wife, Catherine Parr.
With Edward, Elizabeth studied under Roger Ascham and William Grindal. She learned to read, write, and speak Latin, English, French, Italian, Spanish, and some Greek. Although Elizabeth's relationships with her siblings were cordial, they changed significantly when Edward, and then Mary, became England's rulers. King Edward VI was only 10 years old at his ascension, so his two uncles—first Edward Seymour, duke of Somerset, then John Dudley, duke of Northumberland—became regents. While Edward lived, Elizabeth continued her education and practiced her Protestant religion, while Somerset and Northumberland strove to make a politically advantageous marriage for her.
Edward died of tuberculosis at 16, leaving no clear successor. Northumberland attempted to place his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne. Henry Vlll's act of succession was still in place, however, so, Jane Grey was deposed after nine days. In 1553, Mary Tudor ascended the throne and had Parliament declare her birth legitimate.
Under Mary, Elizabeth's life was increasingly jeopardized because the queen's sister represented both personal and political threats. Henry Vlll's affection for Elizabeth's mother had caused Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and had made England into a Protestant nation. Mary, however, was a devout Roman Catholic. As Mary's reign continued and she was unable to eradicate Protestantism or to produce an heir (she married Philip II of Spain in July 1554), Elizabeth became an increasing political threat. Elizabeth had the same claim to the succession as Mary, so resentful Protestants wanted her crowned queen. To counter any such plots, Mary demanded that Elizabeth publicly attend mass. Although Elizabeth refused initially, she eventually appeared to comply. Mary, however, eventually suspected Elizabeth of joining Protestant plots to depose her and had her sister imprisoned in the Tower of London and examined for treason, then moved and guarded at Woodstock, and then at Hat-field in an effort to keep Elizabeth and others from conspiring against her. While imprisoned, Elizabeth continued to study and to write, scratching a poem on the window at Woodstock ("Written with a Diamond"). Regardless of Mary's suspicions, Elizabeth was never proven to have engaged in any plots to replace the queen. In 1558, Mary died without issue, and Elizabeth became queen at age 24.
As queen, Elizabeth faced several great challenges. She had to determine national religious practice; to decide which, if any, of her suitors to marry; to negotiate a foreign policy that kept England from the threat of war, especially with Catholic nations that might support Mary, Queen of Scots in her effort to claim the English crown; and to maintain order within her own borders. Because each of these courses had national ramifications, these decisions provided material for writers of various texts, from peers to playwrights.
A Protestant, Elizabeth returned England to Protestant religious practice. This move, while popular at home, made England a target for Catholic nations abroad. To keep English Catholics from joining with these powers, Elizabeth imposed restrictions on them. She made hearing or saying mass a punishable offense and banned Catholic pamphlets written to discredit her and to foment rebellion. To prevent Catholic nations from declaring war, Elizabeth also used her position as the greatest marriage prize in Europe to keep suitors (including Philip II of Spain) dangling. As long as they believed that they might marry Elizabeth and thereby gain control of England, they hesitated to invade outright. The tensions between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism influenced many writers, including William Shakespeare and Edmund Spenser.
Elizabeth's persistent unmarried status became a focus of both national concern and international relations. Many of her letters and speeches, and the literary output of those who sought her patronage, focused on her position as an unwed queen, although she often used kingly language when speaking of herself. Elizabeth repeatedly characterized herself as a prince, as espoused to her country, or as a benevolent queen/mother to her subjects/children. Her authority allowed her to demand continued use of the language and behavior of courtly love with very real political consequences. of her hopeful courtiers, she had two English favorites: Robert Dudley, master of the horse and later earl of Leicester; and Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. But she did not marry either.
Until her early 40s, Elizabeth was able to keep everyone guessing whether she would marry or remain single. Her suitors' literary output—primarily letters—reflects their uncertainty. Some believed that she would never marry; others hoped that she would marry and bear children. She thus remained a central female figure of poetry written in her court. In her own poetry, notably "On Monsieur's Departure," she herself plays with elements of the courtly love tradition, particularly the images of burning ice and freezing fire. In this poem, she is the one who must allow others to suspect that she hates, while internally she feels differently. of the poetry written to her, the best-developed example of the courtly love theme is Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, a poem that features Elizabeth in many guises: She appears as the Fairie Queen, Belphoebe, Diana, and Cynthia, among others. Each character maintains her virginity, and each one is an object of desire. Elizabeth also played this role in dramatic entertainments that occurred during the travels that she took through the country. Writers often cast her as herself or as the goddess Diana. In each case, she remained the "virgin queen."
Elizabeth also encouraged a sense of nationalistic pride that was closely associated with Protestantism. She faced two Roman Catholic threats: Mary, Queen of Scots, and Philip II, king of Spain. As Elizabeth's northern neighbor and cousin, Mary presented a problem: She was not only Catholic, she was closely connected to France, a Roman Catholic force. Mary's geographical and genealogical proximity also made her the focus of Catholic subjects who hoped to replace Elizabeth with a monarch legitimized by the pope. Because of her foolish political-personal decisions, however, Mary eventually found herself letting her heart rule her head, and she fled Scotland for England. Although she hoped Elizabeth would be hospitable, Mary was captured and held until her repeated plots against the English queen forced her execution in 1587.
Like Mary, Philip II also constituted a Catholic threat. As the war between the Protestant Netherlands and Philip intensified, the Protestants begged for Elizabeth's support, which she reluctantly gave. Frustrated by Elizabeth's refusal to return to Roman Catholicism, Philip planned a naval assault, which ended with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. A Catholic nation had attempted invasion, thereby escalating the religious animosity. Pamphleteers used this episode as God-given material, and writers at and for the court and other audiences made stronger references to the conflict between the two religious systems.
Within her own borders, Elizabeth also had to maintain order. She successfully negotiated periods of famine and starvation and several outbreaks of the plague, and she variously expressed dissatisfaction with the carefully regulated social order. She used censorship to ensure that any work printed for public consumption presented her and England in a positive light and did not express views that contradicted those of the state. The master of the revels rigorously scrutinized any text for public consumption, and the stationers' register listed printers and the texts they printed. For this reason, writers could only obliquely refer to contemporary events. Those writers who dared to defy the censors were imprisoned and branded. Despite such controls, a wide variety of events merited glancing references—for example, the war in Ireland, English support of Protestants in the Netherlands, and continued exploration of the New World. Although the identity of her successor became a more pressing issue, Elizabeth refused to give any name. When she died, she whispered James Stuart's name to her attendants, indicating that she had chosen him to succeed her (see James VI/I).
As a long-lived queen, Elizabeth provided the stability writers needed to produce a wide variety of literary works. Her court promoted English nationalism and built on the tradition of courtly love. While much of this literature centered on Elizabeth's virginity, she also possessed political and monetary power. Thus, a nobleman who wanted to advance at court wrote and offered poems to Elizabeth. Even those poets who were not peers wrote her poetry. These poems touched on issues important to the writer, and in them, Elizabeth often appeared as a major character. However the poet
described her, he hoped that she found his depiction of her pleasant enough that she might give him money or a court appointment from which the writer and his family might enjoy additional income. Most of this literary output did not achieve the hoped-for results. Instead, many writers found that Elizabeth accepted these poems and made grateful noises, but money or preferment did not follow. Noblemen and women in her court, however, offered patronage to writers, including William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and others. Many texts, directly or indirectly, address social concerns, although some works simply show the writer's various talents. Writers who dared to depict Elizabeth in less positive language were treated as traitors, and their work was destroyed. Despite strict controls of printed or performed texts, Elizabethan writers produced a large body of work, much of which revolves around Elizabeth and her court.
See also court culture; "Doubt of Future Foes, The"; "When I Was Fair and Young"; "Written on a Window Frame [or Wall] at Woodstock" and "Written with a Diamond."
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Tap into your inner power today. Discover The Untold Secrets Used By Experts To Tap Into The Power Of Your Inner Personality Help You Unleash Your Full Potential. Finally You Can Fully Equip Yourself With These “Must Have” Personality Finding Tools For Creating Your Ideal Lifestyle. | <urn:uuid:74b148e8-72ff-441c-b6da-617de2f9243f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studentwritingcenter.us/british-poetry/elizabeth-i-15331603-queen-of-england.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.980931 | 2,301 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.08424455... | 1 | Ruler of England for 45 years, Elizabeth had a profound effect on literature produced while she was queen. A writer herself, her personal literary production is primarily letters and speeches written for various political purposes such as addressing Parliament or negotiating with foreign powers. She also wrote at least 15 poems. The stability of her long reign and her emphasis on courtly behavior that included the ability to write creatively contributed to the immense literary production of this period, some of which focused on her.
Elizabeth was born to Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife. At birth, Elizabeth disappointed her parents because she was not male, so she was not considered able to succeed Henry as sovereign and lived in the shadow of her older half sister, Mary Tudor, later Mary I, daughter of Henry and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry demanded an act of succession from Parliament that allowed his older and then his younger daughter to inherit the throne if he
should fail to provide a legitimate son. Approximately two years after Elizabeth's birth, Anne Boleyn was tried on charges of adulterous treason and beheaded. Henry then married Jane Seymour, by whom he had a son, Edward, who displaced Mary and Elizabeth as Henry's heir. However, all accounts indicate that Elizabeth and Edward enjoyed a cordial relationship, particularly under the Protestant influence of Henry's sixth wife, Catherine Parr.
With Edward, Elizabeth studied under Roger Ascham and William Grindal. She learned to read, write, and speak Latin, English, French, Italian, Spanish, and some Greek. Although Elizabeth's relationships with her siblings were cordial, they changed significantly when Edward, and then Mary, became England's rulers. King Edward VI was only 10 years old at his ascension, so his two uncles—first Edward Seymour, duke of Somerset, then John Dudley, duke of Northumberland—became regents. While Edward lived, Elizabeth continued her education and practiced her Protestant religion, while Somerset and Northumberland strove to make a politically advantageous marriage for her.
Edward died of tuberculosis at 16, leaving no clear successor. Northumberland attempted to place his daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey, on the throne. Henry Vlll's act of succession was still in place, however, so, Jane Grey was deposed after nine days. In 1553, Mary Tudor ascended the throne and had Parliament declare her birth legitimate.
Under Mary, Elizabeth's life was increasingly jeopardized because the queen's sister represented both personal and political threats. Henry Vlll's affection for Elizabeth's mother had caused Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and had made England into a Protestant nation. Mary, however, was a devout Roman Catholic. As Mary's reign continued and she was unable to eradicate Protestantism or to produce an heir (she married Philip II of Spain in July 1554), Elizabeth became an increasing political threat. Elizabeth had the same claim to the succession as Mary, so resentful Protestants wanted her crowned queen. To counter any such plots, Mary demanded that Elizabeth publicly attend mass. Although Elizabeth refused initially, she eventually appeared to comply. Mary, however, eventually suspected Elizabeth of joining Protestant plots to depose her and had her sister imprisoned in the Tower of London and examined for treason, then moved and guarded at Woodstock, and then at Hat-field in an effort to keep Elizabeth and others from conspiring against her. While imprisoned, Elizabeth continued to study and to write, scratching a poem on the window at Woodstock ("Written with a Diamond"). Regardless of Mary's suspicions, Elizabeth was never proven to have engaged in any plots to replace the queen. In 1558, Mary died without issue, and Elizabeth became queen at age 24.
As queen, Elizabeth faced several great challenges. She had to determine national religious practice; to decide which, if any, of her suitors to marry; to negotiate a foreign policy that kept England from the threat of war, especially with Catholic nations that might support Mary, Queen of Scots in her effort to claim the English crown; and to maintain order within her own borders. Because each of these courses had national ramifications, these decisions provided material for writers of various texts, from peers to playwrights.
A Protestant, Elizabeth returned England to Protestant religious practice. This move, while popular at home, made England a target for Catholic nations abroad. To keep English Catholics from joining with these powers, Elizabeth imposed restrictions on them. She made hearing or saying mass a punishable offense and banned Catholic pamphlets written to discredit her and to foment rebellion. To prevent Catholic nations from declaring war, Elizabeth also used her position as the greatest marriage prize in Europe to keep suitors (including Philip II of Spain) dangling. As long as they believed that they might marry Elizabeth and thereby gain control of England, they hesitated to invade outright. The tensions between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism influenced many writers, including William Shakespeare and Edmund Spenser.
Elizabeth's persistent unmarried status became a focus of both national concern and international relations. Many of her letters and speeches, and the literary output of those who sought her patronage, focused on her position as an unwed queen, although she often used kingly language when speaking of herself. Elizabeth repeatedly characterized herself as a prince, as espoused to her country, or as a benevolent queen/mother to her subjects/children. Her authority allowed her to demand continued use of the language and behavior of courtly love with very real political consequences. of her hopeful courtiers, she had two English favorites: Robert Dudley, master of the horse and later earl of Leicester; and Robert Devereux, earl of Essex. But she did not marry either.
Until her early 40s, Elizabeth was able to keep everyone guessing whether she would marry or remain single. Her suitors' literary output—primarily letters—reflects their uncertainty. Some believed that she would never marry; others hoped that she would marry and bear children. She thus remained a central female figure of poetry written in her court. In her own poetry, notably "On Monsieur's Departure," she herself plays with elements of the courtly love tradition, particularly the images of burning ice and freezing fire. In this poem, she is the one who must allow others to suspect that she hates, while internally she feels differently. of the poetry written to her, the best-developed example of the courtly love theme is Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, a poem that features Elizabeth in many guises: She appears as the Fairie Queen, Belphoebe, Diana, and Cynthia, among others. Each character maintains her virginity, and each one is an object of desire. Elizabeth also played this role in dramatic entertainments that occurred during the travels that she took through the country. Writers often cast her as herself or as the goddess Diana. In each case, she remained the "virgin queen."
Elizabeth also encouraged a sense of nationalistic pride that was closely associated with Protestantism. She faced two Roman Catholic threats: Mary, Queen of Scots, and Philip II, king of Spain. As Elizabeth's northern neighbor and cousin, Mary presented a problem: She was not only Catholic, she was closely connected to France, a Roman Catholic force. Mary's geographical and genealogical proximity also made her the focus of Catholic subjects who hoped to replace Elizabeth with a monarch legitimized by the pope. Because of her foolish political-personal decisions, however, Mary eventually found herself letting her heart rule her head, and she fled Scotland for England. Although she hoped Elizabeth would be hospitable, Mary was captured and held until her repeated plots against the English queen forced her execution in 1587.
Like Mary, Philip II also constituted a Catholic threat. As the war between the Protestant Netherlands and Philip intensified, the Protestants begged for Elizabeth's support, which she reluctantly gave. Frustrated by Elizabeth's refusal to return to Roman Catholicism, Philip planned a naval assault, which ended with the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. A Catholic nation had attempted invasion, thereby escalating the religious animosity. Pamphleteers used this episode as God-given material, and writers at and for the court and other audiences made stronger references to the conflict between the two religious systems.
Within her own borders, Elizabeth also had to maintain order. She successfully negotiated periods of famine and starvation and several outbreaks of the plague, and she variously expressed dissatisfaction with the carefully regulated social order. She used censorship to ensure that any work printed for public consumption presented her and England in a positive light and did not express views that contradicted those of the state. The master of the revels rigorously scrutinized any text for public consumption, and the stationers' register listed printers and the texts they printed. For this reason, writers could only obliquely refer to contemporary events. Those writers who dared to defy the censors were imprisoned and branded. Despite such controls, a wide variety of events merited glancing references—for example, the war in Ireland, English support of Protestants in the Netherlands, and continued exploration of the New World. Although the identity of her successor became a more pressing issue, Elizabeth refused to give any name. When she died, she whispered James Stuart's name to her attendants, indicating that she had chosen him to succeed her (see James VI/I).
As a long-lived queen, Elizabeth provided the stability writers needed to produce a wide variety of literary works. Her court promoted English nationalism and built on the tradition of courtly love. While much of this literature centered on Elizabeth's virginity, she also possessed political and monetary power. Thus, a nobleman who wanted to advance at court wrote and offered poems to Elizabeth. Even those poets who were not peers wrote her poetry. These poems touched on issues important to the writer, and in them, Elizabeth often appeared as a major character. However the poet
described her, he hoped that she found his depiction of her pleasant enough that she might give him money or a court appointment from which the writer and his family might enjoy additional income. Most of this literary output did not achieve the hoped-for results. Instead, many writers found that Elizabeth accepted these poems and made grateful noises, but money or preferment did not follow. Noblemen and women in her court, however, offered patronage to writers, including William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and others. Many texts, directly or indirectly, address social concerns, although some works simply show the writer's various talents. Writers who dared to depict Elizabeth in less positive language were treated as traitors, and their work was destroyed. Despite strict controls of printed or performed texts, Elizabethan writers produced a large body of work, much of which revolves around Elizabeth and her court.
See also court culture; "Doubt of Future Foes, The"; "When I Was Fair and Young"; "Written on a Window Frame [or Wall] at Woodstock" and "Written with a Diamond."
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Tap into your inner power today. Discover The Untold Secrets Used By Experts To Tap Into The Power Of Your Inner Personality Help You Unleash Your Full Potential. Finally You Can Fully Equip Yourself With These “Must Have” Personality Finding Tools For Creating Your Ideal Lifestyle. | 2,315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP) is a chain of US charter schools that aims to improve education for low-income children. A new report by Mathematica Policy Research says that the impact on student achievement in KIPP middle schools (for ages 11-14) is positive, statistically significant and educationally substantial. The report compared the progress of children in 43 KIPP middle schools with that of their former peers from elementary school.
The two groups of children were similar, although KIPP students were less likely to have received special education services or have limited proficiency in English. The estimated gains made by KIPP students over the three years were substantial, with an effect size of +0.36 for maths (equivalent to an additional 11 months learning) and +0.21 for reading (equivalent to an extra 7 months). There were few differences in student behaviour and attitude, but KIPP students did complete around 50% more homework than their peers. KIPP schools also have an extended school day (on average more than nine hours), but the study found that KIPP schools with the longest days produced less impact on achievement, perhaps because the extra time was spent on non-core academic activities.
Source: KIPP Middle Schools: Impacts on Achievement and Other Outcomes Final Report (2013), Mathematica Policy Research. | <urn:uuid:2c2e0d82-8ca5-4d6d-95cf-2446e4e9ba0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.beib.org.uk/2013/03/new-report-is-positive-on-kipp-middle-schools/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.981208 | 270 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.1125293076038... | 3 | The Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP) is a chain of US charter schools that aims to improve education for low-income children. A new report by Mathematica Policy Research says that the impact on student achievement in KIPP middle schools (for ages 11-14) is positive, statistically significant and educationally substantial. The report compared the progress of children in 43 KIPP middle schools with that of their former peers from elementary school.
The two groups of children were similar, although KIPP students were less likely to have received special education services or have limited proficiency in English. The estimated gains made by KIPP students over the three years were substantial, with an effect size of +0.36 for maths (equivalent to an additional 11 months learning) and +0.21 for reading (equivalent to an extra 7 months). There were few differences in student behaviour and attitude, but KIPP students did complete around 50% more homework than their peers. KIPP schools also have an extended school day (on average more than nine hours), but the study found that KIPP schools with the longest days produced less impact on achievement, perhaps because the extra time was spent on non-core academic activities.
Source: KIPP Middle Schools: Impacts on Achievement and Other Outcomes Final Report (2013), Mathematica Policy Research. | 279 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Frédéric Bazille
Born on 6th December, 1841, Frédéric Bazille was a benefactor of the Impressionist movement and a promising artist himself.
As a painter, he played with Impressionist techniques in their infancy, experimenting with creating his own distinct style. However, he did not have the time to develop these ideas further as he died tragically young, at the age of just 28. He was killed during the Franco-Prussian war, fighting as a soldier in the French army.
Prior to becoming a painter, Bazille studied medicine, albeit half-heartedly. Growing up in a Protestant upper-middle-class family in southern France, medicine was the career given to him by his parents, who wished for him to be financially independent. However, he quickly neglected his studies in favour of painting, finding like minds amongst Monet, Renoir and Sisley.
Though many of his paintings are Realist, Bazille experimented heavily with painting ‘en plein air’ as the Impressionists sought to. In doing so, he became known for his masterly paintings of figures in landscapes, setting the example for other Impressionist artists to follow. This stylistic feature became a key motif in Impressionist artworks and is one of his most notable artistic legacies today.
1. Bazille’s early years
Records suggest that Bazille was determined to be a painter from a young age. By 1859 he was studying drawing and painting at the Musée Fabre in Montpellier and taking drawing classes with a local sculptor.
The Bazille family lived in the area of Méric in the South of France, where their ancestors had lived from as early as the 13th century. The legacy of the Bazille’s was craftsmanship, in particular goldsmithing and producing luxury goods, including weaponry. Goldsmithing was the trade that first made the family wealthy.
Frédéric’s father, Gaston, worked as a wine merchant and agronomist and was an important figure in the wine-producing circles of Languedoc. His mother, Camille, was a talented pianist. Gaston expressed a desire that his son find a profession that would allow him to support himself, keeping his artistic interests solely as a hobby. As a result, young Frédéric obediently began pursuing a career in medicine.
He moved to Paris in 1862 with the intention of studying medicine but at the same time he also enrolled as a painting student.
Whilst studying at the studio of Charles Gleyre, Bazille met Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley. The four students became close, sharing the belief that they should create artworks based on immediacy and everyday life rather than the statuesque and stale images favoured by the French art establishment.
In 1864, Bazille failed his medical exam and his father freed him from his obligation, agreeing to fund his painting career instead. By this time Bazille had a solid group of friends, including some of the greatest artistic and literary minds of the French avant-garde.
He began painting scenes inspired by ordinary subjects and became a key source of financial support for the other Impressionist artists, providing them with studio space and materials, as well as purchasing their work.
2. Bazille’s painting style
With this promising start to his artistic career, Bazille began painting prolifically between 1863 to 1870. He established a studio in Paris, funded by his substantial allowance from his parents.
His first was on the rue de Furstenberg, which he shared with Monet from 1864. The next studio he moved to in 1867 he shared with Renoir. Sisley and Monet often joined as well. The interplay and influence between these artists was vital for spurring the Impressionist movement and forming the base for what it would become.
Bazille admired Monet and Renoir’s paintings made ‘en plain air’ and Monet encouraged him to paint his own. He favoured the light in the South of France, where he was born and where his family still lived, and he visited home often, going back to paint.
The setting had a strong effect on his works, particularly in the way in which he captured natural light. Thanks to this influence, many of Bazille’s works feature his family in fresh, bounteous summer settings where he uses colour in a generous, saturated palette. The light in many of his works is characterised by summer rays of sunshine and dappled shade.
Despite the group’s apparent rejection of conventional French art, Bazille went on to exhibit his work at the Paris Salon in1866 and 1868. His painting, ‘Family Reunion’, from 1867, was well received after several re-works of the original composition. When it was accepted, Bazille expressed his surprise, writing "I don't know how, probably by mistake.”
The work was painted during a summer holiday at his family’s estate near Montpellier. Figures are arranged in the scene in a formal, frozen manner with the majority looking directly out of the canvas at the viewer. He included himself in the composition of ten family members, appearing on the far left hand side.
What makes this work stand out is Bazille’s use of colour. The contrast afforded by the bright sunlight and the shade of a leafy tree gives Bazille the freedom to play with bright shades of blues and green, whilst also adding depth to the dark accents of the sitters’ clothing.
It seemed that Bazille worked best in the South of France, staying there over the winter to produce the works he intended to submit to the Salon the following year. The well-known critic, Louis Edmond Duranty described in 1870 how “Every spring Monsieur Bazille returns from the South with summer paintings […] full of greenery, sunshine and simple assurance”.
Generally Bazille is considered to have been an innovator in the early Impressionist style, learning from the artists around him more than from formal education. He sought to produce unique works and this is clear from the ambitious way in which he approached his subjects.
His nude paintings in particular set him apart from other artists, ’Fisherman with a Net’ from 1869 and ‘Bathers’ or ‘Summer Scene’ from 1869. Both works are set on the banks of the Lez River. The first was rejected by the Salon but the second was accepted.
Male nudes were uncommon in French art at the time and the way in which Bazille captured the male form in statuesque, romantic poses set them apart from other nude works.
Indeed, the men in ‘Bathers’ hold poses that are typical of female nudes. Similarly, ‘Bathers’ was painted on a square canvas, bridging the gap between the classically horizontal landscape genre and the inverse portrait genre. This work had a mixed reception at the Salon but it demonstrates Bazille’s rebellious and inventive edge, which is partly what makes him such an intriguing artist.
Furthermore, he experimented with a range of different subjects and compositions, including still life, flower portraits, landscapes and even history portraits. This flitting between genres is characteristic of his youth as he learned how to paint before he began to develop his own distinct style. Unfortunately, the enthusiasm for Bazille’s work is somewhat muted as we are unable to see what would have followed.
3. Bazille’s legacy
The artistic legacy of Bazille was cut short by the Franco-Prussian war and his untimely death.
He enlisted in the army on 10th August 1870 and requested to join the 3rd Zouaves light infantry regiment. Some art historians have suggested his decision was part of a wider personal crisis, prompted by his two unusual paintings ‘Landscape on the Banks of the Lez’ and ‘Ruth and Boaz’, depicting a scene from the Bible and a poem by Victor Hugo respectively. His friends expressed surprise and disappointment at his decision to enlist, evident in letters from the time.
Sadly, the young man was killed in fighting against the Prussian army on 28th November 1870. This was his first attack. His father travelled to the site of the battle, in Beaune-la-Rolande in the Val-de-Loir, to retrieve Frédéric’s body and take it home to the south.
When he died, Bazille left behind the small number of paintings that he had been able to create during his short lifetime. At the end of Franco-Prussian war, the other Impressionists returned to Paris and resumed their work.
This was when the movement truly began to take off, culminating in the First Impressionist exhibition of 1874. Bazille’s work was not shown in the exhibition or any of the following eight Impressionist exhibitions. As a result of his death, his artistic legacy was never fully realised.
From his early career, Bazille looks to have been set for a prominent position in the Impressionist movement had he lived. His works were praised by his contemporaries and critics of the day.
He balanced sensitive paintings of nature with experimentations with colour and figures, lending his artworks a majestic quality. The stylistic achievements of this young artist are limited to his earliest works, however, and we are left to wonder what might have been. | <urn:uuid:bb06a96c-4219-4242-acc0-cf7e15bc7a85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://impressionistarts.com/frederic-bazille-biography.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.985415 | 1,994 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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Born on 6th December, 1841, Frédéric Bazille was a benefactor of the Impressionist movement and a promising artist himself.
As a painter, he played with Impressionist techniques in their infancy, experimenting with creating his own distinct style. However, he did not have the time to develop these ideas further as he died tragically young, at the age of just 28. He was killed during the Franco-Prussian war, fighting as a soldier in the French army.
Prior to becoming a painter, Bazille studied medicine, albeit half-heartedly. Growing up in a Protestant upper-middle-class family in southern France, medicine was the career given to him by his parents, who wished for him to be financially independent. However, he quickly neglected his studies in favour of painting, finding like minds amongst Monet, Renoir and Sisley.
Though many of his paintings are Realist, Bazille experimented heavily with painting ‘en plein air’ as the Impressionists sought to. In doing so, he became known for his masterly paintings of figures in landscapes, setting the example for other Impressionist artists to follow. This stylistic feature became a key motif in Impressionist artworks and is one of his most notable artistic legacies today.
1. Bazille’s early years
Records suggest that Bazille was determined to be a painter from a young age. By 1859 he was studying drawing and painting at the Musée Fabre in Montpellier and taking drawing classes with a local sculptor.
The Bazille family lived in the area of Méric in the South of France, where their ancestors had lived from as early as the 13th century. The legacy of the Bazille’s was craftsmanship, in particular goldsmithing and producing luxury goods, including weaponry. Goldsmithing was the trade that first made the family wealthy.
Frédéric’s father, Gaston, worked as a wine merchant and agronomist and was an important figure in the wine-producing circles of Languedoc. His mother, Camille, was a talented pianist. Gaston expressed a desire that his son find a profession that would allow him to support himself, keeping his artistic interests solely as a hobby. As a result, young Frédéric obediently began pursuing a career in medicine.
He moved to Paris in 1862 with the intention of studying medicine but at the same time he also enrolled as a painting student.
Whilst studying at the studio of Charles Gleyre, Bazille met Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley. The four students became close, sharing the belief that they should create artworks based on immediacy and everyday life rather than the statuesque and stale images favoured by the French art establishment.
In 1864, Bazille failed his medical exam and his father freed him from his obligation, agreeing to fund his painting career instead. By this time Bazille had a solid group of friends, including some of the greatest artistic and literary minds of the French avant-garde.
He began painting scenes inspired by ordinary subjects and became a key source of financial support for the other Impressionist artists, providing them with studio space and materials, as well as purchasing their work.
2. Bazille’s painting style
With this promising start to his artistic career, Bazille began painting prolifically between 1863 to 1870. He established a studio in Paris, funded by his substantial allowance from his parents.
His first was on the rue de Furstenberg, which he shared with Monet from 1864. The next studio he moved to in 1867 he shared with Renoir. Sisley and Monet often joined as well. The interplay and influence between these artists was vital for spurring the Impressionist movement and forming the base for what it would become.
Bazille admired Monet and Renoir’s paintings made ‘en plain air’ and Monet encouraged him to paint his own. He favoured the light in the South of France, where he was born and where his family still lived, and he visited home often, going back to paint.
The setting had a strong effect on his works, particularly in the way in which he captured natural light. Thanks to this influence, many of Bazille’s works feature his family in fresh, bounteous summer settings where he uses colour in a generous, saturated palette. The light in many of his works is characterised by summer rays of sunshine and dappled shade.
Despite the group’s apparent rejection of conventional French art, Bazille went on to exhibit his work at the Paris Salon in1866 and 1868. His painting, ‘Family Reunion’, from 1867, was well received after several re-works of the original composition. When it was accepted, Bazille expressed his surprise, writing "I don't know how, probably by mistake.”
The work was painted during a summer holiday at his family’s estate near Montpellier. Figures are arranged in the scene in a formal, frozen manner with the majority looking directly out of the canvas at the viewer. He included himself in the composition of ten family members, appearing on the far left hand side.
What makes this work stand out is Bazille’s use of colour. The contrast afforded by the bright sunlight and the shade of a leafy tree gives Bazille the freedom to play with bright shades of blues and green, whilst also adding depth to the dark accents of the sitters’ clothing.
It seemed that Bazille worked best in the South of France, staying there over the winter to produce the works he intended to submit to the Salon the following year. The well-known critic, Louis Edmond Duranty described in 1870 how “Every spring Monsieur Bazille returns from the South with summer paintings […] full of greenery, sunshine and simple assurance”.
Generally Bazille is considered to have been an innovator in the early Impressionist style, learning from the artists around him more than from formal education. He sought to produce unique works and this is clear from the ambitious way in which he approached his subjects.
His nude paintings in particular set him apart from other artists, ’Fisherman with a Net’ from 1869 and ‘Bathers’ or ‘Summer Scene’ from 1869. Both works are set on the banks of the Lez River. The first was rejected by the Salon but the second was accepted.
Male nudes were uncommon in French art at the time and the way in which Bazille captured the male form in statuesque, romantic poses set them apart from other nude works.
Indeed, the men in ‘Bathers’ hold poses that are typical of female nudes. Similarly, ‘Bathers’ was painted on a square canvas, bridging the gap between the classically horizontal landscape genre and the inverse portrait genre. This work had a mixed reception at the Salon but it demonstrates Bazille’s rebellious and inventive edge, which is partly what makes him such an intriguing artist.
Furthermore, he experimented with a range of different subjects and compositions, including still life, flower portraits, landscapes and even history portraits. This flitting between genres is characteristic of his youth as he learned how to paint before he began to develop his own distinct style. Unfortunately, the enthusiasm for Bazille’s work is somewhat muted as we are unable to see what would have followed.
3. Bazille’s legacy
The artistic legacy of Bazille was cut short by the Franco-Prussian war and his untimely death.
He enlisted in the army on 10th August 1870 and requested to join the 3rd Zouaves light infantry regiment. Some art historians have suggested his decision was part of a wider personal crisis, prompted by his two unusual paintings ‘Landscape on the Banks of the Lez’ and ‘Ruth and Boaz’, depicting a scene from the Bible and a poem by Victor Hugo respectively. His friends expressed surprise and disappointment at his decision to enlist, evident in letters from the time.
Sadly, the young man was killed in fighting against the Prussian army on 28th November 1870. This was his first attack. His father travelled to the site of the battle, in Beaune-la-Rolande in the Val-de-Loir, to retrieve Frédéric’s body and take it home to the south.
When he died, Bazille left behind the small number of paintings that he had been able to create during his short lifetime. At the end of Franco-Prussian war, the other Impressionists returned to Paris and resumed their work.
This was when the movement truly began to take off, culminating in the First Impressionist exhibition of 1874. Bazille’s work was not shown in the exhibition or any of the following eight Impressionist exhibitions. As a result of his death, his artistic legacy was never fully realised.
From his early career, Bazille looks to have been set for a prominent position in the Impressionist movement had he lived. His works were praised by his contemporaries and critics of the day.
He balanced sensitive paintings of nature with experimentations with colour and figures, lending his artworks a majestic quality. The stylistic achievements of this young artist are limited to his earliest works, however, and we are left to wonder what might have been. | 1,945 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For many years, the Cherokees were divided into two major factions around the issue of removal. Those who opposed removing from the southeastern United States to Indian Territory were known as the Ross Party. Those who favored the move made up the Treaty Party. Bitter rancor and even violence marked the era of these two parties.
The divisions continued into the American Civil War with many of the Ross Party siding with the Union and many of the Treaty Party favoring the Confederacy. The war for a time fueled the nation’s divisions, but by its end many Cherokees realized they should not allow themselves to be drawn into such a bloody conflict again.
Following the Civil War, the Ross Party became known as the National Party. In one of the first elections, Lewis Downing ran for chief on a reconciliation platform and his supporters became known as the Downing Party. This party exercised a great deal of control in the political offices of the nation until statehood. But at every election, the old issues brought out the prejudices and rancor of the past.
In 1887, Joel Mayes of the Downing Party ran against Rabbit Bunch for principal chief. These two men were seeking to replace Dennis Bushyhead who had held the position for two terms as a member of the National Party.
Mayes, a cattleman from the area that would one day be named Mayes County, won the election. Their constitution required the two houses of the Cherokee legislature to meet in a joint session and declare the election. But the houses were divided – the Council was dominated by the Downing Party and the Senate was primarily National Party. The senators refused to call for the joint session that would certify Mayes’ election. So, Chief Bushyhead continued to act as chief for a few months as the stalemate lingered.
In January of 1888, leaders of the Downing Party agreed to meet in the Cherokee capital of Tahlequah. They came armed and determined to use force if necessary to see that their candidate was seated. Members of the National Party were also heavily armed, and everyone in town tensely awaited the outcome.
The Downings arrived at the capitol building, pushed past the guards and forced their way into Chief Bushyhead’s office, breaking down his door in the process. Here the president of the senate, a Downing man, administered the oath of office to Joel Mayes. Bushyhead conceded the office and urged everyone to remain calm and return to their homes.
A few days later, a strange sight greeted Tahlequah residents from the window of a store on Muskogee Avenue. The plaster cast of a foot sat in the window and it was missing its big toe. It was a symbol of the recent conflict for the man who had broken down the door of the executive office had broken his toe in the process. Everyone got a laugh from someone’s droll sense of humor and the laughter broke the tension between the factions.
Mayes had a successful first term as chief and was easily elected for a second term in a much less rancorous campaign. Perhaps the humorous “broken toe” served as a reminder to not take politics quite so seriously.
Reach Jonita Mullins at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:aedcb529-275d-4d81-923c-38cac33e96f1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.heraldbulletin.com/cnhi_network/three-forks-history-disputed-election-cost-a-toe/article_0ac30849-a87b-598f-ba43-9317db190260.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.984914 | 668 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.277829766273... | 1 | For many years, the Cherokees were divided into two major factions around the issue of removal. Those who opposed removing from the southeastern United States to Indian Territory were known as the Ross Party. Those who favored the move made up the Treaty Party. Bitter rancor and even violence marked the era of these two parties.
The divisions continued into the American Civil War with many of the Ross Party siding with the Union and many of the Treaty Party favoring the Confederacy. The war for a time fueled the nation’s divisions, but by its end many Cherokees realized they should not allow themselves to be drawn into such a bloody conflict again.
Following the Civil War, the Ross Party became known as the National Party. In one of the first elections, Lewis Downing ran for chief on a reconciliation platform and his supporters became known as the Downing Party. This party exercised a great deal of control in the political offices of the nation until statehood. But at every election, the old issues brought out the prejudices and rancor of the past.
In 1887, Joel Mayes of the Downing Party ran against Rabbit Bunch for principal chief. These two men were seeking to replace Dennis Bushyhead who had held the position for two terms as a member of the National Party.
Mayes, a cattleman from the area that would one day be named Mayes County, won the election. Their constitution required the two houses of the Cherokee legislature to meet in a joint session and declare the election. But the houses were divided – the Council was dominated by the Downing Party and the Senate was primarily National Party. The senators refused to call for the joint session that would certify Mayes’ election. So, Chief Bushyhead continued to act as chief for a few months as the stalemate lingered.
In January of 1888, leaders of the Downing Party agreed to meet in the Cherokee capital of Tahlequah. They came armed and determined to use force if necessary to see that their candidate was seated. Members of the National Party were also heavily armed, and everyone in town tensely awaited the outcome.
The Downings arrived at the capitol building, pushed past the guards and forced their way into Chief Bushyhead’s office, breaking down his door in the process. Here the president of the senate, a Downing man, administered the oath of office to Joel Mayes. Bushyhead conceded the office and urged everyone to remain calm and return to their homes.
A few days later, a strange sight greeted Tahlequah residents from the window of a store on Muskogee Avenue. The plaster cast of a foot sat in the window and it was missing its big toe. It was a symbol of the recent conflict for the man who had broken down the door of the executive office had broken his toe in the process. Everyone got a laugh from someone’s droll sense of humor and the laughter broke the tension between the factions.
Mayes had a successful first term as chief and was easily elected for a second term in a much less rancorous campaign. Perhaps the humorous “broken toe” served as a reminder to not take politics quite so seriously.
Reach Jonita Mullins at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 655 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Herbert Clark Hoover was born on August 10, 1874, in a small town called West Branch, Iowa. By the time Herbert Hoover was just nine years old, he experienced a great deal of loss when his mother and father both died of unexpected illnesses. In elementary and high school, Hoover struggled to pass but had his sights set on being accepted to Stanford University. After barely passing the entrance exams, Hoover was accepted and majored in geology. Hoover spent his summers working as a geology assistant, but upon his graduation he eventually opened his own silver mine where he accumulated a great deal of wealth, making him a giant in this field.
The Great Humanitarian
While focusing on his mining business, Hoover also focused on helping people around the world and is often credited with being a great humanitarian. Before his political career, Hoover was asked by the US government to help get 120,000 US citizens out of Europe. Due to his various humanitarian efforts, he is often referred to as the “great humanitarian.”
Secretary of Commerce
Hoover first showed interest in running for president in 1920 but was blocked due to his support of the League of Nations, and Warren Harding was elected to office. Under the Harding presidency, Hoover was picked to be the Secretary of Commerce, a position which he held under the Coolidge administration as well. In 1928, Hoover was elected as America's 31st President by a recrod margin.
Unpopular Response to the Great Depression
Hoover will forever be tied to the Great Depression due to the Black Tuesday Stock Market Crash and unwillingness to use his political power to intervene and help the American people. Due to his conservative beliefs, Hoover believed the government should play a limited role in relief efforts and relied heavily on the idea of "rugged individualism," or the belief that the people would get themselves out of the Great Depression. Many of Hoover's plans did not work, and this led to the creation of terms like "Hoovervilles," or shantytowns.
Judged Harshly by History
Hoover was unsuccessful in his run for reelection and is remembered as being one of the most unpopular presidents in history. Herbert Hoover also has been criticized for speaking out against Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. Roosevelt and other presidents that followed Hoover lobbied for people to change their attitudes toward Hoover because the Great Depression started before and ended after his presidency. | <urn:uuid:92c90452-2df6-491b-8644-403d2c8bb260> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/president-31-herbert-hoover-biography-presidents-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.989479 | 492 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.21621480584... | 1 | Herbert Clark Hoover was born on August 10, 1874, in a small town called West Branch, Iowa. By the time Herbert Hoover was just nine years old, he experienced a great deal of loss when his mother and father both died of unexpected illnesses. In elementary and high school, Hoover struggled to pass but had his sights set on being accepted to Stanford University. After barely passing the entrance exams, Hoover was accepted and majored in geology. Hoover spent his summers working as a geology assistant, but upon his graduation he eventually opened his own silver mine where he accumulated a great deal of wealth, making him a giant in this field.
The Great Humanitarian
While focusing on his mining business, Hoover also focused on helping people around the world and is often credited with being a great humanitarian. Before his political career, Hoover was asked by the US government to help get 120,000 US citizens out of Europe. Due to his various humanitarian efforts, he is often referred to as the “great humanitarian.”
Secretary of Commerce
Hoover first showed interest in running for president in 1920 but was blocked due to his support of the League of Nations, and Warren Harding was elected to office. Under the Harding presidency, Hoover was picked to be the Secretary of Commerce, a position which he held under the Coolidge administration as well. In 1928, Hoover was elected as America's 31st President by a recrod margin.
Unpopular Response to the Great Depression
Hoover will forever be tied to the Great Depression due to the Black Tuesday Stock Market Crash and unwillingness to use his political power to intervene and help the American people. Due to his conservative beliefs, Hoover believed the government should play a limited role in relief efforts and relied heavily on the idea of "rugged individualism," or the belief that the people would get themselves out of the Great Depression. Many of Hoover's plans did not work, and this led to the creation of terms like "Hoovervilles," or shantytowns.
Judged Harshly by History
Hoover was unsuccessful in his run for reelection and is remembered as being one of the most unpopular presidents in history. Herbert Hoover also has been criticized for speaking out against Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. Roosevelt and other presidents that followed Hoover lobbied for people to change their attitudes toward Hoover because the Great Depression started before and ended after his presidency. | 503 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He discovered that a bright star really did appear over Bethlehem 2,000 years ago - but pinpointed the date of Christ's birth as June 17, and not December 25.
Scientists claim the Christmas star was most likely a magnificent conjunction of the planets Venus and Jupiter, which were so close together they would have shone unusually brightly as a single 'beacon of light' which appeared suddenly.
The following is part of a short series of devotional items related to the birth of Christ. At that time, Pope John the First asked a monk named Dionysius to prepare a standardized calendar for the western Church. For we saw his star in the east, and have come to worship him.'" Who were these wise men from the east?
For some, such material is hardly devotional because it primarily focuses on history. Unfortunately, poor Dionysius missed the my mother on the other end of the phone. Matthew tells us next to nothing about them--he doesn't mention their names, nor how many there were--not even which country they came from. Though Matthew doesn't tell us much, over-zealous Christians throughout church history have dogmatically filled in the blanks. D., these dark strangers were given thrones : Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar were the alleged names of these alleged kings.
The shepherds had been in the fields around Bethlehem, guarding the lambs which would die at the next Passover. In the ancient world, it was used to embalm a corpse. The simple shepherds and the majestic magi believed in this infant Savior--and it was reckoned to them as righteousness.
It may not be too late to send the presents back, as astronomers have calculated that Christmas should not be celebrated on December 25 - but on June 17 instead.
Three questions come to mind as we consider this cruel incident: First, how many babies did Herod actually kill? And finally, why does no other ancient historian record this outrage? Josephus tells us that "Herod inflicted such outrages upon (the Jews) as not even a beast could have done if it possessed the power to rule over men" ( he got the baby Jesus lines up with his insane jealousy for power. Herod thought that he had gained a victory over the king of the Jews.
Josephus might have omitted the slaying of the babies for one of two reasons: first, he was no friend of Christianity and he left it out intentionally; or second, just before Herod died he locked up 3000 of the nation's leading citizens and gave orders that they were to be executed at the hour of his death. Israel was so preoccupied with this that the clandestine murder of a few babies might have gone unnoticed. Yet this was a mere had when Jesus lay dead on a Roman cross.
But we must keep in mind that the Jesus we worship was truly born in time-space history. She can't remember how old she is (and she's neither senile nor very old), but that doesn't make her a figment of my imagination, does it? Meanwhile, in the eastern Church, January 6th was the date followed. This Christmas season, take a close look at a nativity scene once again. But they are mere shadows of the Babe in their midst. As mysteriously as they come on the scene, they disappear. But this has nothing to do with the biblical story: we really have no idea what their names were--nor even their number. But one thing we do know for sure: they were royalty.
And that babe in the manger was truly crucified--and just as surely rose from the dead. Because if she's just a phantom, then for the last three minutes, you've been reading absolutely nothing! Virtually every month on the calendar has been proposed by biblical scholars. The tradition for December 25th is actually quite ancient. But in the fourth century, John Chrysostom argued that December 25th was the correct date and from that day till now, the Church in the , as well as the West, has observed the 25th of December as the official date of Christ's birth. The ancient magi were reilgious and political advisors to eastern kings--but there wasn't a drop of blue blood among them. And didn't God prescribe death to astrologers in the Old Testament? In Deuteronomy 17, God commands his people to execute all astrologers by stoning. | <urn:uuid:13395d2b-63d7-471a-9e5a-c4ccf885caa1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://grom-club.ru/12750birth-christ-dating.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.986705 | 903 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.10999241471290... | 2 | He discovered that a bright star really did appear over Bethlehem 2,000 years ago - but pinpointed the date of Christ's birth as June 17, and not December 25.
Scientists claim the Christmas star was most likely a magnificent conjunction of the planets Venus and Jupiter, which were so close together they would have shone unusually brightly as a single 'beacon of light' which appeared suddenly.
The following is part of a short series of devotional items related to the birth of Christ. At that time, Pope John the First asked a monk named Dionysius to prepare a standardized calendar for the western Church. For we saw his star in the east, and have come to worship him.'" Who were these wise men from the east?
For some, such material is hardly devotional because it primarily focuses on history. Unfortunately, poor Dionysius missed the my mother on the other end of the phone. Matthew tells us next to nothing about them--he doesn't mention their names, nor how many there were--not even which country they came from. Though Matthew doesn't tell us much, over-zealous Christians throughout church history have dogmatically filled in the blanks. D., these dark strangers were given thrones : Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar were the alleged names of these alleged kings.
The shepherds had been in the fields around Bethlehem, guarding the lambs which would die at the next Passover. In the ancient world, it was used to embalm a corpse. The simple shepherds and the majestic magi believed in this infant Savior--and it was reckoned to them as righteousness.
It may not be too late to send the presents back, as astronomers have calculated that Christmas should not be celebrated on December 25 - but on June 17 instead.
Three questions come to mind as we consider this cruel incident: First, how many babies did Herod actually kill? And finally, why does no other ancient historian record this outrage? Josephus tells us that "Herod inflicted such outrages upon (the Jews) as not even a beast could have done if it possessed the power to rule over men" ( he got the baby Jesus lines up with his insane jealousy for power. Herod thought that he had gained a victory over the king of the Jews.
Josephus might have omitted the slaying of the babies for one of two reasons: first, he was no friend of Christianity and he left it out intentionally; or second, just before Herod died he locked up 3000 of the nation's leading citizens and gave orders that they were to be executed at the hour of his death. Israel was so preoccupied with this that the clandestine murder of a few babies might have gone unnoticed. Yet this was a mere had when Jesus lay dead on a Roman cross.
But we must keep in mind that the Jesus we worship was truly born in time-space history. She can't remember how old she is (and she's neither senile nor very old), but that doesn't make her a figment of my imagination, does it? Meanwhile, in the eastern Church, January 6th was the date followed. This Christmas season, take a close look at a nativity scene once again. But they are mere shadows of the Babe in their midst. As mysteriously as they come on the scene, they disappear. But this has nothing to do with the biblical story: we really have no idea what their names were--nor even their number. But one thing we do know for sure: they were royalty.
And that babe in the manger was truly crucified--and just as surely rose from the dead. Because if she's just a phantom, then for the last three minutes, you've been reading absolutely nothing! Virtually every month on the calendar has been proposed by biblical scholars. The tradition for December 25th is actually quite ancient. But in the fourth century, John Chrysostom argued that December 25th was the correct date and from that day till now, the Church in the , as well as the West, has observed the 25th of December as the official date of Christ's birth. The ancient magi were reilgious and political advisors to eastern kings--but there wasn't a drop of blue blood among them. And didn't God prescribe death to astrologers in the Old Testament? In Deuteronomy 17, God commands his people to execute all astrologers by stoning. | 925 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scientists re-grow damaged nerves
Thanks to the dexterity of surgeons, it's possible to reattach severed fingers, toes and even limbs - and what's even more amazing is that the peripheral nerve cells, or neurons, can rewire themselves back into the damaged tissue, bringing back sensation and movement. But how do they do it? UCL's Alison Lloyd has been studying how these neurons, along with special helpers called Schwann cells, manage this impressive feat, as she explained to Kat Arney...
Alison - Imagine that your nerve is completely severed. The connections to the nerve, if you could think of it like an electrical cable with lots of separate wires within it, attaching to various points, downstream of that cut, all of the wires will disintegrate. Then what has to happen is those wires or those neurons have to regrow back to their targets and that's the repair process. This is much more tricky than it sounds but it's joined up by this sort of mush of inflammatory cells and matrix which joins together the ends of this severed nerve.
Kat - Sort of biological gluey stuff.
Alison - Exactly. It's very non-directional and it's very dense, full of matrix and other cells. What we've shown previously is that a special cell type within the nerve which are called Schwann cells, they are able to migrate out of the stumps across the bridge and they migrate as cords across the bridge taking the axons with them. They are then able to grow down back to their targets. So, what the mystery was, what we didn't understand is, this is quite a big gap. This is quite a big bridge. There was no directionality to it. We couldn't understand how these cords knew where to go. What we found was that there was another cell type that was very important in this process. These are endothelial cells and these are the cells that make blood vessels. So, what was happening first was that this mush had cells in it which were sensing that they weren't getting enough oxygen, what happens in response to loss of oxygen that there are signals that make blood vessels grow.
Kat - What do your results show might be going on when nerve cells are growing across this gap to repair the damage?
Alison - What we found is that the Schwann cells are only able to migrate along the surface of another cell type. In this case, it's the blood vessels. So, the first thing that happens within this bridge is that there's a lack of oxygen which is sensed by inflammatory cells. They send out a signal which causes the formation of blood vessels. The Schwann cells can't migrate within this matrix. They need this surface of the blood vessel. The blood vessels grow as tracks. They're polarised in the direction of travel and the Schwann cells use this to find their way across the bridge.
Kat - So, it's kind of like a train can only run on a track. Yeah. Once it gets going, it's great but it has to have that track there first.
Alison - Yes. So the Schwann cells seem to have this engine that can make this forceful migration, but they need a specific track in order to migrate and that's different to other cells.
Kat - How can we use this knowledge to, for example, get better at repairing nerves?
Alison - We have surgeons who tend to sew up the gaps, but even so, for serious injuries, there's often a gap in the nerves. And so, people try and make artificial bridges to encourage this nerve growth. And that's a big problem area in that, sometimes the gap is quite big and then you have these different artificial bridges that people try and use to encourage the neurons to regrow across this bridge area. And so, I think what our work suggests is that what you want to do is to mimic the real bridge. So, you want to maybe make tubes with blood vessels, either blood vessels themselves or surfaces that mimic what it is about blood vessels that provide a surface for the Schwann cells. But I think it has broader implications for other diseases as well. The way that certain cancers spread within the body, these cells are moving along the surface of other cells. It has been observed that cells such as melanomas and gliomas for example.
Kat - Those are brain tumours.
Alison - They're brain tumours and they're very, very invasive. That's the major problem with them but they also seem to be migrating along the surface of blood vessels. So, it's possible that when these cancer cells are moving and they're moving along blood vessels, they're using the same mechanisms that you see following an injury and they're co-opting this type of behaviour in order to spread. And so again, if we can understand that better then possibly, we can understand better how tumours spread and then maybe do something about it. | <urn:uuid:365fc643-b254-4096-9973-41eaceb0d9bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thenakedscientists.com/articles/interviews/scientists-re-grow-damaged-nerves | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.983072 | 1,007 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.481325060129165... | 6 | Scientists re-grow damaged nerves
Thanks to the dexterity of surgeons, it's possible to reattach severed fingers, toes and even limbs - and what's even more amazing is that the peripheral nerve cells, or neurons, can rewire themselves back into the damaged tissue, bringing back sensation and movement. But how do they do it? UCL's Alison Lloyd has been studying how these neurons, along with special helpers called Schwann cells, manage this impressive feat, as she explained to Kat Arney...
Alison - Imagine that your nerve is completely severed. The connections to the nerve, if you could think of it like an electrical cable with lots of separate wires within it, attaching to various points, downstream of that cut, all of the wires will disintegrate. Then what has to happen is those wires or those neurons have to regrow back to their targets and that's the repair process. This is much more tricky than it sounds but it's joined up by this sort of mush of inflammatory cells and matrix which joins together the ends of this severed nerve.
Kat - Sort of biological gluey stuff.
Alison - Exactly. It's very non-directional and it's very dense, full of matrix and other cells. What we've shown previously is that a special cell type within the nerve which are called Schwann cells, they are able to migrate out of the stumps across the bridge and they migrate as cords across the bridge taking the axons with them. They are then able to grow down back to their targets. So, what the mystery was, what we didn't understand is, this is quite a big gap. This is quite a big bridge. There was no directionality to it. We couldn't understand how these cords knew where to go. What we found was that there was another cell type that was very important in this process. These are endothelial cells and these are the cells that make blood vessels. So, what was happening first was that this mush had cells in it which were sensing that they weren't getting enough oxygen, what happens in response to loss of oxygen that there are signals that make blood vessels grow.
Kat - What do your results show might be going on when nerve cells are growing across this gap to repair the damage?
Alison - What we found is that the Schwann cells are only able to migrate along the surface of another cell type. In this case, it's the blood vessels. So, the first thing that happens within this bridge is that there's a lack of oxygen which is sensed by inflammatory cells. They send out a signal which causes the formation of blood vessels. The Schwann cells can't migrate within this matrix. They need this surface of the blood vessel. The blood vessels grow as tracks. They're polarised in the direction of travel and the Schwann cells use this to find their way across the bridge.
Kat - So, it's kind of like a train can only run on a track. Yeah. Once it gets going, it's great but it has to have that track there first.
Alison - Yes. So the Schwann cells seem to have this engine that can make this forceful migration, but they need a specific track in order to migrate and that's different to other cells.
Kat - How can we use this knowledge to, for example, get better at repairing nerves?
Alison - We have surgeons who tend to sew up the gaps, but even so, for serious injuries, there's often a gap in the nerves. And so, people try and make artificial bridges to encourage this nerve growth. And that's a big problem area in that, sometimes the gap is quite big and then you have these different artificial bridges that people try and use to encourage the neurons to regrow across this bridge area. And so, I think what our work suggests is that what you want to do is to mimic the real bridge. So, you want to maybe make tubes with blood vessels, either blood vessels themselves or surfaces that mimic what it is about blood vessels that provide a surface for the Schwann cells. But I think it has broader implications for other diseases as well. The way that certain cancers spread within the body, these cells are moving along the surface of other cells. It has been observed that cells such as melanomas and gliomas for example.
Kat - Those are brain tumours.
Alison - They're brain tumours and they're very, very invasive. That's the major problem with them but they also seem to be migrating along the surface of blood vessels. So, it's possible that when these cancer cells are moving and they're moving along blood vessels, they're using the same mechanisms that you see following an injury and they're co-opting this type of behaviour in order to spread. And so again, if we can understand that better then possibly, we can understand better how tumours spread and then maybe do something about it. | 995 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In accordance with Madison Hemings, “It lived but a short while.”
1795 a child, Harriet Hemings, was born. She passed away couple of years later on in 1797.
1798 A son, Beverly was created. He survived to adulthood, becoming a fiddler and carpenter.
1799 an daughter that is unnamed created and died.
1801 Harriet was created. She ended up being their just daughter that is surviving and had been a spinner in Jefferson’s textile factory.
1805 A son, Madison came to be. He survived to adulthood, becoming a carpenter and joiner.
1808 Son Eston was created. He additionally survived to be a carpenter and a musician.
1822 Beverly and Harriet Hemings had been permitted to keep Monticello without getting legitimately freed. Madison Hemings later stated that both passed into white culture and therefore neither their link with Monticello nor their “African bloodstream” had been ever found.
1826 Thomas Jefferson died.
Sally Hemings ended up being never legally emancipated. Alternatively, she ended up being unofficially freed—or “given her time”—by Jefferson’s child Martha after their death.
1826 Jefferson’s will freed Hemings’s younger children, Madison and Eston.
1830 Sally Hemings and her sons Madison and Eston are detailed as free white individuals in the 1830 census. 36 months later on, in a unique census taken following a Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831, Hemings described by herself as a totally free mulatto that has resided in Charlottesville since 1826.
1835 Madison Hemings stated that their mother lived in Charlottesville with him and their bro Eston until her death in 1835. The place of her grave is certainly not understood.
Why did a few of Sally Hemings’s kiddies identify by themselves as white yet others as black?
Madison resettled in southern Ohio when you look at the late 1830s, where he worked at their trade and owned a farm. He made a decision to stay static in the black colored community. He passed away in 1878.
Eston, additionally a carpenter, relocated to Chillicothe, Ohio, into the 1830s. Here he had been a well-known musician that is professional getting around 1852 to Wisconsin, where he changed his surname to Jefferson together with his racial identification. He died in 1856. Both Madison and Eston made understood which they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson.
Consequences of Freedom
Whenever Beverly and Harriet Hemings passed into white culture, that they had to reject their loved ones lineage. Historians and loved ones are struggling to find their descendants. Both Madison and Eston Hemings acknowledged they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson and passed that knowledge onto their young ones. Madison and Eston Hemings’s descendants have actually provided household histories with Monticello’s Getting Word African United states Oral History venture.
“Certainly a relationship between a master along with his servant is one that is incredibly unbalanced when it comes to energy. We have no idea what sort of love or love had been included. But he made a challenge which he would free her young ones if they switched 21. And then he did so.”
We don’t know the type of Sally Hemings interactions with Thomas Jefferson. Was he her rapist? Ended up being he an effective way to attaining her objective of freedom on her young ones? Did some affection is shared by them for every single other? Hemings’s son Madison divulges valuable few factual statements about exactly just what their mom looked at their dad. Annette Gordon-Reed cites the issues of understanding their interactions because of the implications of ownership, age, permission, and energy.
“ The many that may be said is Hemings and Jefferson lived together over a long time along with seven kiddies, four of who lived to adulthood. Jefferson kept his vow to Hemings, and their offspring got a four-decade head begin on emancipation, taking advantage of it by leading successful and stable life. ”
Did Sally Hemings get “special privileges”?
In accordance with Madison Hemings, Jefferson “was perhaps maybe maybe not within the practice of showing partiality or fatherly love to us young ones.” Plantation records reveal that Sally Hemings and her kids received the clothing that is same meals allotments as other enslaved individuals at Monticello. Nonetheless, Madison Hemings and his siblings discovered trades and “were clear of the dread of experiencing become slaves all our life very very long.” Plus, as kiddies, they certainly were permitted to be due to their mother, an advantage many enslaved young ones did not need.
Sex, Energy, and Slavery
“ So she refused to go back with him. To cause her to do this he promised her extraordinary privileges, and made a solemn pledge that her kiddies is freed during dutch women dating the chronilogical age of twenty-one years. ”
Ended up being it rape? Had been here any love? Ended up being conformity section of her contract with Jefferson?
“She was at an untenable place. We could be taking a look at intimate harassment. today”
Descendant Diana Redman stocks her views on Sally Hemings.
Enslaved females had no appropriate right to consent. Their masters owned their work, their health, and kids.
Sally Hemings’s descendants and historians have actually a variety of views about the powerful between Jefferson and Hemings, offered the implications of ownership, age, permission, and power that is dramatically unequal masters and enslaved ladies.
The type of Sally Hemings’s sexual encounters with Thomas Jefferson won’t ever be understood.
“People for the reason that area acted towards them as though they certainly were a married couple.”
Madison Hemings stated almost no in what their mother considered their dad, just that she “implicitly relied” on Jefferson’s vow. Hemings additionally stated which he and their siblings “were truly the only children of Jefferson’s by a servant girl.”
“The energy facet of it’s very genuine because demonstrably he may have offered her if he desired to. She could maybe maybe not refuse their improvements. but his spouse Martha could perhaps maybe not state no to him either. I think it will be possible for Jefferson to rationalize this relationship because men had been designed to dominate ladies.”
This really is an unpleasant and complicated US tale. Thomas Jefferson ended up being certainly one of our many essential founding dads, as well as a lifelong servant owner who held Sally Hemings and kids in bondage. Sally Hemings must certanly be understood today, not merely as Jefferson’s concubine, but being an enslaved woman who – at the chronilogical age of 16 – negotiated with perhaps one of the most effective males within the country to enhance her very own condition and attain freedom on her kiddies.
“ She offered delivery to four other people, and Jefferson had been the daddy of most of them. Their names had been Beverly, Harriet, Madison (myself), and Eston – three sons and another child. ”
The evidence that is historical to the facts of Madison Hemings’s words about “my dad, Thomas Jefferson.” Even though the narrative that is dominant denied his paternity, since 1802, dental histories, posted recollections, analytical information, and papers have actually identified Thomas Jefferson whilst the dad of Sally Hemings’s kids. In 1998, a DNA research genetically connected certainly one of Hemings’s male descendants because of the line that is male of Jefferson family, contributing to the wide range of proof. | <urn:uuid:438f31f8-5c89-4d5c-bf47-5dbd05380347> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.yogaseekers.com/hemings-s-jeffersons-descendants-1790-sally-24/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.981128 | 1,631 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.25041347742... | 3 | In accordance with Madison Hemings, “It lived but a short while.”
1795 a child, Harriet Hemings, was born. She passed away couple of years later on in 1797.
1798 A son, Beverly was created. He survived to adulthood, becoming a fiddler and carpenter.
1799 an daughter that is unnamed created and died.
1801 Harriet was created. She ended up being their just daughter that is surviving and had been a spinner in Jefferson’s textile factory.
1805 A son, Madison came to be. He survived to adulthood, becoming a carpenter and joiner.
1808 Son Eston was created. He additionally survived to be a carpenter and a musician.
1822 Beverly and Harriet Hemings had been permitted to keep Monticello without getting legitimately freed. Madison Hemings later stated that both passed into white culture and therefore neither their link with Monticello nor their “African bloodstream” had been ever found.
1826 Thomas Jefferson died.
Sally Hemings ended up being never legally emancipated. Alternatively, she ended up being unofficially freed—or “given her time”—by Jefferson’s child Martha after their death.
1826 Jefferson’s will freed Hemings’s younger children, Madison and Eston.
1830 Sally Hemings and her sons Madison and Eston are detailed as free white individuals in the 1830 census. 36 months later on, in a unique census taken following a Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831, Hemings described by herself as a totally free mulatto that has resided in Charlottesville since 1826.
1835 Madison Hemings stated that their mother lived in Charlottesville with him and their bro Eston until her death in 1835. The place of her grave is certainly not understood.
Why did a few of Sally Hemings’s kiddies identify by themselves as white yet others as black?
Madison resettled in southern Ohio when you look at the late 1830s, where he worked at their trade and owned a farm. He made a decision to stay static in the black colored community. He passed away in 1878.
Eston, additionally a carpenter, relocated to Chillicothe, Ohio, into the 1830s. Here he had been a well-known musician that is professional getting around 1852 to Wisconsin, where he changed his surname to Jefferson together with his racial identification. He died in 1856. Both Madison and Eston made understood which they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson.
Consequences of Freedom
Whenever Beverly and Harriet Hemings passed into white culture, that they had to reject their loved ones lineage. Historians and loved ones are struggling to find their descendants. Both Madison and Eston Hemings acknowledged they had been sons of Thomas Jefferson and passed that knowledge onto their young ones. Madison and Eston Hemings’s descendants have actually provided household histories with Monticello’s Getting Word African United states Oral History venture.
“Certainly a relationship between a master along with his servant is one that is incredibly unbalanced when it comes to energy. We have no idea what sort of love or love had been included. But he made a challenge which he would free her young ones if they switched 21. And then he did so.”
We don’t know the type of Sally Hemings interactions with Thomas Jefferson. Was he her rapist? Ended up being he an effective way to attaining her objective of freedom on her young ones? Did some affection is shared by them for every single other? Hemings’s son Madison divulges valuable few factual statements about exactly just what their mom looked at their dad. Annette Gordon-Reed cites the issues of understanding their interactions because of the implications of ownership, age, permission, and energy.
“ The many that may be said is Hemings and Jefferson lived together over a long time along with seven kiddies, four of who lived to adulthood. Jefferson kept his vow to Hemings, and their offspring got a four-decade head begin on emancipation, taking advantage of it by leading successful and stable life. ”
Did Sally Hemings get “special privileges”?
In accordance with Madison Hemings, Jefferson “was perhaps maybe maybe not within the practice of showing partiality or fatherly love to us young ones.” Plantation records reveal that Sally Hemings and her kids received the clothing that is same meals allotments as other enslaved individuals at Monticello. Nonetheless, Madison Hemings and his siblings discovered trades and “were clear of the dread of experiencing become slaves all our life very very long.” Plus, as kiddies, they certainly were permitted to be due to their mother, an advantage many enslaved young ones did not need.
Sex, Energy, and Slavery
“ So she refused to go back with him. To cause her to do this he promised her extraordinary privileges, and made a solemn pledge that her kiddies is freed during dutch women dating the chronilogical age of twenty-one years. ”
Ended up being it rape? Had been here any love? Ended up being conformity section of her contract with Jefferson?
“She was at an untenable place. We could be taking a look at intimate harassment. today”
Descendant Diana Redman stocks her views on Sally Hemings.
Enslaved females had no appropriate right to consent. Their masters owned their work, their health, and kids.
Sally Hemings’s descendants and historians have actually a variety of views about the powerful between Jefferson and Hemings, offered the implications of ownership, age, permission, and power that is dramatically unequal masters and enslaved ladies.
The type of Sally Hemings’s sexual encounters with Thomas Jefferson won’t ever be understood.
“People for the reason that area acted towards them as though they certainly were a married couple.”
Madison Hemings stated almost no in what their mother considered their dad, just that she “implicitly relied” on Jefferson’s vow. Hemings additionally stated which he and their siblings “were truly the only children of Jefferson’s by a servant girl.”
“The energy facet of it’s very genuine because demonstrably he may have offered her if he desired to. She could maybe maybe not refuse their improvements. but his spouse Martha could perhaps maybe not state no to him either. I think it will be possible for Jefferson to rationalize this relationship because men had been designed to dominate ladies.”
This really is an unpleasant and complicated US tale. Thomas Jefferson ended up being certainly one of our many essential founding dads, as well as a lifelong servant owner who held Sally Hemings and kids in bondage. Sally Hemings must certanly be understood today, not merely as Jefferson’s concubine, but being an enslaved woman who – at the chronilogical age of 16 – negotiated with perhaps one of the most effective males within the country to enhance her very own condition and attain freedom on her kiddies.
“ She offered delivery to four other people, and Jefferson had been the daddy of most of them. Their names had been Beverly, Harriet, Madison (myself), and Eston – three sons and another child. ”
The evidence that is historical to the facts of Madison Hemings’s words about “my dad, Thomas Jefferson.” Even though the narrative that is dominant denied his paternity, since 1802, dental histories, posted recollections, analytical information, and papers have actually identified Thomas Jefferson whilst the dad of Sally Hemings’s kids. In 1998, a DNA research genetically connected certainly one of Hemings’s male descendants because of the line that is male of Jefferson family, contributing to the wide range of proof. | 1,583 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Significantly before the Glorious Revolution (around 1580-1630) (Lewis 1), the treatment of the lower class people and women was highly violent due to the blame cast on them for the recent problems that arose during this time (before Thirty Years’ War and during Protestant Reformation). Kings treated the lower class servants and peasants like little dogs, and women were shown as very detrimental to society due to the lack of work they could not do due to their discrimination in society. In the play King Lear, which was written by the famous English playwright William Shakespeare, these problems are shown just within the beginning of the play and are carried on as the play progresses. The eponymous main character in the play, King Lear, has a servant named Kent, who is treated harshly even when Kent gives the king some good advice on some problems relating to gender. This is due to King Lear’s hatred against those that disobeys him, and when it comes to women, the king will get even more mad than normal. Because Kent wanted the king to treat his daughters fairly in a problem the king was facing, Kent was fired due to what was King Lear thought was absurd judgement. The problem that got Kent fired was a problem in which the King had to split his land among his three daughters: Cordelia, Goneril, and Regan. Goneril and Regan both win the likes of their father, so they were able to receive land from the king. However, Cordelia was not able to win the likes of her father, so as a result, Cordelia is disowned by her father. A reason for this disowning was that Cordelia was the king’s daughter which meant that she had to obey many strict rules in front of the king. Another reason for this was because Cordelia was a woman, which meant that Cordelia would be given harsh treatment if Cordelia makes just one mistake. King Lear shows Shakespeare’s thoughts on women in Europe using his comedic and tragic ways to question the life he was witnessing and living in.King Lear, is a play written by William Shakespeare circa 1606 and takes place in ancient England in which the eponymous main character, King Lear, rules a kingdom on the west side of England. In the time Shakespeare wrote this novel, QUESTION 1: King Lear, is a play written by William Shakespeare circa 1606 and takes place in ancient England. The play features a trend that existed well before the 21st century about the theme of women’s roles in society. In Shakespeare’s time when he wrote this novel, many big milestones had happened in English history. For example, in 1534, King Henry VIII created the Church of England due to a dispute between the king and the pope about a divorce. King Henry VIII had 3 legitimate children that ruled over England at least for a year (Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I). Coincidentally, King Lear in the play has 3 children which were all women by the names of Cordelia, Goneril, and Regan. Another milestone that happened was the reign of Elizabeth I. Before Elizabeth ruled England, Edward VI had a short reign from 1547 to 1553 (Hampton 1) due to an illness he got in 1553. He was then replaced by Mary I, who tried to purge all those who were following a newly religion other than Roman Catholicism (Protestants), thus earning the nickname “Bloody Mary” after she killed over 300 of those followers. “Bloody Mary” was viewed as evil to the Protestants due to her purging of them, but all Mary I wanted to do was bring back old traditions to Europe, no matter how bad they were, so that Mary could be viewed as the ultimate leader of England. Elizabeth I, the third child of Henry VIII, was able to become Queen of England when Mary I died with her unborn child she was going to have with her husband, Philip II of Spain. As Queen of England, she enacted many policies that allowed England to prosper and allowed Elizabeth I to be known as one of the greatest monarchs in European history. Elizabeth I was not only friendly and nice with the people of England, but also listened to them and helped make England a better place to live and trade with. However, there were many killings in the events known as the witch trials. People who were killed in the witch trials were accused of performing witchcraft, which could not only disrupt the normal rituals that people in Europe conducted everyday, but the religious rituals that they performed as well. Women were the main targets of being a witch as they were weak at that time and could not defend for themselves. Shakespeare would agree with all of this witch trials as he is shown to be a misogynist based on the lines that he has given King Lear which undermine a woman’s position in society. For example, a few of the lines that he says are, “Hear, Nature, hear, dear goddess, hear! Suspend thy purpose if thou didst intend To make this creature fruitful. Into her womb convey sterility. Dry up in her the organs of increase, And from her derogate body never spring A babe to honor her!” (King Lear 1.4.261-267). In this quote, King Lear tries to curse his oldest daughter, Goneril, after she displeases the king by asking him to lessen the number of knights that he has at his service. Because the king is very offended by this, he decides to move to the other daughter’s (Regan’s) palace. On the way to the palace, Lear says this quote, in which he tries to say that Goneril should not be blessed with a child due to the fact that she seemed very “evil” toward King Lear. However, as society in Europe changed over the next few centuries, the trend of hate against women vanished as women proved themselves to be crucial to society in the movements that came along in European history, such as the Enlightenment and the Romantic era, where philosophers around Europe came up with ideas, theories, and art forms that demonstrated how life should be and what values people should follow. QUESTION 2: As the play progresses, the reader learns that not all the conflicts going on in the play are only social (demeaning women), but in which some are also political. This is because one of the secondary characters, Edmund, fights for his place as the Earl of Gloucester. Before Edmund came up with the desire for that spot, he was born as the illegitimate son of the Earl of Gloucester. Therefore, he was not eligible to the spot, which caused Edmund to feel very jealous of his brother, Edgar, who was eligible for that spot in the nobility of England. QUESTION 3:QUESTION 4: The protagonist of this play is the eponymous man known by the name of the one and only, King Lear. In this play, he is shown to be a very strict ruler of the English kingdom due to his standards that the people around him have to follow. For example, Cordelia, King Lear’s youngest child, fails to appease the king when she is given an offer to receive a third of the kingdom’s land from the king. As a result, King Lear banishes her from the kingdom, where she is to live with her husband, the King of France, for the rest of her life. However throughout the play, many people are shown to risk their lives for him. For example, King Lear’s ex-servant, Kent, will return back to the kingdom as a disguised men just so that the new character can help King Lear think about his decisions, and how King Lear may be wrong about some the things that he has done. King Lear is also shown to be very trusting toward his other two daughters, Goneril and Regan, after Cordelia is banished from the kingdom. Due to this, Goneril and Regan try to use this trait of King Lear to their advantage by trying to steal more land from the beloved king. Their first try to discredit the king was revealed when Regan says, ” ‘Tis the infirmity of his age. Yet he hath ever but slenderly known himself.” (Lr. 1.1.293-294). This quote is said after Cordelia leaves with her new husband, the King of France, with Goneril and Regan knowing that King Lear made a bad choice of banishing Cordelia from the kingdom. Regan was trying to say that the king is becoming very weak, and is unable to understand his own feelings about the things around him. This allows Goneril and Regan to take advantage of the king and try to make him lose his power so that the two sisters can emerge as the leaders of the kingdom. Another thing about King Lear is that he worries more about appearance rather than the actual reality of things.QUESTION 5: There is not just antagonist, but many antagonists, that play a huge part in the conflicts that revolve around King Lear and the secondary characters in this play. The first antagonists in this play are the two older daughters of King Lear, Goneril and Regan. As stated before, both want to discredit the king so that the two sisters could take the throne and become the supreme sister leaders of England. Goneril and ReganQUESTION 6:QUESTION 7:QUESTION 8: QUESTION 9:QUESTION 10:Works Cited”Henry VIII’s Children.” Historic Royal Palaces, www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history- and-stories/henry-viiis-children/#gs.6nZkaMg.Hoover, Claudette. “Women, Centaurs, and Devils In King Lear.” Women’s Studies, vol. 16, no. 3-4, 1989, pp. 349–359., doi:10.1080/00497878.1989.9978774.Kagan, Donald. The Western Heritage, Since 1300. Pearson, 2014.Lewis, Jone Johnson. “Witch Hunts: Timeline of the European History and Its Roots.” ThoughtCo, www.thoughtco.com/european-witch-hunts-timeline-3530786.”Medieval Nobility.” Medieval Chronicles, www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-people/medieval-nobility/.Shakespeare, William, and John C. Crowther. King Lear. Spark Pub., 2003. | <urn:uuid:bca8b3e7-d3f8-4632-8a7c-4e8b0ffed3d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://yorkepeninsulaaccommodation.com/significantly-against-those-that-disobeys-him-and-when/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.983293 | 2,191 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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-0.1039764136075... | 2 | Significantly before the Glorious Revolution (around 1580-1630) (Lewis 1), the treatment of the lower class people and women was highly violent due to the blame cast on them for the recent problems that arose during this time (before Thirty Years’ War and during Protestant Reformation). Kings treated the lower class servants and peasants like little dogs, and women were shown as very detrimental to society due to the lack of work they could not do due to their discrimination in society. In the play King Lear, which was written by the famous English playwright William Shakespeare, these problems are shown just within the beginning of the play and are carried on as the play progresses. The eponymous main character in the play, King Lear, has a servant named Kent, who is treated harshly even when Kent gives the king some good advice on some problems relating to gender. This is due to King Lear’s hatred against those that disobeys him, and when it comes to women, the king will get even more mad than normal. Because Kent wanted the king to treat his daughters fairly in a problem the king was facing, Kent was fired due to what was King Lear thought was absurd judgement. The problem that got Kent fired was a problem in which the King had to split his land among his three daughters: Cordelia, Goneril, and Regan. Goneril and Regan both win the likes of their father, so they were able to receive land from the king. However, Cordelia was not able to win the likes of her father, so as a result, Cordelia is disowned by her father. A reason for this disowning was that Cordelia was the king’s daughter which meant that she had to obey many strict rules in front of the king. Another reason for this was because Cordelia was a woman, which meant that Cordelia would be given harsh treatment if Cordelia makes just one mistake. King Lear shows Shakespeare’s thoughts on women in Europe using his comedic and tragic ways to question the life he was witnessing and living in.King Lear, is a play written by William Shakespeare circa 1606 and takes place in ancient England in which the eponymous main character, King Lear, rules a kingdom on the west side of England. In the time Shakespeare wrote this novel, QUESTION 1: King Lear, is a play written by William Shakespeare circa 1606 and takes place in ancient England. The play features a trend that existed well before the 21st century about the theme of women’s roles in society. In Shakespeare’s time when he wrote this novel, many big milestones had happened in English history. For example, in 1534, King Henry VIII created the Church of England due to a dispute between the king and the pope about a divorce. King Henry VIII had 3 legitimate children that ruled over England at least for a year (Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I). Coincidentally, King Lear in the play has 3 children which were all women by the names of Cordelia, Goneril, and Regan. Another milestone that happened was the reign of Elizabeth I. Before Elizabeth ruled England, Edward VI had a short reign from 1547 to 1553 (Hampton 1) due to an illness he got in 1553. He was then replaced by Mary I, who tried to purge all those who were following a newly religion other than Roman Catholicism (Protestants), thus earning the nickname “Bloody Mary” after she killed over 300 of those followers. “Bloody Mary” was viewed as evil to the Protestants due to her purging of them, but all Mary I wanted to do was bring back old traditions to Europe, no matter how bad they were, so that Mary could be viewed as the ultimate leader of England. Elizabeth I, the third child of Henry VIII, was able to become Queen of England when Mary I died with her unborn child she was going to have with her husband, Philip II of Spain. As Queen of England, she enacted many policies that allowed England to prosper and allowed Elizabeth I to be known as one of the greatest monarchs in European history. Elizabeth I was not only friendly and nice with the people of England, but also listened to them and helped make England a better place to live and trade with. However, there were many killings in the events known as the witch trials. People who were killed in the witch trials were accused of performing witchcraft, which could not only disrupt the normal rituals that people in Europe conducted everyday, but the religious rituals that they performed as well. Women were the main targets of being a witch as they were weak at that time and could not defend for themselves. Shakespeare would agree with all of this witch trials as he is shown to be a misogynist based on the lines that he has given King Lear which undermine a woman’s position in society. For example, a few of the lines that he says are, “Hear, Nature, hear, dear goddess, hear! Suspend thy purpose if thou didst intend To make this creature fruitful. Into her womb convey sterility. Dry up in her the organs of increase, And from her derogate body never spring A babe to honor her!” (King Lear 1.4.261-267). In this quote, King Lear tries to curse his oldest daughter, Goneril, after she displeases the king by asking him to lessen the number of knights that he has at his service. Because the king is very offended by this, he decides to move to the other daughter’s (Regan’s) palace. On the way to the palace, Lear says this quote, in which he tries to say that Goneril should not be blessed with a child due to the fact that she seemed very “evil” toward King Lear. However, as society in Europe changed over the next few centuries, the trend of hate against women vanished as women proved themselves to be crucial to society in the movements that came along in European history, such as the Enlightenment and the Romantic era, where philosophers around Europe came up with ideas, theories, and art forms that demonstrated how life should be and what values people should follow. QUESTION 2: As the play progresses, the reader learns that not all the conflicts going on in the play are only social (demeaning women), but in which some are also political. This is because one of the secondary characters, Edmund, fights for his place as the Earl of Gloucester. Before Edmund came up with the desire for that spot, he was born as the illegitimate son of the Earl of Gloucester. Therefore, he was not eligible to the spot, which caused Edmund to feel very jealous of his brother, Edgar, who was eligible for that spot in the nobility of England. QUESTION 3:QUESTION 4: The protagonist of this play is the eponymous man known by the name of the one and only, King Lear. In this play, he is shown to be a very strict ruler of the English kingdom due to his standards that the people around him have to follow. For example, Cordelia, King Lear’s youngest child, fails to appease the king when she is given an offer to receive a third of the kingdom’s land from the king. As a result, King Lear banishes her from the kingdom, where she is to live with her husband, the King of France, for the rest of her life. However throughout the play, many people are shown to risk their lives for him. For example, King Lear’s ex-servant, Kent, will return back to the kingdom as a disguised men just so that the new character can help King Lear think about his decisions, and how King Lear may be wrong about some the things that he has done. King Lear is also shown to be very trusting toward his other two daughters, Goneril and Regan, after Cordelia is banished from the kingdom. Due to this, Goneril and Regan try to use this trait of King Lear to their advantage by trying to steal more land from the beloved king. Their first try to discredit the king was revealed when Regan says, ” ‘Tis the infirmity of his age. Yet he hath ever but slenderly known himself.” (Lr. 1.1.293-294). This quote is said after Cordelia leaves with her new husband, the King of France, with Goneril and Regan knowing that King Lear made a bad choice of banishing Cordelia from the kingdom. Regan was trying to say that the king is becoming very weak, and is unable to understand his own feelings about the things around him. This allows Goneril and Regan to take advantage of the king and try to make him lose his power so that the two sisters can emerge as the leaders of the kingdom. Another thing about King Lear is that he worries more about appearance rather than the actual reality of things.QUESTION 5: There is not just antagonist, but many antagonists, that play a huge part in the conflicts that revolve around King Lear and the secondary characters in this play. The first antagonists in this play are the two older daughters of King Lear, Goneril and Regan. As stated before, both want to discredit the king so that the two sisters could take the throne and become the supreme sister leaders of England. Goneril and ReganQUESTION 6:QUESTION 7:QUESTION 8: QUESTION 9:QUESTION 10:Works Cited”Henry VIII’s Children.” Historic Royal Palaces, www.hrp.org.uk/hampton-court-palace/history- and-stories/henry-viiis-children/#gs.6nZkaMg.Hoover, Claudette. “Women, Centaurs, and Devils In King Lear.” Women’s Studies, vol. 16, no. 3-4, 1989, pp. 349–359., doi:10.1080/00497878.1989.9978774.Kagan, Donald. The Western Heritage, Since 1300. Pearson, 2014.Lewis, Jone Johnson. “Witch Hunts: Timeline of the European History and Its Roots.” ThoughtCo, www.thoughtco.com/european-witch-hunts-timeline-3530786.”Medieval Nobility.” Medieval Chronicles, www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-people/medieval-nobility/.Shakespeare, William, and John C. Crowther. King Lear. Spark Pub., 2003. | 2,221 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women in the early civilizations were noted to have less importance than men, they are often left at home, or they are considered bride material to serve men at home. This notion of women has continued even in the present context, with only a few women rising up in history books as the perpetrators of change in their respective countries. In China, women are also treated differently by men due to their physical capacity and their role in society. However, aside from the Disney-launched Hua Mulan, there were other women who did a similar contribution to the Chinese Empire – serving the army and leading China to one of its iconic victories. One of the most notable examples to this is Princess Pingyang of the Tang Dynasty, the iconic figure that has led the first “All Women” army in eliminating the Sui Dynasty and seating her father as the Emperor of China.
Pingyang was born in 598 AD to Li Yuan, the future Emperor of the Tang Dynasty and to Duchess Dou. Li Yuan, prior to his ascension as Emperor, held many military positions, giving him the edge of influencing several key actors that could overthrow the Sui Emperor Yangdi. The Sui Emperor became threatened by Li Yuan and eventually ordered Li Yuan’s imprisonment to neutralize his troops. However, when the capital came under siege in 617 AD, Yangdi had to call off the imprisonment and ordered Li Yuan to ward off the siege. At this exact time, Li Yuan realized that if he does not rebel publicly soon, the Sui Emperor would make him a target. He then ordered messengers to summon his son Li Shimin in Hedong and Pingyang’s husband Cai Shao. Before leaving for Hedong, Cai Shao informed Pingyang of the plans of her father, and told her that he is worried for her safety once Cai Shao abandons the Sui court. Pingyang told her husband that she will be fine, and she will be able to escape once his abandonment becomes known to the public. Cai Shao then departed to Hedong to assist Li Yuan in rebelling against the Sui Empire.
A few days after Cai Shao’s departure from the Sui court, Pingyang followed and found her way to the family estate in Hu County. However, unlike her life in the court, Hu County was experiencing severe drought, causing many Hu natives to starve with the lack of food. Pingyang opened the family estate’s food stores and gave the peasants food and water. This noble act enabled Pingyang to gain the trust and loyalty of the peasants, considering them her new allies. Pingyang also used this opportunity to create her Woman’s Army from the most abled-bodied women whom she deemed capable of entering the rebellion started by her father. Many have answered to her request, and they marched off to support the rebellion against the Sui. Like Hua Mulan, Pingyang opted to wear male clothing when leading her troops to fight Sui loyalists.
Aside from the peasants and her own Women’s Army, Pingyang was also able to gain support from other rebel forces that also fight for leadership. Through the news that her father was gaining success in Taiyuan, many of these rebels joined with her troops and created a united front against the Sui Dynasty. Due to the sheer number of the rebels that have aligned with her, Pingyang was able to received support from the most influential groups in the region. Shi Wanbao’s faction was one of Pingyang’s most prized allies as Shi Wanbao’s expertise in martial arts enabled him to liberate the peasants in his region. When his rebellion was supported by Li Yuan’s cousin, Pingyang immediately asked her father’s cousin to convince Shi Wanbao to support her Women’s Army. Pingyang was able to convince Shi Wanbao, enabling her Women’s Army to increase. Normally, someone with the calibre as same as Shi Wanbao would not have joined in a women-led army, but Pingyang was able to get his support through close negotiations, resources, and through her capacity as a female general and strategist. He Panren was another ally Pingyang had to gain support from as He Panren commanded more than ten thousand men for his own army. The Sui Emperor also tried getting He Panren’s support against the rebels, but He Panren decided to support Pingyang. Like Shi Wanbao, He Panren agreed to coordinate plans and strategies with Pingyang to optimize their success against the Sui loyalists. Li Zhongweng, another famous commander in the region, also joined in the Women’s Army. Together, they were able to fight under the name of the Woman’s Army and took over Hu County.
As the Women’s Army invaded the Hu County, many of the peasants and civilians saw Pingyang’s troops as their liberators as they offered them food and drinks. Underground rebels also supported Pingyang’s Women’s Army and joined the ranks. To her troops, she was a strict leader and tolerated a little disobedience. Pingyang forbade her troops, both men and women, to take loot from their raided bases, committing rape and enticing pillaging. For Pingyang, these acts would discredit the troops, and the Army’s success rate will be limited due to the discredited morals the troops possesses. With a couple of skirmishes under their name, Pingyang’s army were able to distribute food, gaining new allies from the captured people from their liberated territories. The Sui troops began to see Pingyang’s capacity and power to be a threat they must eliminate, slowly launching an attack to Pingyang’s position.
At the same moment as Pingyang’s victories over the Hu County, Li Yuan, Li Shimin, and Cai Shao were also able to repel the forces in their respective areas. With Pingyang handling the Sui troops in the Hu County, Li Yuan took this as the chance to attack the remaining Sui forces. The Sui was unable to recover from the attack, subsequently enabling Li Yuan to take over the Capital. Cai Shao immediately rushed to Pingyang’s position to help her ward off the remaining Sui forces. Both Cai Shao and Pingyang had their own separate headquarters despite their marriage . Once all the Sui forces were eliminated, Emperor Yangdi had no choice but to flee southward to escape being killed by Li Yuan’s forces. However, he was assassinated, while in hiding, in 618 A.D. The Tang Dynasty replaced the Sui Dynasty and Li Yuan became its first emperor. As a form of honour for her position in rebellion against the Sui, Pingyang was given the rank of Marshall. A Marshall in the Tang dynasty enables Pingyang to gain her own military staff and aides. However, Pingyang slowly succumbed to exhaustion from the skirmishes and travels she did while helping her father gain the throne. Princess Pingyang died in 623 AD at the age of 23 or 24 years old .
In her death, Emperor Li Yuan ordered for the renaming of the pass in Pingding to be called “the Young Lady’s Pass”. Li Yuan was stricken with grief due to Pingyang’s death as she was the favourite of her parents. She was given an elaborate funeral fit for a military general. The court was hesitant to allow this type of procession for a woman, even if she enabled the Tang Dynasty to be created. Li Yuan placed his foot down and said “As you know, the princess mustered an army that has helped us overthrow the Sui dynasty. She participated in many battles, and her help was decisive in founding the Tang Dynasty She was no ordinary woman” .
Cheng, Dalin. The Great Wall of China. Beijing: South China Morning Post, 1984. Print.
De Pauw, Linda Grant. Battle Cries and Lullabies: Women in War from Prehistory to the Present. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. Print.
Peterson, Barbara Bennett. Notable women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century. New York: M.E Sharpe, 2000. Print. | <urn:uuid:e231403a-4f02-43a8-9346-f23eda195bf2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/essay-on-princess-pingyang-of-the-tang-dynasty/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00383.warc.gz | en | 0.98294 | 1,718 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.11480201035737991... | 2 | Women in the early civilizations were noted to have less importance than men, they are often left at home, or they are considered bride material to serve men at home. This notion of women has continued even in the present context, with only a few women rising up in history books as the perpetrators of change in their respective countries. In China, women are also treated differently by men due to their physical capacity and their role in society. However, aside from the Disney-launched Hua Mulan, there were other women who did a similar contribution to the Chinese Empire – serving the army and leading China to one of its iconic victories. One of the most notable examples to this is Princess Pingyang of the Tang Dynasty, the iconic figure that has led the first “All Women” army in eliminating the Sui Dynasty and seating her father as the Emperor of China.
Pingyang was born in 598 AD to Li Yuan, the future Emperor of the Tang Dynasty and to Duchess Dou. Li Yuan, prior to his ascension as Emperor, held many military positions, giving him the edge of influencing several key actors that could overthrow the Sui Emperor Yangdi. The Sui Emperor became threatened by Li Yuan and eventually ordered Li Yuan’s imprisonment to neutralize his troops. However, when the capital came under siege in 617 AD, Yangdi had to call off the imprisonment and ordered Li Yuan to ward off the siege. At this exact time, Li Yuan realized that if he does not rebel publicly soon, the Sui Emperor would make him a target. He then ordered messengers to summon his son Li Shimin in Hedong and Pingyang’s husband Cai Shao. Before leaving for Hedong, Cai Shao informed Pingyang of the plans of her father, and told her that he is worried for her safety once Cai Shao abandons the Sui court. Pingyang told her husband that she will be fine, and she will be able to escape once his abandonment becomes known to the public. Cai Shao then departed to Hedong to assist Li Yuan in rebelling against the Sui Empire.
A few days after Cai Shao’s departure from the Sui court, Pingyang followed and found her way to the family estate in Hu County. However, unlike her life in the court, Hu County was experiencing severe drought, causing many Hu natives to starve with the lack of food. Pingyang opened the family estate’s food stores and gave the peasants food and water. This noble act enabled Pingyang to gain the trust and loyalty of the peasants, considering them her new allies. Pingyang also used this opportunity to create her Woman’s Army from the most abled-bodied women whom she deemed capable of entering the rebellion started by her father. Many have answered to her request, and they marched off to support the rebellion against the Sui. Like Hua Mulan, Pingyang opted to wear male clothing when leading her troops to fight Sui loyalists.
Aside from the peasants and her own Women’s Army, Pingyang was also able to gain support from other rebel forces that also fight for leadership. Through the news that her father was gaining success in Taiyuan, many of these rebels joined with her troops and created a united front against the Sui Dynasty. Due to the sheer number of the rebels that have aligned with her, Pingyang was able to received support from the most influential groups in the region. Shi Wanbao’s faction was one of Pingyang’s most prized allies as Shi Wanbao’s expertise in martial arts enabled him to liberate the peasants in his region. When his rebellion was supported by Li Yuan’s cousin, Pingyang immediately asked her father’s cousin to convince Shi Wanbao to support her Women’s Army. Pingyang was able to convince Shi Wanbao, enabling her Women’s Army to increase. Normally, someone with the calibre as same as Shi Wanbao would not have joined in a women-led army, but Pingyang was able to get his support through close negotiations, resources, and through her capacity as a female general and strategist. He Panren was another ally Pingyang had to gain support from as He Panren commanded more than ten thousand men for his own army. The Sui Emperor also tried getting He Panren’s support against the rebels, but He Panren decided to support Pingyang. Like Shi Wanbao, He Panren agreed to coordinate plans and strategies with Pingyang to optimize their success against the Sui loyalists. Li Zhongweng, another famous commander in the region, also joined in the Women’s Army. Together, they were able to fight under the name of the Woman’s Army and took over Hu County.
As the Women’s Army invaded the Hu County, many of the peasants and civilians saw Pingyang’s troops as their liberators as they offered them food and drinks. Underground rebels also supported Pingyang’s Women’s Army and joined the ranks. To her troops, she was a strict leader and tolerated a little disobedience. Pingyang forbade her troops, both men and women, to take loot from their raided bases, committing rape and enticing pillaging. For Pingyang, these acts would discredit the troops, and the Army’s success rate will be limited due to the discredited morals the troops possesses. With a couple of skirmishes under their name, Pingyang’s army were able to distribute food, gaining new allies from the captured people from their liberated territories. The Sui troops began to see Pingyang’s capacity and power to be a threat they must eliminate, slowly launching an attack to Pingyang’s position.
At the same moment as Pingyang’s victories over the Hu County, Li Yuan, Li Shimin, and Cai Shao were also able to repel the forces in their respective areas. With Pingyang handling the Sui troops in the Hu County, Li Yuan took this as the chance to attack the remaining Sui forces. The Sui was unable to recover from the attack, subsequently enabling Li Yuan to take over the Capital. Cai Shao immediately rushed to Pingyang’s position to help her ward off the remaining Sui forces. Both Cai Shao and Pingyang had their own separate headquarters despite their marriage . Once all the Sui forces were eliminated, Emperor Yangdi had no choice but to flee southward to escape being killed by Li Yuan’s forces. However, he was assassinated, while in hiding, in 618 A.D. The Tang Dynasty replaced the Sui Dynasty and Li Yuan became its first emperor. As a form of honour for her position in rebellion against the Sui, Pingyang was given the rank of Marshall. A Marshall in the Tang dynasty enables Pingyang to gain her own military staff and aides. However, Pingyang slowly succumbed to exhaustion from the skirmishes and travels she did while helping her father gain the throne. Princess Pingyang died in 623 AD at the age of 23 or 24 years old .
In her death, Emperor Li Yuan ordered for the renaming of the pass in Pingding to be called “the Young Lady’s Pass”. Li Yuan was stricken with grief due to Pingyang’s death as she was the favourite of her parents. She was given an elaborate funeral fit for a military general. The court was hesitant to allow this type of procession for a woman, even if she enabled the Tang Dynasty to be created. Li Yuan placed his foot down and said “As you know, the princess mustered an army that has helped us overthrow the Sui dynasty. She participated in many battles, and her help was decisive in founding the Tang Dynasty She was no ordinary woman” .
Cheng, Dalin. The Great Wall of China. Beijing: South China Morning Post, 1984. Print.
De Pauw, Linda Grant. Battle Cries and Lullabies: Women in War from Prehistory to the Present. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. Print.
Peterson, Barbara Bennett. Notable women of China: Shang Dynasty to the Early Twentieth Century. New York: M.E Sharpe, 2000. Print. | 1,666 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles Henry Turner Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Charles Henry Turner was a comparative psychologist, Zoologist, a scholar, and a biologist. Born on February 3, 1867, he became the first African American to receive a Doctorate in Zoology. As a pioneer in the field of insect behaviour, he became the first person to discover insects’ ability to hear and alter behaviour in accordance with experiences. Aside from his biological works, Turner was a civil activist and attempted to break the racial barrier in American academia.
Charles Henry Turner was born on February 3, 1867, in Cincinnati, Ohio. He had his high school education at Gaines High School and came out as the top best student in his year group (1886). He continued at the University of Cincinnati for his bachelor’s degree in that same year, graduating in 1891. He continued with his master’s degree from the same University.
Turner had a financial aid during his graduate degree program as he assisted some professors from his alma mater (1891-1893). He furthered his education at the University of Chicago for Ph.D. where he graduated in 1907 with a Doctorate in Zoology being the first African American to obtain such a feat.
With his academic achievements, Charles Henry Turner mostly taught in the high school though he taught in few Universities like Tuskegee University in Alabama and Clark Atlanta University (1893-1905). As he embarked on his teaching profession, he was pursuing his Ph.D. In 1907, he graduated from the University of Chicago. He also taught at Summer High School when he was still pursuing his Ph.D. He found it difficult obtaining a teaching appointment at the University a top university, which some construed to be racial reasons.
However, others argue that it was because he wanted to have time to research more into insects’ behaviour. Turner mostly worked with young African American students because he related with them better. He taught in Clark College (now Clark Atlanta University) from 1893 to 1905. He also became an active supporter in the struggle to obtain social and educational services for African Americans in St. Louis, Missouri. He retired in 1922.
Charles Henry Turner was a trailblazer in his investigations. He was the first Scientist to discover that insects were capable to of learning. In his famous research projects, he showed that insects were able to hear and distinguish from pitch based on previous experience. Citing the honeybees as an example, he discovered that they could see colours and recognise patterns.
His first discovery was how cockroaches can learn from trial and error. He had to his credit more than 70 research papers throughout his 33 years career. He also published 49 papers on field research he conducted on fresh-water invertebrates, which included “Habits of Mound-Building Ants,” “Experiments on the Color Vision of the Honeybee,” “Hunting Habits of an American Sand Wasp” and “Psychological Notes on the Gallery Spider.”
The Tanner-Turner Hall building on Clark Atlanta University campus is built in his honour. Children’s book Bug Watching with Charles Henry Turner by M.E. Ross (1997) has enabled children to learn about his influential work. His pace-setting work has been reintroduced to the public through the publication of selected papers and Biography of Charles Henry Turner, Pioneer of Comparative Animal Behavior Studies (2003). A school for disabled African American children was named in his honour after his death.
Charles Henry Turner married Leontine Troy in 1887 a year after he enrolled in high school and had two sons, Henry and Darwin Turner. Leontine died eight years after their marriage in 1895. He then married Lilian Porter. The family later moved to St Louis Missouri, in 1982, where Turner taught as a science teacher in Sumner High School. He died from acute myocarditis in a hospital in Chicago on February 14, 1923. He was 56 years. He was interred at Lincoln Cemetery.
Alain Leroy Locke
Alexander Graham Bell | <urn:uuid:5d497040-5646-48bb-86a9-a4d9d145ba70> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/charles-henry-turner/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.986129 | 855 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.393906593322... | 1 | Charles Henry Turner Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Charles Henry Turner was a comparative psychologist, Zoologist, a scholar, and a biologist. Born on February 3, 1867, he became the first African American to receive a Doctorate in Zoology. As a pioneer in the field of insect behaviour, he became the first person to discover insects’ ability to hear and alter behaviour in accordance with experiences. Aside from his biological works, Turner was a civil activist and attempted to break the racial barrier in American academia.
Charles Henry Turner was born on February 3, 1867, in Cincinnati, Ohio. He had his high school education at Gaines High School and came out as the top best student in his year group (1886). He continued at the University of Cincinnati for his bachelor’s degree in that same year, graduating in 1891. He continued with his master’s degree from the same University.
Turner had a financial aid during his graduate degree program as he assisted some professors from his alma mater (1891-1893). He furthered his education at the University of Chicago for Ph.D. where he graduated in 1907 with a Doctorate in Zoology being the first African American to obtain such a feat.
With his academic achievements, Charles Henry Turner mostly taught in the high school though he taught in few Universities like Tuskegee University in Alabama and Clark Atlanta University (1893-1905). As he embarked on his teaching profession, he was pursuing his Ph.D. In 1907, he graduated from the University of Chicago. He also taught at Summer High School when he was still pursuing his Ph.D. He found it difficult obtaining a teaching appointment at the University a top university, which some construed to be racial reasons.
However, others argue that it was because he wanted to have time to research more into insects’ behaviour. Turner mostly worked with young African American students because he related with them better. He taught in Clark College (now Clark Atlanta University) from 1893 to 1905. He also became an active supporter in the struggle to obtain social and educational services for African Americans in St. Louis, Missouri. He retired in 1922.
Charles Henry Turner was a trailblazer in his investigations. He was the first Scientist to discover that insects were capable to of learning. In his famous research projects, he showed that insects were able to hear and distinguish from pitch based on previous experience. Citing the honeybees as an example, he discovered that they could see colours and recognise patterns.
His first discovery was how cockroaches can learn from trial and error. He had to his credit more than 70 research papers throughout his 33 years career. He also published 49 papers on field research he conducted on fresh-water invertebrates, which included “Habits of Mound-Building Ants,” “Experiments on the Color Vision of the Honeybee,” “Hunting Habits of an American Sand Wasp” and “Psychological Notes on the Gallery Spider.”
The Tanner-Turner Hall building on Clark Atlanta University campus is built in his honour. Children’s book Bug Watching with Charles Henry Turner by M.E. Ross (1997) has enabled children to learn about his influential work. His pace-setting work has been reintroduced to the public through the publication of selected papers and Biography of Charles Henry Turner, Pioneer of Comparative Animal Behavior Studies (2003). A school for disabled African American children was named in his honour after his death.
Charles Henry Turner married Leontine Troy in 1887 a year after he enrolled in high school and had two sons, Henry and Darwin Turner. Leontine died eight years after their marriage in 1895. He then married Lilian Porter. The family later moved to St Louis Missouri, in 1982, where Turner taught as a science teacher in Sumner High School. He died from acute myocarditis in a hospital in Chicago on February 14, 1923. He was 56 years. He was interred at Lincoln Cemetery.
Alain Leroy Locke
Alexander Graham Bell | 886 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About the Book of Jonah
This book records what happened to a man called Jonah. Jonah lived in Gath Hepher, a town in Israel. Israel is east of the Mediterranean Sea.
We also read about Jonah in 2 Kings 14:25. The king was Jeroboam the Second. He ruled in the 8th century BC. A country near Israel, called Syria, had taken some of Israel's land by war. We read that Jonah spoke God's words to the Israelites. He said that the people in Israel would win back this land by war from Syria. And that is what had happened. So people knew that Jonah was a prophet. But Jonah's book is not about the words that Jonah spoke. It records something that happened in his life.
Jonah may have written the book. Or another prophet may have written it. Usually these prophets of God spoke only to God's people in Israel and in Judah. | <urn:uuid:a82b3cac-3ffc-4440-b2bc-b8de18de3587> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/jonah/0/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.987645 | 189 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.53085529804229... | 1 | About the Book of Jonah
This book records what happened to a man called Jonah. Jonah lived in Gath Hepher, a town in Israel. Israel is east of the Mediterranean Sea.
We also read about Jonah in 2 Kings 14:25. The king was Jeroboam the Second. He ruled in the 8th century BC. A country near Israel, called Syria, had taken some of Israel's land by war. We read that Jonah spoke God's words to the Israelites. He said that the people in Israel would win back this land by war from Syria. And that is what had happened. So people knew that Jonah was a prophet. But Jonah's book is not about the words that Jonah spoke. It records something that happened in his life.
Jonah may have written the book. Or another prophet may have written it. Usually these prophets of God spoke only to God's people in Israel and in Judah. | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The 2nd of March 1916 AD
As 1915 neared its end, and the terrible toll of casualties mounted, even the five million British volunteers raised thus far were not enough for the generals as they calculated their loss/kill ratios. Conscription was deemed necessary for the successful prosecution of the war, so in January 1916 the Military Service (Compulsion for Unmarried Men) Act was passed, coming into force on March 2.
Until that time Britainís ability to rely on a volunteer army had been a source of pride, the stream of willing recruits lauded by Kitchener and Asquith. When Prime Minister Asquith introduced the Compulsion Bill in the Commons it was noted how quietly he spoke, and that his speech was very limited in content.
At first only single men (other than widowers or clergymen) between the ages of 18 and 41 were called up; by May this was extended to married men; by the end of the war the age had been increased to 51, with talk of clergymen losing their exemption. Battles such as the Somme and Ypres claimed hundreds of thousands of these men, led by Haig whose military genius produced a strategy built around the enemy running out of soldiers before he did.
Conscription provided cannon-fodder for the war effort, but highlighted opposition to the conflict in the form of conscientious objectors: many of them died in prison; some it is thought were effectively offered as target practice for the German army; others accepted roles as ambulance drivers and (with a high death-rate) stretcher bearers.
More famous dates here
6116 views since 18th January 2011
On this day: | <urn:uuid:1a8fdb47-a21b-44ea-833a-dd63ec652923> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ads.information-britain.co.uk/famdates.php?id=1293 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.987104 | 337 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.2185155451297... | 1 | The 2nd of March 1916 AD
As 1915 neared its end, and the terrible toll of casualties mounted, even the five million British volunteers raised thus far were not enough for the generals as they calculated their loss/kill ratios. Conscription was deemed necessary for the successful prosecution of the war, so in January 1916 the Military Service (Compulsion for Unmarried Men) Act was passed, coming into force on March 2.
Until that time Britainís ability to rely on a volunteer army had been a source of pride, the stream of willing recruits lauded by Kitchener and Asquith. When Prime Minister Asquith introduced the Compulsion Bill in the Commons it was noted how quietly he spoke, and that his speech was very limited in content.
At first only single men (other than widowers or clergymen) between the ages of 18 and 41 were called up; by May this was extended to married men; by the end of the war the age had been increased to 51, with talk of clergymen losing their exemption. Battles such as the Somme and Ypres claimed hundreds of thousands of these men, led by Haig whose military genius produced a strategy built around the enemy running out of soldiers before he did.
Conscription provided cannon-fodder for the war effort, but highlighted opposition to the conflict in the form of conscientious objectors: many of them died in prison; some it is thought were effectively offered as target practice for the German army; others accepted roles as ambulance drivers and (with a high death-rate) stretcher bearers.
More famous dates here
6116 views since 18th January 2011
On this day: | 367 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AP Literature Period 4
25 October, 2014
While enduring a journey of selfknowledge to discover the mystery of king Laius's murder, main character Oedipus comes to discover the inescapability of fate enduring obstacles which lead him back to his destiny.
After fleeing Corinth in fear of the prophecy's statement that Oedipus's fate would be
to marry his mother and kill his father, Oedipus killed a group of men in self defense at a crossroad. Not long after, he arrived to Thebes. With the king being recently murdered, the townspeople looked to Oedipus for a sense of guidance. Also having defeated the sphinx,
Oedipus was awarded the royal throne and the queen as his wife. Unaware that he was following the path of his fate, Oedipus was in denial when Tiresias attempted to tell Oedipus of the truth which he was fulfilling. This amount of irony is significant due to the fact that
Tiresias is blind yet has the ability to see the truth at play. Ironically, when Oedipus unraveled the truth that he had followed his fate he blinds himself with pins from Jocasta, his wife and mother's dress. This ultimately proves the saying "the truth will set you free, but first make you miserable", in that Oedipus got closure and disgust out of discovering King Laius's death.
Although this truth was not one bit comforting or much of freedom, Oedipus definitely felt the misery which the truth held for him.
In pursuit of freedom from his predicted destiny, no matter what he… | <urn:uuid:7f980993-096e-475e-926a-2d74adb8e2d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Oedipus-Rex-Paper-537281.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00341.warc.gz | en | 0.984399 | 343 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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25 October, 2014
While enduring a journey of selfknowledge to discover the mystery of king Laius's murder, main character Oedipus comes to discover the inescapability of fate enduring obstacles which lead him back to his destiny.
After fleeing Corinth in fear of the prophecy's statement that Oedipus's fate would be
to marry his mother and kill his father, Oedipus killed a group of men in self defense at a crossroad. Not long after, he arrived to Thebes. With the king being recently murdered, the townspeople looked to Oedipus for a sense of guidance. Also having defeated the sphinx,
Oedipus was awarded the royal throne and the queen as his wife. Unaware that he was following the path of his fate, Oedipus was in denial when Tiresias attempted to tell Oedipus of the truth which he was fulfilling. This amount of irony is significant due to the fact that
Tiresias is blind yet has the ability to see the truth at play. Ironically, when Oedipus unraveled the truth that he had followed his fate he blinds himself with pins from Jocasta, his wife and mother's dress. This ultimately proves the saying "the truth will set you free, but first make you miserable", in that Oedipus got closure and disgust out of discovering King Laius's death.
Although this truth was not one bit comforting or much of freedom, Oedipus definitely felt the misery which the truth held for him.
In pursuit of freedom from his predicted destiny, no matter what he… | 343 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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