Indoor air quality

Indoor air quality ( IAQ ) is a term which refers to the air quality within and around buildings and structures , especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants .  IAQ can be affected by gases ( including carbon monoxide , radon , volatile organic compounds ) , particulates , microbial contaminants ( mold , bacteria ) , or any mass or energy stressor that can induce adverse health conditions . Source control , filtration and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most buildings . Residential units can further improve indoor air quality by routine cleaning of carpets and area rugs .   Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples , monitoring human exposure to pollutants , collection of samples on building surfaces , and computer modelling of air flow inside buildings .   IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality ( IEQ ) , which includes IAQ as well as other physical and psychological aspects of life indoors ( e.g. , lighting , visual quality , acoustics , and thermal comfort ) .   Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard . A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass ( e.g. wood , charcoal , dung , or crop residue ) for heating and cooking . The resulting exposure to high levels of particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000 .


Indur M. Goklany

Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy .   He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 ,  and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) .


Influenza A virus

Influenza A virus causes influenza in birds and some mammals , and is the only species of influenza virus A. Influenza virus A is a genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses . Strains of all subtypes of influenza A virus have been isolated from wild birds , although disease is uncommon . Some isolates of influenza A virus cause severe disease both in domestic poultry and , rarely , in humans . Occasionally , viruses are transmitted from wild aquatic birds to domestic poultry , and this may cause an outbreak or give rise to human influenza pandemics .   Influenza A viruses are negative-sense , single-stranded , segmented RNA viruses .  The several subtypes are labeled according to an H number ( for the type of hemagglutinin ) and an N number ( for the type of neuraminidase ) . There are 18 different known H antigens ( H1 to H18 ) and 11 different known N antigens ( N1 to N11 ) . H17 was isolated from fruit bats in 2012 . H18N11 was discovered in a Peruvian bat in 2013 .   Each virus subtype has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles ; some are pathogenic to one species but not others , some are pathogenic to multiple species .   A filtered and purified influenza A vaccine for humans has been developed , and many countries have stockpiled it to allow a quick administration to the population in the event of an avian influenza pandemic . Avian influenza is sometimes called avian flu , and colloquially , bird flu . In 2011 , researchers reported the discovery of an antibody effective against all types of the influenza A virus .


Infrared

Infrared radiation , or simply infrared or IR , is electromagnetic radiation ( EMR ) with longer wavelengths than those of visible light , and is therefore invisible , although it is sometimes loosely called infrared light . It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers ( frequency 430 THz ) , to 1000000 nm ( 300 GHz ) ( although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments ) . Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared . Like all EMR , IR carries radiant energy , and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle , the photon .   Infrared was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir William Herschel , who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light , by means of its effect on a thermometer . Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared . The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth 's climate .   Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements . It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment , making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry . Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range .   Infrared radiation is used in industrial , scientific , and medical applications . Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected . Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds , detect objects such as planets , and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe . Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems , to observe changing blood flow in the skin , and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus .   Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes . Military applications include target acquisition , surveillance , night vision , homing , and tracking . Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm ( micrometers ) . Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis , environmental monitoring , industrial facility inspections , remote temperature sensing , short-ranged wireless communication , spectroscopy , and weather forecasting .


Infrastructure policy of Donald Trump

The infrastructure policy of Donald Trump includes ensuring U.S. energy independence (by catering to the fossil fuel, nuclear, and renewable energy industries), safeguarding the cybersecurity of the national power grid and other critical infrastructure, locking China out of the U.S. fifth-generation Internet market, and rolling back regulations to ease the process of planning and construction. While there have been no major infrastructure spending packages yet, some individual policies and projects have advanced piecemeal, especially in rural areas. Although there is recognition of the need to upgrade American infrastructure from both sides of the political aisle, as of April 2020, no major infrastructure bill has been passed due to disagreements over the details of such a spending package, namely, what to spend on, how much to spend, and how to pay for it. 'Infrastructure' is a rather broad term that means different things to different people. In general, the aim of the Trump administration is revitalizing the national economy and enhancing national security despite the tendency of his own Republican Party to oppose large federal expenditures and tax hikes whereas members of the opposition Democratic Party typically favor investing in renewable energy and new infrastructure that could combat climate change, and tend to be less averse to deficit spending. This article focuses exclusively on physical or hard infrastructure, as opposed to soft infrastructure, or public institutions.


Institutional racism

Institutional racism ( also known as institutionalized racism ) is a form of racism expressed in the practice of social and political institutions . Institutional racism is also racism by individuals or informal social groups , governed by behavioral norms that support racist thinking and foment active racism . It is reflected in disparities regarding wealth , income , criminal justice , employment , housing , health care , political power and education , among other things . Whether implicitly or explicitly expressed , institutional racism occurs when a certain group is targeted and discriminated against based upon race . Institutional racism is mostly implicit so goes unnoticed frequently , this is why it is overlooked .   Institutional racism was explained in 1967 by Kwame Ture ( formerly Stokely Carmichael ) and Charles V. Hamilton in Black Power : The Politics of Liberation , stating that while individual racism is often identifiable because of its overt nature , institutional racism is less perceptible because of its `` less overt , far more subtle '' nature . Institutional racism `` originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society , and thus receives far less public condemnation than -LSB- individual racism -RSB- . '' They go on to give examples :  `` When white terrorists bomb a black church and kill five black children , that is an act of individual racism , widely deplored by most segments of the society . But when in that same city -- Birmingham , Alabama -- five hundred black babies die each year because of the lack of power , food , shelter and medical facilities , and thousands more are destroyed and maimed physically , emotionally and intellectually because of conditions of poverty and discrimination in the black community , that is a function of institutional racism . When a black family moves into a home in a white neighborhood and is stoned , burned or routed out , they are victims of an overt act of individual racism which most people will condemn . But it is institutional racism that keeps black people locked in dilapidated slum tenements , subject to the daily prey of exploitative slumlords , merchants , loan sharks and discriminatory real estate agents . The society either pretends it does not know of this latter situation , or is in fact incapable of doing anything meaningful about it . ''   Institutional racism was defined by Sir William Macpherson in the 1999 Lawrence report ( UK ) as : `` The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour , culture , or ethnic origin . It can be seen or detected in processes , attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice , ignorance , thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people . ''


Instrumental temperature record

The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .


Intelligent design

Intelligent design ( ID ) is a religious argument for the existence of God . Presented by its proponents as `` an evidence-based scientific theory about life 's origins '' , it has been found to be pseudoscience . Proponents claim that `` certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause , not an undirected process such as natural selection . '' Educators , philosophers , and the scientific community have demonstrated that ID is a religious argument , a form of creationism which lacks empirical support and offers no testable or tenable hypotheses . Proponents argue that it challenges the methodological naturalism inherent in modern science , while conceding that they have yet to produce a scientific theory . The leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute , a politically conservative think tank based in the United States . Although they state that ID is not creationism and deliberately avoid assigning a personality to the designer , many of these proponents express belief that the designer is the Christian deity .   ID presents two main arguments against evolutionary explanations : irreducible complexity and specified complexity . These arguments offer assertions that certain features ( biological and informational , respectively ) are too complex to be the result of natural processes . As a positive argument against evolution , ID proposes an analogy between natural systems and human artifacts , a version of the theological argument from design for the existence of God . ID proponents then conclude by analogy that the complex features , as defined by ID , are evidence of design . Detailed scientific examination has rebutted the claims that evolutionary explanations are inadequate , and this premise of intelligent design -- that evidence against evolution constitutes evidence for design -- has been criticized as a false dichotomy .   Though the phrase `` intelligent design '' had featured previously in theological discussions of the design argument , the first publication of the term intelligent design in its present use as an alternative term for creationism was in Of Pandas and People , a 1989 textbook intended for high school biology classes . The term was substituted into drafts of the book after the 1987 United States Supreme Court 's Edwards v. Aguillard decision , which barred the teaching of creation science in public schools on constitutional grounds . From the mid-1990s , the intelligent design movement ( IDM ) , supported by the Discovery Institute , advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula . This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial in which U.S. District Judge John E. Jones III ruled that intelligent design is not science , that it `` can not uncouple itself from its creationist , and thus religious , antecedents , '' and that the school district 's promotion of it therefore violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , often described as the `` wall of separation between church and state '' .


Intensive animal farming

Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production , also known as factory farming by opponents of the practice , is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to animal husbandry , the keeping of livestock such as cattle , poultry , and fish at higher stocking densities than is usually the case with other forms of animal agriculture -- a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses . The main products of this industry are meat , milk and eggs for human consumption . There are issues regarding whether factory farming is sustainable and ethical .   Confinement at high stocking density is one part of a systematic effort to produce the highest output at the lowest cost by relying on economies of scale , modern machinery , biotechnology , and global trade . There are differences in the way factory farming techniques are practiced around the world . There is a continuing debate over the benefits , risks and ethical questions of factory farming . The issues include the efficiency of food production ; animal welfare ; whether it is essential for feeding the growing global population ; and the environmental impact ( e.g. pollution ) and health risks .


The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP .  The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . ''   The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources .   Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries .   The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .


International Energy Agency

The International Energy Agency ( IEA ) ( Agence internationale de l'énergie ) is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) in 1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis . The IEA was initially dedicated to responding to physical disruptions in the supply of oil , as well as serving as an information source on statistics about the international oil market and other energy sectors .   The IEA acts as a policy adviser to its member states , but also works with non-member countries , especially China , India , and Russia . The Agency 's mandate has broadened to focus on the `` 3Es '' of effectual energy policy : energy security , economic development , and environmental protection . The latter has focused on mitigating climate change . The IEA has a broad role in promoting alternate energy sources ( including renewable energy ) , rational energy policies , and multinational energy technology co-operation .   IEA member countries are required to maintain total oil stock levels equivalent to at least 90 days of the previous year 's net imports . At the end of July 2009 , IEA member countries held a combined stockpile of almost 4.3 billion barrels ( 680,000,000 m3 ) of oil .   On 1 September 2015 , Fatih Birol took office as the new Executive Director , succeeding in this position former Dutch Minister of Economic Affairs , Maria van der Hoeven .


International Space Station

The International Space Station ( ISS ) is a space station , or a habitable artificial satellite , in low Earth orbit . Its first component launched into orbit in 1998 , and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in low Earth orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth . The ISS consists of pressurised modules , external trusses , solar arrays , and other components . ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets , and American Space Shuttles .   The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology , human biology , physics , astronomy , meteorology , and other fields . The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars . The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft . It completes orbits per day .   The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews , following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut , Almaz , and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US . The station has been continuously occupied for since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000 . This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit , having surpassed the previous record of held by Mir . The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft : the Russian Soyuz and Progress , the American Dragon and Cygnus , the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle , and formerly the Space Shuttle and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle . It has been visited by astronauts , cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations .   After the US Space Shuttle programme ended in 2011 , Soyuz rockets became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the International Space Station , and Dragon became the only provider of bulk cargo return to Earth ( called downmass ) . Soyuz has very limited downmass capability .   The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies : NASA , Roscosmos , JAXA , ESA , and CSA . The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements . The station is divided into two sections , the Russian Orbital Segment ( ROS ) and the United States Orbital Segment ( USOS ) , which is shared by many nations . , the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024 . Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK .   On 28 March 2015 , Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS . NASA later issued a guarded statement expressing thanks for Russia 's interest in future co-operation in space exploration but fell short of confirming the Russian announcement .


International Standard Book Number

The International Standard Book Number ( ISBN ) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier .   An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation ( except reprintings ) of a book . For example , an e-book , a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN . The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007 , and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007 . The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country , often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country .   The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering ( SBN ) created in 1966 . The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 ( the SBN code can be converted to a ten digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero ) .   Occasionally , a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure ; however , this can be rectified later .   Another identifier , the International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN ) , identifies periodical publications such as magazines ; and the International Standard Music Number ( ISMN ) covers for musical scores .


Invasive species

An invasive species is a plant , fungus , or animal species that is not native to a specific location ( an introduced species ) , and which has a tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage to the environment , human economy or human health .   One study pointed out widely divergent perceptions of the criteria for invasive species among researchers ( p. 135 ) and concerns with the subjectivity of the term `` invasive '' ( p. 136 ) . Some of the alternate usages of the term are below :   The term as most often used applies to introduced species ( also called `` non-indigenous '' or `` non-native '' ) that adversely affect the habitats and bioregions they invade economically , environmentally , or ecologically . Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region , wilderness areas , particular habitats , or wildland -- urban interface land from loss of natural controls ( such as predators or herbivores ) . This includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities . It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as conservation groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and the California Native Plant Society . The European Union defines `` Invasive Alien Species '' as those that are , firstly , outside their natural distribution area , and secondly , threaten biological diversity . It is also used by land managers , botanists , researchers , horticulturalists , conservationists , and the public for noxious weeds . The kudzu vine ( Pueraria lobata ) , Andean Pampas grass ( Cortaderia jubata ) , and yellow starthistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) are examples .  An alternate usage broadens the term to include indigenous or `` native '' species along with non-native species , that have colonized natural areas ( p. 136 ) . Deer are an example , considered to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens , by some in the Northeastern and Pacific Coast regions of the United States .  Sometimes the term is used to describe a non-native or introduced species that has become widespread ( p. 136 ) . However , not every introduced species has adverse effects on the environment . A nonadverse example is the common goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) , which is found throughout the United States , but rarely achieves high densities ( p. 136 ) .


Ionosphere

The ionosphere ( -LSB- aɪˈɒnəˌsfɪər -RSB- ) is a region of Earth 's upper atmosphere , from about 60 km to 1000 km altitude , and includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere . It is ionized by solar radiation , plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere . It has practical importance because , among other functions , it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth .


Iris hypothesis

The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback .   Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''


Isis

Isis ( -LSB- ˈaɪsɪs -RSB- Ἶσις -LSB- îː.sis -RSB- ; original Egyptian pronunciation more likely `` Aset '' or `` Iset '' ) is a goddess from the polytheistic pantheon of Egypt . She was first worshiped in ancient Egyptian religion , and later her worship spread throughout the Roman Empire and the greater Greco-Roman world . Isis is still widely worshiped by many pagans today in diverse religious contexts ; including a number of distinct pagan religions , the modern Goddess movement , and interfaith organizations such as the Fellowship of Isis .   Isis was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the patroness of nature and magic . She was the friend of slaves , sinners , artisans and the downtrodden , but she also listened to the prayers of the wealthy , maidens , aristocrats and rulers . Isis is often depicted as the mother of Horus , the falcon-headed deity associated with king and kingship ( although in some traditions Horus 's mother was Hathor ) . Isis is also known as protector of the dead and goddess of children .   The name Isis means `` Throne '' . Her headdress is a throne . As the personification of the throne , she was an important representation of the pharaoh 's power . The pharaoh was depicted as her child , who sat on the throne she provided . Her cult was popular throughout Egypt , but her most important temples were at Behbeit El Hagar in the Nile delta , and , beginning in the reign with Nectanebo I ( 380 -- 362 BCE ) , on the island of Philae in Upper Egypt .   In the typical form of her myth , Isis was the first daughter of Geb , god of the Earth , and Nut , goddess of the Sky , and she was born on the fourth intercalary day . She married her brother , Osiris , and she conceived Horus with him . Isis was instrumental in the resurrection of Osiris when he was murdered by Set . Using her magical skills , she restored his body to life after having gathered the body parts that had been strewn about the earth by Set .   This myth became very important during the Greco-Roman period . For example , it was believed that the Nile River flooded every year because of the tears of sorrow which Isis wept for Osiris . Osiris 's death and rebirth was relived each year through rituals . The worship of Isis eventually spread throughout the Greco-Roman world , continuing until the suppression of paganism in the Christian era . The popular motif of Isis suckling her son Horus , however , lived on in a Christianized context as the popular image of Mary suckling her infant son Jesus from the fifth century onward .


Islamic terrorism

Islamic terrorism or radical Islamic terrorism , is defined as any terrorist act , set of acts or campaign committed by groups or individuals who profess Islamic or Islamist motivations or goals . Islamic terrorists justify their violent tactics through the interpretation of Quran and Hadith according to their own goals and intentions .   The highest numbers of incidents and fatalities caused by Islamic terrorism occur in Iraq , Afghanistan , Nigeria , Pakistan and Syria . In 2015 four Islamic extremist groups were responsible for 74 % of all deaths from terrorism : ISIS , Boko Haram , the Taliban and Al-Qaeda , according to the Global Terrorism Index 2016 . In recent decades , such incidents have occurred on a global scale , affecting not only Muslim-majority states in Africa and Asia , but also Europe , Russia , Australia , Canada , India and the United States . Such attacks have targeted Muslims and non-Muslims . In a number of the worst-affected Muslim-majority regions , these terrorists have been met by armed , independent resistance groups , state actors and their proxies , and elsewhere by condemnation coming from prominent Islamic figures .   The literal use of the phrase `` Islamic terrorism '' is disputed . Such use in Western political speech has variously been called `` counter-productive , '' `` highly politicized , intellectually contestable '' and `` damaging to community relations . ''  However , others have referred to the refusal to use the term as an act of `` self-deception '' , `` full-blown censorship '' and `` intellectual dishonesty '' .


Istanbul

Istanbul ( -LSB- ˌɪstænˈbʊl -RSB- , -LSB- - ˈbuːl -RSB- or -LSB- - stɑːn - -RSB- İstanbul -LSB- isˈtɑnbuɫ -RSB- ) , historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium , is the most populous city in Turkey and the country 's economic , cultural , and historic center . Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia , straddling the Bosphorus strait ( which separates Europe and Asia ) between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea . Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side .  The city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality ( conterminous with Istanbul Province ) , both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents . Istanbul is one of the world 's most populous cities and ranks as the world 's 7th-largest city proper and the largest European city .   Founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE , the city developed to become one of the most significant in history . After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE , it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries , during the Roman and Byzantine ( 330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453 ) , the Latin ( 1204 -- 1261 ) , and the Ottoman ( 1453 -- 1922 ) empires . It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times , before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate .   Istanbul 's strategic position on the historic Silk Road , rail networks to Europe and the Middle East , and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean have produced a cosmopolitan populace , although less so since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923 . Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the interwar period , the city has since regained much of its prominence . The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s , as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them . Arts , music , film , and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today . Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network .   Approximately foreign visitors arrived in Istanbul in 2015 , five years after it was named a European Capital of Culture , making the city the world 's fifth most popular tourist destination . The city 's biggest attraction is its historic center , partially listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and its cultural and entertainment hub can be found across the city 's natural harbor , the Golden Horn , in the Beyoğlu district . Considered a global city , Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world . It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country 's gross domestic product . Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion , Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years .


JAXA

The , or JAXA , is Japan 's national aero-space agency . Through the merger of three previously independent organizations , JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003 . JAXA is responsible for research , technology development and the launch of satellites into orbit , and is involved in many more advanced missions , such as asteroid exploration and possible manned exploration of the Moon . Its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize ( formerly Reaching for the skies , exploring space ) .


Jacksonville, Florida

Jacksonville is a major seaport city and the seat of Duval County , Florida , United States . With an estimated 913,010 residents as of 2017 , Jacksonville is the most populous city in both the state of Florida and the southeastern United States . It is estimated to be the 12th most populous city in the United States and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States . The Jacksonville metropolitan area has a population of 1,626,611 and is the 34th largest in the United States and fourth largest in the state of Florida . The city is situated on the banks of the St. Johns River , in the First Coast region of North Florida , about 25 mi south of the Georgia state line and 340 mi north of Miami .   Prior to European settlement , the Jacksonville area was inhabited by Native American people known as the Timucua . In 1564 , the French established the short-lived colony of Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River , becoming one of the earliest European settlements in the continental United States . In 1822 , a year after the United States gained Florida from Spain , the town of Jacksonville was platted along the St. Johns River . Established at a narrow point in the river known as Wacca Pilatka to the Seminole and the Cow Ford to the British , the enduring name derives from the first military governor of the Florida Territory and seventh President of the United States , Andrew Jackson .   Jacksonville is the cultural , commercial and financial center of North Florida . A major military and civilian deepwater port , the city 's riverine location supports two United States Navy bases and the Port of Jacksonville , Florida 's third largest seaport . The two US Navy bases , Blount Island Command and the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay , form the third largest military presence in the United States . Jacksonville serves as headquarters for various banking , insurance , healthcare , logistics , and other institutions . These include CSX Corporation , Fidelity National Financial , FIS , Landstar System , Ameris Bancorp , Atlantic Coast Financial , Black Knight Financial Services , EverBank , Rayonier Advanced Materials , Regency Centers , Stein Mart , Web.com , Fanatics , Gate Petroleum , Haskell Company , Interline Brands , Sally Corporation , and Southeastern Grocers . Jacksonville is also home to several colleges and universities , including University of North Florida , Jacksonville University and Florida State College at Jacksonville .


James Delingpole

James Mark Court Delingpole ( born 6 August 1965 ) is an English columnist and novelist who has written for a number of publications , including the Daily Mail , Daily Express , The Times , The Daily Telegraph , and The Spectator . He is executive editor for the London branch of the Breitbart News Network . He has published several novels and four political books . He describes himself as a libertarian conservative , and has been described as a `` prominent voice of the right '' . He has published articles expressing his belief in the non-existence of significant anthropogenic global warming and his opposition to wind power .


James Hansen

James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''


James Lovelock

James Ephraim Lovelock ( born 26 July 1919 ) is an independent scientist , environmentalist and futurist who lives in Devon , England . He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis , which postulates that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system .


January

January is the  first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the first month to have the length of 31 days . The first day of the month is known as New Year 's Day . It is , on average , the coldest month of the year within most of the Northern Hemisphere ( where it is the second month of winter ) and the warmest month of the year within most of the Southern Hemisphere ( where it is the second month of summer ) . In the Southern hemisphere , January is the seasonal equivalent of July in the Northern hemisphere and vice versa .   Ancient Roman observances during this month include Cervula , and Juvenalia ; celebrated January 1 , as well as one of three Agonalia , celebrated January 9 , and Carmentalia , celebrated January 11 . These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar .


Jason-1

Jason-1 is a satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation , study the ties between the ocean and the atmosphere , improve global climate forecasts and predictions , and monitor events such as El Niño and ocean eddies .


Jet stream

Jet streams are fast flowing , narrow , meandering air currents found in the atmosphere of some planets , including Earth . On Earth , the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds ( flowing west to east ) . Their paths typically have a meandering shape . Jet streams may start , stop , split into two or more parts , combine into one stream , or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet . The strongest jet streams are the polar jets , at 9 - above sea level , and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10 - . The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet . The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America , Europe , and Asia and their intervening oceans , while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round .   Jet streams are the product of two factors : the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large scale Polar , Ferrel , and Hadley circulation cells , and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses . The Coriolis force is caused by the planet 's rotation on its axis . On other planets , internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet streams . The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells ; while the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells .   Other jet streams also exist . During the Northern Hemisphere summer , easterly jets can form in tropical regions , typically where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes . Low-level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States .   Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting . The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel , as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against , which results in significant fuel and time cost savings for airlines . Often , the airlines work to fly ` with ' the jet stream for this reason . Dynamic North Atlantic Tracks are one example of how airlines and air traffic control work together to accommodate the jet steam and winds aloft that results in the maximum benefit for airlines and other users . Clear-air turbulence , a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety , is often found in a jet stream 's vicinity , but it does not create a substantial alteration on flight times .


Jill Stein

Jill Ellen Stein ( born May 14 , 1950 ) is an American physician , activist , and politician . She was the Green Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 and 2016 elections . She was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 2002 and 2010 .


Jim Inhofe

James Mountain Inhofe ( -LSB- ˈɪnhɒf -RSB- born November 17 , 1934 ) is the senior United States senator from Oklahoma and a member of the Republican Party . First elected to the Senate in 1994 , he was the ranking member of the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works ( EPW ) and was its chairman from 2003 to 2007 , and again from January 2015 until January 2017 . Inhofe served eight years as the United States representative for before his election to the Senate in 1994 and also previously served as both an Oklahoma state representative and senator .


Joe Barton

Joe Linus Barton ( born September 15 , 1949 ) is a Republican politician , representing ( map ) in the U.S. House of Representatives since 1985 , and a member of the Tea Party Caucus . The district includes Arlington , part of Fort Worth , and several small towns and rural areas south of the Dallas -- Fort Worth Metroplex . Following the 2014 primary defeat of Ralph Hall , Barton became the dean of the Texas congressional delegation . Barton came to national prominence when he instructed a citizen at a town hall meeting to `` shut up '' .   In terms of his positions , Barton is skeptical that manmade carbon emissions have contributed to global warming , is a proponent of the use of fossil fuels , voted in favor of the May 4th 2017 GOP plan to replace Obamacare , supports Trump 's ban on immigration from Muslim-majority nations , and supports the death penalty for persons caught spying .


Joe Biden

Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. ( -LSB- ˈdʒoʊsᵻf_rɒbᵻˈnɛt_ˈbaɪdən -RSB- born November 20 , 1942 ) is an American politician who was the 47th Vice President of the United States from 2009 to 2017 , having been jointly elected twice with President Barack Obama . A member of the Democratic Party , he represented Delaware as a United States Senator from 1973 until becoming Vice President in 2009 .   Biden was born in Scranton , Pennsylvania , in 1942 , and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware . He became an attorney in 1969 , and was elected to the New Castle County council in 1970 . He was first elected to the Senate in 1972 , and became the sixth-youngest senator in U.S. history . He was re-elected to the Senate six times , and was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation to assume the Vice Presidency in 2009 . He was a long-time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee . He opposed the Gulf War in 1991 , but advocated U.S. and NATO intervention in the Bosnian War in 1994 and 1995 . He voted in favor of the resolution authorizing the Iraq War in 2002 , but opposed the surge of U.S. troops in 2007 . He has also served as chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee , dealing with issues related to drug policy , crime prevention , and civil liberties , and led the legislative efforts for creation of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act , and the Violence Against Women Act . He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U.S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas .   Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and in 2008 , both times dropping out after lackluster showings . In the 2008 U.S. presidential election , Barack Obama chose Biden to be his running mate in the race , which they won . He became the first Roman Catholic , and the first Delawarean , to be Vice President of the United States .   As Vice President in the Obama administration , Biden oversaw the infrastructure spending aimed at counteracting the Great Recession , and U.S. policy toward Iraq up until the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2011 . His ability to negotiate with congressional Republicans helped bring about legislation such as the Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 that resolved a taxation deadlock , the Budget Control Act of 2011 that resolved that year 's debt ceiling crisis , and the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 that addressed the impending `` fiscal cliff '' . In 2011 , he opposed going ahead with the military mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden . Obama and Biden were re-elected in 2012 . In October 2015 , after months of speculation , Biden chose not to run for President of the United States in 2016 . In December 2016 , he refused to rule out a potential bid for President in 2020 , but announced on January 13 , 2017 , that he would not run , only to seemingly backtrack just four days later , again refusing to rule out a potential bid . On January 12 , 2017 , Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom , with distinction . After leaving office , Biden was named the Benjamin Franklin Presidential Practice professor at the University of Pennsylvania .


Joe Lieberman

Joseph Isadore Lieberman ( born February 24 , 1942 ) is an American politician , having served as a United States Senator from Connecticut from 1989 to 2013 . A former member of the Democratic Party , he was the party 's nominee for Vice President in the 2000 election . Currently he is an Independent .   Born in Stamford , Connecticut , Lieberman is a graduate of Yale University and Yale Law School . He was elected as a `` Reform Democrat '' in 1970 to the Connecticut Senate , where he served three terms as Majority Leader . After an unsuccessful bid for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1980 , he served as state Attorney General from 1983 to 1989 . Lieberman defeated moderate Republican Lowell Weicker in 1988 to win election to the U.S. Senate , and was re-elected in 1994 and 2000 . Lieberman was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in the 2000 United States presidential election , running with presidential nominee Al Gore , and becoming the first Jewish candidate on a major American political party presidential ticket .   In the 2000 presidential election , Gore and Lieberman won the popular vote by a margin of more than 500,000 votes , but lost the deciding Electoral College to the Republican George W. Bush / Dick Cheney ticket 271 -- 266 . Lieberman also unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination in the 2004 presidential election .   During his re-election bid in 2006 , he lost the Democratic Party primary election , but won re-election in the general election as a third party candidate under the `` Connecticut for Lieberman '' party label . Lieberman himself was never a member of that party , but instead remained a registered Democrat while he ran .   Lieberman was officially listed in Senate records for the 110th and 111th Congresses as an `` Independent Democrat '' , and sat as part of the Senate Democratic Caucus . But after his speech at the 2008 Republican National Convention in which he endorsed John McCain for President , Lieberman no longer attended Democratic Caucus leadership strategy meetings or policy lunches . On November 5 , 2008 , Lieberman met with Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid to discuss his future role with the Democratic Party . Ultimately , the Senate Democratic Caucus voted to allow Lieberman to keep chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs . Subsequently , Lieberman announced that he would continue to caucus with the Democrats . Before the 2016 election , he endorsed Hillary Clinton for President .   As Senator , he introduced and championed the Do n't Ask , Do n't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 and legislation that led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security . During debate on the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , as the crucial 60th vote needed to pass the legislation , Lieberman 's opposition to the public option was critical for its removal from the resulting bill . Lieberman announced in January 2011 that he would retire from the Senate at the end of his term , and he did so in January 2013 .


John Christy

John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .


John Coleman (meteorologist)

John Stewart Coleman (October 15, 1934 – January 20, 2018) was an American television weatherman.  Along with Frank Batten, he co-founded The Weather Channel and briefly served as its Chief Executive Officer and President. He retired from broadcasting in 2014 after nearly 61 years, having worked the last 20 years at KUSI-TV in San Diego.


John D. Hamaker

John D. Hamaker ( 1914 -- 1994 ) , was an American mechanical engineer , ecologist , agronomist and science writer in the fields of soil regeneration , rock dusting , mineral cycles , climate cycles and glaciology .


John Kasich

John Richard Kasich ( -LSB- ˈkeɪsᵻk -RSB- ; born May 13 , 1952 ) is an American politician and former television host . He is the 69th and current Governor of Ohio . First elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014 , Kasich is a member of the Republican Party . His second term is set to end on January 14 , 2019 , due to term limits .   A native of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Kasich has lived much of his adulthood in Ohio , specifically the state capital of Columbus . Kasich served nine terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives , representing from 1983 to 2001 . His tenure in the House included 18 years on the House Armed Services Committee and six years as chairman of the House Budget Committee . He was a key figure in the passage of both 1996 welfare reform legislation and the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 .   Kasich worked for Fox News , hosting Heartland with John Kasich from 2001 to 2007 and was a fill-in host for The O'Reilly Factor . He also worked as an investment banker , serving as managing director of the Lehman Brothers office in Columbus , Ohio .   In the 2010 Ohio gubernatorial election , Kasich defeated Democratic incumbent Ted Strickland . He was re-elected in 2014 , defeating Democrat Ed FitzGerald by 30 percentage points .   Kasich unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for president in 2000 and in 2016 . In 2016 , Kasich refused to support the Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump ; instead he voted for U.S. Senator and former 2008 Republican presidential nominee John McCain .


John Kerry

John Forbes Kerry ( born December 11 , 1943 ) is an American politician who served as the 68th United States Secretary of State from 2013 to 2017 . A Democrat , he previously served Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1985 to 2013 . He was the Democratic nominee in the 2004 presidential election , losing to Republican incumbent George W. Bush .   Kerry was born in Aurora , Colorado and attended boarding school in Massachusetts and New Hampshire . He graduated from Yale University in 1966 with a major in political science . Kerry enlisted in the Naval Reserve in 1966 , and between 1968 and 1969 , he served an abbreviated four-month tour of duty in South Vietnam as officer-in-charge ( OIC ) of a Swift Boat . For that service , he was awarded combat medals that include the Silver Star Medal , Bronze Star Medal , and three Purple Heart Medals . Securing an early return to the United States , Kerry joined the Vietnam Veterans Against the War organization in which he served as a nationally recognized spokesman and as an outspoken opponent of the Vietnam War . He appeared in the Fulbright Hearings before the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs where he deemed United States war policy in Vietnam to be the cause of war crimes .   After receiving a J.D. from Boston College Law School , Kerry worked as an Assistant District Attorney in Massachusetts . He served as Lieutenant Governor under Michael Dukakis from 1983 to 1985 and was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1984 and was sworn in the following January . On the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , he led a series of hearings from 1987 to 1989 which were a precursor to the Iran -- Contra affair . Kerry was re-elected to additional terms in 1990 , 1996 , 2002 , and 2008 . On October 11 , 2002 , Kerry voted to authorize the President `` to use force , if necessary , to disarm Saddam Hussein , '' but warned that the administration should exhaust its diplomatic avenues before launching war .107 th Congress-2nd Session 237th Roll Call Vote by members of the Senate , October 11 , 2002 . Retrieved 9 January 2017 .   In his 2004 presidential campaign , Kerry criticized George W. Bush for the Iraq War . He and his running mate , North Carolina Senator John Edwards , lost the election , finishing 35 electoral votes behind Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney . Kerry returned to the Senate , becoming Chairman of the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship in 2007 and then of the Foreign Relations Committee in 2009 . In January 2013 , Kerry was nominated by President Barack Obama to succeed outgoing Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and then confirmed by the U.S. Senate , assuming the office on February 1 , 2013 .


John McCain

John Sidney McCain III ( born August 29 , 1936 ) is an American politician who currently serves as the senior United States Senator from Arizona . He was the Republican nominee for the 2008 U.S. presidential election .   McCain followed his father and grandfather , both four-star admirals , into the United States Navy , graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1958 . He became a naval aviator , flying ground-attack aircraft from aircraft carriers . During the Vietnam War , he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire . In October 1967 , while on a bombing mission over Hanoi , he was shot down , seriously injured , and captured by the North Vietnamese . He was a prisoner of war until 1973 . McCain experienced episodes of torture , and refused an out-of-sequence early repatriation offer . His war wounds have left him with lifelong physical limitations .   He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona , where he entered politics . Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1982 , McCain served two terms . He was first elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986 , winning re-election easily five times , most recently in 2016 . While generally adhering to conservative principles , McCain at times has had a media reputation as a `` maverick '' for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues . After being investigated and largely exonerated in a political influence scandal of the 1980s as a member of the Keating Five , he made campaign finance reform one of his signature concerns , eventually gaining passage of the McCain -- Feingold Act in 2002 . He is also known for his work in the 1990s to restore diplomatic relations with Vietnam , and for his belief that the Iraq War should have been fought to a successful conclusion . McCain has chaired the Senate Commerce Committee , opposed spending that he considered to be pork barrel , and played a key role in alleviating a crisis over judicial nominations with the bi-partisan group known as the Gang of 14 .   McCain ran for the Republican nomination in 2000 but lost a heated primary season contest to George W. Bush of Texas . He secured the nomination in 2008 after coming back from early reversals , but was defeated by Democratic candidate Barack Obama in the general election , losing by a 365 -- 173 electoral college margin and by 53 -- 46 % in the popular vote . He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration , especially in regard to foreign policy matters . By 2013 , however , he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment . In 2015 , McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee .


Joseph Stiglitz

Joseph Eugene Stiglitz ( born February 9 , 1943 ) is an American economist and a professor at Columbia University . He is a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ( 2001 ) and the John Bates Clark Medal ( 1979 ) . He is a former senior vice president and chief economist of the World Bank and is a former member and chairman of the ( US president 's ) Council of Economic Advisers . He is known for his support of Georgist public finance theory and for his critical view of the management of globalization , of laissez-faire economists ( whom he calls `` free market fundamentalists '' ) , and of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank .   In 2000 , Stiglitz founded the Initiative for Policy Dialogue ( IPD ) , a think tank on international development based at Columbia University . He has been a member of the Columbia faculty since 2001 , and received that university 's highest academic rank ( university professor ) in 2003 . He was the founding chair of the university 's Committee on Global Thought . He also chairs the University of Manchester 's Brooks World Poverty Institute . He is a member of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences . In 2009 , the President of the United Nations General Assembly Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann , appointed Stiglitz as the chairman of the U.N. Commission on Reforms of the International Monetary and Financial System , where he oversaw suggested proposals and commissioned a report on reforming the international monetary and financial system . He served as chair of the international Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress , appointed by President Sarkozy of France , which issued its report in 2010 , Mismeasuring our Lives : Why GDP does n't add up , and currently serves as co-chair of its successor , the High Level Expert Group on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress . From 2011 to 2014 , Stiglitz was president of the International Economic Association ( IEA ) . He presided over the organization of the IEA triennial world congress held near the Dead Sea in Jordan in June 2014 .   Stiglitz has received more than 40 honorary degrees , including from Harvard , Oxford , and Cambridge Universities and been decorated by several governments including Korea , Colombia , Ecuador , and most recently France , where he was appointed a member of the Legion of Honor , order Officer .   Based on academic citations , Stiglitz is the 4th most influential economist in the world today , and in 2011 he was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . Stiglitz 's work focuses on income distribution from a Georgist perspective , asset risk management , corporate governance , and international trade . He is the author of several books , the latest being The Great Divide : Unequal Societies and What We Can Do About Them ( 2015 ) , Rewriting the Rules of the American Economy : An Agenda for Growth and Shared Prosperity ( 2015 ) , and Creating a Learning Society : A New Approach to Growth Development and Social Progress ( 2014 ) .


Julia Gillard

Julia Eileen Gillard , ( born 29 September 1961 ) is a former Australian politician who was the 27th Prime Minister of Australia from 2010 to 2013 , as leader of the Australian Labor Party . She was previously the 13th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia , and held the cabinet positions of Minister for Education , Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations and Minister for Social Inclusion from 2007 to 2010 . She was the first and to date only woman to hold the positions of deputy prime minister , prime minister and leader of a major party in Australia .   Born in Barry , Wales , in the United Kingdom , Gillard migrated with her family to Adelaide , South Australia , in 1966 . She attended Mitcham Demonstration School and Unley High School . Subsequently , Gillard studied at the University of Adelaide , but cut short her courses to move to Melbourne , Victoria , in 1982 , where she worked with the Australian Union of Students and was the organisation 's president from 1983 to 1984 . Gillard later graduated from the University of Melbourne , with a Bachelor of Laws degree ( 1986 ) and a Bachelor of Arts degree ( 1989 ) . In 1987 , she joined the law firm Slater & Gordon and became a partner in 1990 , specialising in industrial law . A departure from the law firm in 1996 saw Gillard serve as chief of staff to the Leader of the Opposition in Victoria John Brumby , which preceded her own entry into federal politics .   Gillard was first elected to the Australian House of Representatives at the 1998 federal election for the seat of Lalor . Following the 2001 federal election , she was elected to the Shadow Cabinet and was given the portfolio of Population and Immigration . In 2003 , she took on the responsibility for both Reconciliation and Indigenous Affairs and Health . In December 2006 , when Kevin Rudd was elected as Labor Leader and became Leader of the Opposition , Gillard was elected unopposed as his deputy . Upon Labor 's victory in the 2007 federal election , Gillard became the first female Deputy Prime Minister of Australia , and held the cabinet portfolios of Minister for Education , Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations and Minister for Social Inclusion . On , after Rudd lost the support of his party and resigned , Gillard was elected unopposed as the Leader of the Labor Party , thus becoming the 27th Prime Minister of Australia . The subsequent 2010 federal election saw the first hung parliament since the 1940 federal election . Gillard was able to form a minority government with the support of a Green MP and three independent MPs . On 26 June 2013 , after a leadership spill , Gillard lost the leadership of the Labor Party to Rudd . Her resignation as Prime Minister took effect the following day . Gillard retired from politics on 5 August 2013 , before the impending federal election .   Following her departure from politics , in August 2013 Gillard became an honorary visiting professor at the University of Adelaide , and a nonresident senior fellow at the Brookings Institution 's Center for Universal Education in October . Gillard released her political memoirs , My Story , in September 2014 . She has been on the board of the mental health organisation beyondblue since December 2014 , and was made an honorary fellow of Aberystwyth University in June 2015 . In addition to her various appointments , Gillard has served as the chairwoman of the Global Partnership for Education since February 2014 .


Julian Assange

Julian Paul Assange ( -LSB- əˈsɒnʒ -RSB- born Julian Paul Hawkins , 3 July 1971 ) is an Australian computer programmer and the founder of WikiLeaks , an organisation which he founded in 2006 . He has won accolades including the Sam Adams Award and Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism .   Assange founded WikiLeaks in 2006 , but came to global prominence in 2010 , when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks provided by Chelsea Manning . These leaks included the Collateral Murder video ( April 2010 ) , the Afghanistan war logs ( July 2010 ) , the Iraq war logs ( October 2010 ) , and CableGate ( November 2010 ) . Following the 2010 leaks , the United States government launched a criminal investigation into WikiLeaks and asked allied nations for assistance .   In November 2010 , a request was made for Assange 's extradition to Sweden , where he had been questioned months earlier over allegations of sexual assault and rape . Assange continued to deny the allegations , and expressed concern that he would be extradited from Sweden to the United States because of his perceived role in publishing secret American documents . Assange surrendered himself to UK police on 7 December 2010 , and was held for ten days in solitary confinement before being released on bail . He sought and was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012 . He has since remained in the Embassy of Ecuador in London , and is unable to leave without being arrested for breaching his bail conditions . On 19 May 2017 , the Swedish prosecutors dropped the investigation into rape accusations against Assange and applied to revoke his arrest warrant , although the Metropolitan Police have indicated that an arrest warrant is still in force for Assange 's failure to surrender himself to the British court .


July 1966

The following events occurred in July 1966 :


July Crisis

The July Crisis was a diplomatic crisis among the major powers of Europe in the summer of 1914 that led to World War I. Immediately after Gavrilo Princip , a Slavic nationalist , assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne , in Sarajevo , a series of diplomatic maneuverings led to an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary to the Kingdom of Serbia , and eventually to war .   The assassination had been carried out by those wishing to unite all of the territories with majority South Slavic population not already ruled by the Kingdom of Serbia or Kingdom of Montenegro . Austria-Hungary 's post-assassination ultimatum was part of a coercive program meant to weaken the Kingdom of Serbia 's threat to take control of the northern Balkans and its significant Southern Slavic population , especially the Bosnian Serbs . This was intended to be achieved either through diplomacy or by a localized war if the ultimatum were rejected . Austria-Hungary preferred war , though István Tisza , the prime minister of the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary , hoped that the ultimatum would be reasonable enough that it would not be rejected outright . A month after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand , Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28 , 1914 . This local conflict ultimately expanded into World War I as more powers became involved .


Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants ; the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune are ice giants . Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus .   Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium , though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules . It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements , but like the other giant planets , Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface . Because of its rapid rotation , the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid ( it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator ) . The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes , resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries . A prominent result is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope . Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere . Jupiter has at least 67 moons , including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Ganymede , the largest of these , has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury .   Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft , most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter . In late February 2007 , Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe , which used Jupiter 's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto . The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno , which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4 , 2016 . Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa .


Jupiter trojan

The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each Trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi-major axis of about 5.2 AU .   The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6,178 Jupiter trojans have been found . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name `` Trojan '' . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main-belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families .   Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0.8 to 2.5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets .   The term `` trojan '' has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term `` Trojan asteroid '' is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans .


Jurassic

The Jurassic ( -LSB- prondʒuːˈræsɪk -RSB- from Jura Mountains ) is a geologic period and system that spans 56.3 million years from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period Mya . The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era , also known as the Age of Reptiles . The start of the period is marked by the major Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event . Two other extinction events occurred during the period : the Pliensbachian/Toarcian event in the Early Jurassic , and the Tithonian event at the end ; however , neither event ranks among the `` Big Five '' mass extinctions .   The Jurassic is named after the Jura Mountains within the European Alps , where limestone strata from the period were first identified .  By the beginning of the Jurassic , the supercontinent Pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses , Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south . This created more coastlines and shifted the continental climate from dry to humid , and many of the arid deserts of the Triassic were replaced by lush rainforests .   On land , the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna , dominated by both dinosauromorph and crocodylomorph archosaurs , to one dominated by dinosaurs alone . The first birds also appeared during the Jurassic , having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs . Other major events include the appearance of the earliest lizards , and the evolution of therian mammals , including primitive placentals . Crocodilians made the transition from a terrestrial to an aquatic mode of life . The oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs , while pterosaurs were the dominant flying vertebrates .


Kalahari Desert

The Kalahari Desert is a large semi-arid sandy savannah in Southern Africa extending 900000 km2 , covering much of Botswana , parts of Namibia , and regions of South Africa .


Kansas City, Missouri

Kansas City is the largest city in Missouri and the sixth largest city in the Midwest . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city had an estimated population of 481,420 in 2016 , making it the 37th largest city by population in the United States . It is the anchor city of the Kansas City metropolitan area , which straddles the Kansas -- Missouri border . Kansas City was founded in the 1830s as a Missouri River port at its confluence with the Kansas River coming in from the west . On June 1 , 1850 the town of Kansas was incorporated ; shortly after came the establishment of the Kansas Territory . Confusion between the two ensued and the name Kansas City was assigned to distinguish them soon thereafter .   Sitting on Missouri 's western border , with Downtown near the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers , the modern city encompasses some 319.03 sqmi , making it the 23rd largest city by total area in the United States . Most of the city lies within Jackson County , but portions spill into Clay , Cass , and Platte counties . Along with Independence , it serves as one of the two county seats for Jackson County . Major suburbs include the Missouri cities of Independence and Lee 's Summit and the Kansas cities of Overland Park , Olathe , and Kansas City .   The city is composed of several neighborhoods , including the River Market District in the north , the 18th and Vine District in the east , and the Country Club Plaza in the south . Kansas City is also known for its cuisine ( including its distinctive style of barbecue ) , its craft breweries and its major league sports teams .


Karachi

Karachi ( -LSB- ; ڪراچي ALA-LC : , -LSB- kəˈrɑːˌtʃi -RSB- ) - the capital of the province of Sindh - is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan , as well as the 10th largest in the world and the world 's second most populous city proper . Ranked as a beta world city , the city is Pakistan 's premier industrial and financial centre . Karachi is also Pakistan 's most cosmopolitan city . Located on the shores of the Arabian Sea , Karachi is a major transportation hub , home to two of Pakistan 's largest seaports , the Port of Karachi and Port Bin Qasim , as well as the busiest airport in Pakistan .   Though the surroundings of Karachi have been inhabited for millennia , the city itself was founded as a village named Kolachi which was established as a fortified settlement in 1729 . The settlement increased in importance drastically with the arrival of British colonialists , who not only embarked on major works to transform the city into a major seaport , but also connected it with their extensive railway network . By the time of the Partition of India , the city was the largest in Sindh with an estimated population of 400,000 . Immediately following the independence of Pakistan , the city 's population increased dramatically with the arrival of thousands of Muslim immigrants from India , with Karachi remaining the primary destination of Indian Muslim migrants throughout the 1950s and 1960s . The city experienced rapid economic growth following independence , attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan and South Asia .   Karachi is one of Pakistan 's most secular and socially liberal cities . It is also the most linguistically , ethnically , and religiously diverse city in Pakistan . With an estimated population of between 15 and 23.5 million people in its greater metropolitan region , Karachi is considered to be the largest city in the Muslim world , and is the world 's 7th most populous urban agglomeration . Karachi is one of the world 's fastest growing cities , and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan . Karachi is home to over 2 million Bangladeshi immigrants , 1 million Afghan refugees , and 400,000 Rohingyas from Myanmar .   Karachi is now Pakistan 's premier industrial and financial centre . The city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $ 113 billion . Karachi collects over a third of Pakistan 's tax revenue , and generates approximately 20 % of Pakistan 's GDP . Approximately 30 % of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi , while Karachi 's ports handle approximately 95 % of Pakistan 's foreign trade . Approximately 90 % of the multinational corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi . Up to 70 % of Karachi 's workforce is employed in the informal economy , which is typically not included in GDP calculations .   Known as the `` City of Lights '' in the 1960s and 1970s for its vibrant nightlife , Karachi was beset by sharp ethnic , sectarian , and political conflict in the 1980s with the arrival of weaponry during the Soviet-Afghan war . The city had become well known for its high rates of violent crime , but recorded crimes sharply decreased following a controversial crackdown operation against criminals , the MQM political party , and Islamist militants initiated in 2013 by the Pakistan Rangers . The city 's murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75 % compared to 2013 , and kidnappings decreased by 90 % , with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices .


Karoo Supergroup

The Karoo Supergroup is the most widespread stratigraphic unit in Africa south of the Sahara Desert . The supergroup consists of a sequence of units , mostly of nonmarine origin , deposited between the Late Carboniferous and Early Jurassic , a period of about 120 million years .   In southern Africa , rocks of the Karoo Supergroup cover almost two thirds of the present land surface , including all of Lesotho , almost the whole of Free State , and large parts of the Eastern Cape , Northern Cape , Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa . Karoo supergroup outcrops are also found in Namibia , Swaziland , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Malawi , as well as on other continents that were part of Gondwana . The basins in which it was deposited formed during the formation and breakup of Pangea . The type area of the Karoo Supergroup is the Great Karoo in South Africa , where the most extensive outcrops of the sequence are exposed . Its strata which consist mostly of shales and sandstones , record an almost continuous sequence of marine glacial to terrestrial deposition from the Late Carboniferous to the Early Jurassic . These accumulated in a retroarc foreland basin called the `` main Karoo '' Basin . This basin was formed by the subduction and orogenesis along the southern border of what eventually became Southern Africa , in southern Gondwana . Its sediments attain a maximum cumulative thickness of 12 km , with the overlying basaltic lavas ( the Drakensberg Group ) at least 1.4 km thick .   Fossils include plants ( both macro-fossils and pollen ) , rare insects and fish , common and diverse tetrapods ( mostly therapsid reptiles , temnospondyl amphibians , and in the upper strata dinosaurs ) , and ichnofossils . Their biostratigraphy has been used as the international standard for global correlation of Permian to Jurassic nonmarine strata .


Keeling Curve

The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .   Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards .   Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .


Kevin E. Trenberth

Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation .   Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .


Kidney

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs found on the left and right sides of the body in vertebrates . They filter the blood in order to make urine , to release and retain water , and to remove waste and nitrogen ( the excretory system ) . They also control the ion concentrations and acid-base balance of the blood . Each kidney feeds urine into the bladder by means of a tube known as the ureter . In humans , they are roughly 11 cm in length .   The kidneys regulate the balance of ions known as electrolytes in the blood , along with maintaining acid base homeostasis . They also move waste products out of the blood and into the urine , such as nitrogen-containing urea and ammonium . Kidneys also regulate fluid balance and blood pressure . They are also responsible for the reabsorption of water , glucose , and amino acids . The kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol and erythropoietin . The kidneys also make an important enzyme , renin , which affects blood pressure through negative feedback .   Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space , the kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries , and drain into the paired renal veins .   Renal physiology is the study of kidney function , while nephrology is the medical specialty concerned with kidney diseases . Diseases of the kidney are diverse , but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features . Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the nephritic and nephrotic syndromes , renal cysts , acute kidney injury , chronic kidney disease , urinary tract infection , kidney stones , and urinary tract obstruction . Various cancers of the kidney exist . The most common adult renal cancer is renal cell carcinoma . Cancers , cysts , and some other renal conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney . This is known as nephrectomy . When renal function , measured by the glomerular filtration rate , is persistently poor , dialysis and kidney transplantation may be treatment options . Although they are not normally harmful , kidney stones can be extremely painful .


Kilowatt hour

The kilowatt-hour ( symbol kWh , kW ⋅ h or kW h ) is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules . If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate ( power ) over a period of time , the total energy in kilowatt-hours is the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours . The kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities .


Kiribati

Kiribati ( -LSB- ˌkɪrɪˈbæs -RSB- or -LSB- ˌkɪrɪˈbɑːti -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of Kiribati ( Gilbertese : Ribaberiki Kiribati ) , is an island nation in the central Pacific Ocean . The permanent population is just over 100,000 ( 2011 ) , more than half of whom live on Tarawa Atoll . The nation comprises 33 atolls and reef islands and one raised coral island , Banaba . They have a total land area of 800 km2 and are dispersed over 3.5 million square kilometres ( 1,351,000 square miles ) . Their spread straddles the equator and the 180th meridian , although the International Date Line is indented to bring the Line Islands in the same day as the Kiribati Islands . The International Date Line circumscribes Kiribati by swinging far to the east , almost reaching the 150 ° W meridian . Kiribati 's easternmost islands , the southern Line Islands , south of Hawaii , have the most advanced time on Earth , UTC +14 hours .   Kiribati became independent from the United Kingdom in 1979 . The capital and now most populated area , South Tarawa , consists of a number of islets , connected by a series of causeways . These comprise about half the area of Tarawa Atoll .   Kiribati is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , the IMF and the World Bank , and became a full member of the United Nations in 1999 .


Koch Industries

Koch Industries , Inc. . -LSB- ˈkoʊk -RSB- is an American multinational corporation based in Wichita , Kansas , United States , with subsidiaries involved in manufacturing , trading , and investments . It was founded as Wood River Oil and Refining Company in 1940 , and later as Rock Island Oil & Refining Company .   Koch also owns Invista , Georgia-Pacific , Molex , Flint Hills Resources , Koch Pipeline , Koch Fertilizer , Koch Minerals , Matador Cattle Company and recently Guardian Industries . Koch companies are involved in industries such as the manufacturing , refining , and distribution of petroleum , chemicals , energy , fiber , intermediates and polymers , minerals , fertilizers , pulp and paper , chemical technology equipment , ranching , finance , commodities trading , and other ventures and investments . The firm employs about 60,000 people in the United States and another 40,000 in 59 other countries .   In 2013 -- 2015 , Forbes listed it as the second largest privately held company in the United States ( after Cargill ) , with an annual revenue of $ 115 billion , down from the largest in 2006 . If Koch Industries were a public company in 2013 , it would have ranked 17 in the Fortune 500 .   Fred C. Koch , after whom Koch Industries , Inc. is named , co-founded the company in 1940 and developed an innovative crude oil refining process . His sons , Charles Koch , chairman of the board and chief executive officer , and David Koch , executive vice president , are principal owners of the company after they bought out their brothers , Frederick and William `` Bill '' Koch , for $ 1.1 billion in 1983 . Charles and David Koch each own 42 % of Koch Industries . Charles has stated that the company would go public `` over my dead body '' .


Kodiak bear

The Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) , also known as the Kodiak brown bear , sometimes the Alaskan brown bear , inhabits the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in southwest Alaska . Its Alutiiq name is taquka-aq . It is the largest recognized subspecies of brown bear , and one of the two largest bears alive today , the other being the polar bear .   Physiologically , the Kodiak bear is very similar to the other brown bear subspecies , such as the mainland grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) and the now-extinct California grizzly bear ( U. a. californicus † ) , with the main difference being in size . While there is generally much variation in size between brown bears in different areas , most usually weigh between 115 and 360 kg ( 254 and 794 lb ) . The Kodiak bear , on the other hand , commonly reaches sizes of 300 to , and has even been known to exceed weights of 680 kg on occasion . Despite this large variation in size , the diet and lifestyle of the Kodiak bear does not differ greatly from that of other brown bears .   Ever since the first humans arrived in Alaska over the Bering land bridge , encounters between people and Kodiak bears have occurred . Today , these encounters have become relatively more common as a result of the increase in the human population in the region . Such encounters have included the hunting of bears by humans for their fur or meat , and , less commonly , attacks by bears upon humans . More recently , as conservation efforts have become more commonplace , concerns over the sustenance and stability of the Kodiak bear population have arisen . The IUCN classifies Ursus arctos , the species to which the Kodiak belongs , as being of `` least concern '' in terms of endangerment or extinction . However , the IUCN does not differentiate between subspecies ; therefore , it is unknown whether the Kodiak bear population is as healthy as is stated . As a result , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game , along with , to a lesser extent , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , closely monitors the number of bears hunted in the state .


Koko (gorilla)

Hanabiko `` Koko '' ( born July 4 , 1971 ) is a female western lowland gorilla who is known for having learned a large number of hand signs from a modified version of American Sign Language ( ASL ) .   Her instructor and caregiver , animal psychologist Francine `` Penny '' Patterson , reports that Koko is able to understand more than 1,000 signs of what Patterson calls `` Gorilla Sign Language '' ( GSL ) . In contrast to other experiments attempting to teach sign language to non-human primates , Patterson simultaneously exposed Koko to spoken English from an early age . Reports state that Koko understands approximately 2,000 words of spoken English , in addition to the signs . Koko 's life and learning process has been described by Patterson and some of her collaborators in a number of books , peer reviewed articles , and on a website .   As with other great ape language experiments , the extent to which Koko has mastered and demonstrates language through the use of these signs is disputed . But it is generally accepted that she does not use syntax or grammar , and that her use of language does not exceed that of a young human child .   Koko was born at the San Francisco Zoo and has lived most of her life in Woodside , California , although a move to a sanctuary on Maui , Hawaii , has been planned since the 1990s . The name is a reference to her date of birth , the Fourth of July . Koko gained public attention upon initial reportage of her adopting a kitten as a pet .


Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol .   The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere .   The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified .   Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .


Kyoto Protocol and government action

This article is about the Kyoto Protocol and government action in relation to that treaty .


Köppen climate classification

Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems . It was first published by Russian German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1884 , with several later modifications by Köppen , notably in 1918 and 1936 . Later , German climatologist Rudolf Geiger ( 1954 , 1961 ) collaborated with Köppen on changes to the classification system , which is thus sometimes called the Köppen -- Geiger climate classification system .   The Köppen climate classification system has been further modified , within the Trewartha climate classification system in the middle 1960s ( revised in 1980 ) . The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone , which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system ( the C climate group was too broad ) .