{"_id": "1257_Samalas_eruption", "title": "1257 Samalas eruption", "headings": "", "text": "The 1257 Samalas eruption was a major volcanic eruption of the Samalas volcano , next to Mount Rinjani on the island of Lombok , Indonesia . It left a large caldera next to Rinjani volcano , the lake Segara Anak . This volcanic eruption reached a volcanic explosivity index of 7 , making it one of the largest eruptions of the Holocene . The occurrence of this eruption was originally deduced from ice core information revealing a spike in sulfate deposition around the year 1257 ; in 2013 the source of this eruption at Samalas was definitively proven as a result of historical records from that time .   This eruption proceeded during four distinct phases , alternately creating eruption columns reaching up for tens of kilometres and pyroclastic flows that buried large parts of Lombok , destroying human habitations including the city of Pamatan . Ash from the eruption fell as far as Java . The volume of the deposits left exceeds 10 km3 . Later activity from the volcano created additional volcanic centres in the caldera , including the present day active Barujari cone .   The eruption was witnessed by humans on Lombok , who recorded its effects on text written on palm leaves . The aerosols injected by the volcano into the atmosphere reduced the solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth , triggering a volcanic winter and cooling lasting for several years . It is possible that the 1257 Samalas eruption helped trigger the Little Ice Age ."}
{"_id": "1906_San_Francisco_earthquake", "title": "1906 San Francisco earthquake", "headings": "", "text": "The 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck the coast of Northern California at 5:12 a.m. on April 18 with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI ( Extreme ) . Severe shaking was felt from Eureka on the North Coast to the Salinas Valley , an agricultural region to the south of the San Francisco Bay Area . Devastating fires soon broke out in the city and lasted for several days . As a result , about 3,000 people died and over 80 % of the city of San Francisco was destroyed . The events are remembered as one of the worst and deadliest natural disasters in the history of the United States . The death toll remains the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California 's history and high in the lists of American urban disasters ."}
{"_id": "1938_New_England_hurricane", "title": "1938 New England hurricane", "headings": "", "text": "The 1938 New England Hurricane ( also referred to as the Great New England Hurricane and Long Island Express ) was one of the deadliest and most destructive tropical cyclones to strike New England . The storm formed near the coast of Africa on September 9 , becoming a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale before making landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on Long Island on September 21 . It is estimated that the hurricane killed 682 people , damaged or destroyed more than 57,000 homes , and caused property losses estimated at US$ 306 million ( $ 4.7 billion in ) . Damaged trees and buildings were still seen in the affected areas as late as 1951 . It remains the most powerful and deadliest hurricane in recorded New England history , eclipsed in landfall intensity perhaps only by the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635 . It was only the third hurricane to strike New England since 1635 ."}
{"_id": "1990s", "title": "1990s", "headings": "", "text": "The 1990s ( pronounced `` nineteen-nineties '' and abbreviated as the `` Nineties '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 1990 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 ."}
{"_id": "1993_Storm_of_the_Century", "title": "1993 Storm of the Century", "headings": "", "text": "The 1993 Storm of the Century ( also known as the 93 Super Storm or the Great Blizzard of 1993 ) was a large cyclonic storm that formed over the Gulf of Mexico on March 12 , 1993 . The storm eventually dissipated in the North Atlantic Ocean on March 15 , 1993 . It was unique for its intensity , massive size , and wide-reaching effects . At its height , the storm stretched from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico . The cyclone moved through the Gulf of Mexico and then through the eastern United States before moving onto Canada .   Heavy snow was first reported in highland areas as far south as Alabama and northern Georgia , with Union County , Georgia reporting up to 35 inches of snow in the north Georgia mountains . Birmingham , Alabama , reported a rare 13 in of snow .  The Florida Panhandle reported up to 4 in , with hurricane-force wind gusts and record low barometric pressures . Between Louisiana and Cuba , the hurricane-force winds produced high storm surges across Northwestern Florida which , in combination with scattered tornadoes , killed dozens of people .   Record cold temperatures were seen across portions of the south and east of the US in the wake of this storm . In the United States , the storm was responsible for the loss of electric power to more than 10 million households . An estimated 40 percent of the country 's population experienced the effects of the storm with a total of 208 fatalities ."}
{"_id": "2000s_(decade)", "title": "2000s (decade)", "headings": "", "text": "The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 .   The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world .   The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 ."}
{"_id": "2003_invasion_of_Iraq", "title": "2003 invasion of Iraq", "headings": "", "text": "The 2003 invasion of Iraq lasted from 20 March to 1 May 2003 and signalled the start of the Iraq War , which was dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom by the United States ( prior to 19 March , the mission in Iraq was called Operation Enduring Freedom , a carryover from the War in Afghanistan ) . The invasion consisted of 21 days of major combat operations , in which a combined force of troops from the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia and Poland invaded Iraq and deposed the Ba'athist government of Saddam Hussein . The invasion phase consisted primarily of a conventionally fought war which included the capture of the Iraqi capital of Baghdad by American forces with the implicit assistance of the United Kingdom alongside Australia and Poland .   160,000 troops were sent by the Coalition into Iraq , during the initial invasion phase , which lasted from 19 March to 9 April 2003 . About 130,000 were sent from the USA alone , with about 28,000 British soldiers , Australia ( 2,000 ) , and Poland ( 194 ) . 36 other countries were involved in its aftermath . In preparation for the invasion , 100,000 U.S. troops were assembled in Kuwait by 18 February . The coalition forces also received support from Kurdish irregulars in Iraqi Kurdistan .   According to U.S. President George W. Bush and UK Prime Minister Tony Blair , the coalition mission was `` to disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction , to end Saddam Hussein 's support for terrorism , and to free the Iraqi people . '' Others place a much greater emphasis on the impact of the September 11 attacks , and the role this played in changing U.S. strategic calculations , and the rise of the freedom agenda . According to Blair , the trigger was Iraq 's failure to take a `` final opportunity '' to disarm itself of alleged nuclear , chemical , and biological weapons that U.S. and British officials called an immediate and intolerable threat to world peace .   In a January 2003 CBS poll , 64 % of Americans had approved of military action against Iraq ; however , 63 % wanted Bush to find a diplomatic solution rather than go to war , and 62 % believed the threat of terrorism directed against the U.S. would increase due to war . The invasion of Iraq was strongly opposed by some long-standing U.S. allies , including the governments of France , Germany , and New Zealand . Their leaders argued that there was no evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq and that invading the country was not justified in the context of UNMOVIC 's 12 February 2003 report . On 15 February 2003 , a month before the invasion , there were worldwide protests against the Iraq War , including a rally of three million people in Rome , which is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest ever anti-war rally . According to the French academic Dominique Reynié , between 3 January and 12 April 2003 , 36 million people across the globe took part in almost 3,000 protests against the Iraq war .   The invasion was preceded by an airstrike on the Presidential Palace in Baghdad on 20 March 2003 . The following day , coalition forces launched an incursion into Basra Province from their massing point close to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border . While the special forces launched an amphibious assault from the Persian Gulf to secure Basra and the surrounding petroleum fields , the main invasion army moved into southern Iraq , occupying the region and engaging in the Battle of Nasiriyah on 23 March . Massive air strikes across the country and against Iraqi command and control threw the defending army into chaos and prevented an effective resistance . On 26 March , the 173rd Airborne Brigade was airdropped near the northern city of Kirkuk , where they joined forces with Kurdish rebels and fought several actions against the Iraqi Army to secure the northern part of the country .   The main body of coalition forces continued their drive into the heart of Iraq and met with little resistance . Most of the Iraqi military was quickly defeated and Baghdad was occupied on 9 April . Other operations occurred against pockets of the Iraqi army , including the capture and occupation of Kirkuk on 10 April , and the attack and capture of Tikrit on 15 April . Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and the central leadership went into hiding as the coalition forces completed the occupation of the country . On 1 May , an end of major combat operations was declared , ending the invasion period and beginning the military occupation period ."}
{"_id": "2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami", "title": "2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami", "headings": "", "text": "The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC on 26 December with the epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra , Indonesia . The shock had a moment magnitude of 9.1 -- 9.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ) . The undersea megathrust earthquake was caused when the Indian Plate was subducted by the Burma Plate and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean , killing 230,000 -- 280,000 people in 14 countries , and inundating coastal communities with waves up to 30 m high . It was one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history . Indonesia was the hardest-hit country , followed by Sri Lanka , India , and Thailand .   It is the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph and had the longest duration of faulting ever observed , between 8.3 and 10 minutes . It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as 1 cm and triggered other earthquakes as far away as Alaska . Its epicentre was between Simeulue and mainland Indonesia . The plight of the affected people and countries prompted a worldwide humanitarian response . In all , the worldwide community donated more than US$ 14 billion ( 2004 ) in humanitarian aid . The event is known by the scientific community as the Sumatra -- Andaman earthquake . The resulting tsunami was given various names , including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , South Asian tsunami , Indonesian tsunami , the Christmas tsunami , and the Boxing Day tsunami ."}
{"_id": "2006_European_heat_wave", "title": "2006 European heat wave", "headings": "", "text": "The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began ."}
{"_id": "2006_North_American_heat_wave", "title": "2006 North American heat wave", "headings": "", "text": "The 2006 North American heat wave spread throughout most of the United States and Canada beginning on July 15 , 2006 , killing at least 225 people . That day the temperature reached 117 ° F ( 47 ° C ) in Pierre , South Dakota , with many places in South Dakota that hit well into the 120s . In early reports from this heat wave , at least three died in Philadelphia , Arkansas , and Indiana . In Maryland , the state health officials reported that three people died of heat-related causes . Another heat related death was suspected in Chicago .   Although many heat related deaths go unreported , by July 19 , the Associated Press reported that the soaring heat was blamed for 12 deaths from Oklahoma City to the Philadelphia area . Reports by early morning July 20 raised the death toll to at least 16 in seven states .   This period of heat also saw a wind storm ( derecho ) in St. Louis that caused widespread power outages , including for cooling centers designed to provide relief for those suffering from the heat . In addition , places on the West Coast , like California 's Central Valley and Southern California experienced humid heat , which is unusual for the area ."}
{"_id": "2006_Texas_gubernatorial_election", "title": "2006 Texas gubernatorial election", "headings": "", "text": "The 2006 Texas gubernatorial election was held on November 7, 2006, to elect the Governor of Texas. The election was a rare five-way race, with incumbent Republican Governor Rick Perry running for re-election against Democrat Chris Bell and Independents Carole Keeton Strayhorn and Kinky Friedman, as well as Libertarian nominee James Werner. Perry was re-elected to a second full term in office, winning 39% of the vote to Bell's 30%, Strayhorn's 18% and Friedman's 12%. Perry carried 209 out of the state's 254 counties, while Bell carried 39 and Strayhorn carried 6. Exit polls revealed that Perry won the Anglo vote with 46%, while Bell got 22%, Strayhorn got 16% and Friedman got 15%. Bell won 63% of African Americans, while Perry got 16%, Strayhorn got 15% and Friedman got 4%. Bell also won the Latino vote with 41%, while Perry got 31%, Strayhorn got 18% and Friedman got 4%. Perry was inaugurated for a second full four-year term on January 16, 2007. The ceremony was held inside the House of Representatives chamber at the Texas Capitol after thunderstorms cancelled the planned outdoor ceremony."}
{"_id": "2007_Kangaroo_Island_bushfires", "title": "2007 Kangaroo Island bushfires", "headings": "", "text": "The 2007 Kangaroo Island bushfires were a series of bushfires caused by lightning strikes on 6 December 2007 on Kangaroo Island, South Australia, resulting in the destruction of 95,000 hectares (230,000 acres) of national park and wilderness protection area. The fires occurred mainly across the western side of the island near Flinders Chase National Park, Vivonne Bay, D'Estrees Bay, Western River and Riverleas."}
{"_id": "2007_United_Kingdom_floods", "title": "2007 United Kingdom floods", "headings": "", "text": "A series of destructive floods occurred in parts of the United Kingdom during the summer of 2007 . The worst of the flooding occurred across Scotland on 14 June ; East Yorkshire and The Midlands on 15 June ; Yorkshire , The Midlands , Gloucestershire , Herefordshire and Worcestershire on 25 June ; and Gloucestershire , Herefordshire , Worcestershire , Oxfordshire , Berkshire and South Wales on 28 July 2007 .   June was one of the wettest months on record in Britain ( see List of weather records ) . Average rainfall across the country was 140 mm ; more than double the June average . Some areas received a month 's worth of precipitation in 24 hours . It was Britain 's wettest May -- July since records began in 1776 . July had unusually unsettled weather and above-average rainfall through the month , peaking on 20 July as an active frontal system dumped more than 120 mm of rain in southern England .   Civil and military authorities described the June and July rescue efforts as the biggest in peacetime Britain . The Environment Agency described the July floods as critical and expected them to exceed the 1947 benchmark ."}
{"_id": "2008_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "title": "2008 Atlantic hurricane season", "headings": "", "text": "The 2008 Atlantic hurricane season was a very active hurricane season with sixteen named storms formed , including eight that became hurricanes and five that became major hurricanes . The season officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the formation of Tropical Storm Arthur caused the season to start two days early . This season is the fourth most costly on record , behind only the 2004 , 2005 and 2012 seasons , with over $ 47.5 billion in damage ( 2008 USD ) . It was the fourth busiest year since 1944 and the only year on record in which a major hurricane existed in every month from July through November in the North Atlantic . Bertha became the longest lived July tropical cyclone on record for the basin , the first of several long-lived systems during 2008 . The season was devastating for Haiti , where over 800 people were killed by four consecutive tropical cyclones ( Fay , Gustav , Hanna , and Ike ) , especially Hanna , in August and September . Hurricane Paloma 's outer rain bands also made landfall over Haiti . Ike was also the most destructive storm of the season , as well as the strongest , devastating Cuba as a major hurricane and later making landfall near Galveston , Texas at Category 2 ( nearly Category 3 ) intensity .   One very unusual feat was a streak of tropical cyclones affecting land . All but one system impacted land in 2008 . The unprecedented number of storms with impact led to one of the deadliest and destructive seasons in the history of the Atlantic basin , especially with Hurricane Ike , as its overall damages made it the third costliest hurricane in the Atlantic ."}
{"_id": "2009_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "title": "2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "headings": "", "text": "The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference , commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit , was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen , Denmark , between 7 and 18 December . The conference included the 15th Conference of the Parties ( COP 15 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 5th Meeting of the Parties ( MOP 5 ) to the Kyoto Protocol . According to the Bali Road Map , a framework for climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there .   On Friday 18 December , the final day of the conference , international media reported that the climate talks were `` in disarray '' . Media also reported that in lieu of a summit collapse , only a `` weak political statement '' was anticipated at the conclusion of the conference . The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the United States , China , India , Brazil and South Africa on 18 December , and judged a `` meaningful agreement '' by the United States government . It was `` taken note of '' , but not `` adopted '' , in a debate of all the participating countries the next day , and it was not passed unanimously . The document recognised that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the present day and that actions should be taken to keep any temperature increases to below 2 ° C . The document is not legally binding and does not contain any legally binding commitments for reducing emissions .   In January 2014 , documents leaked by Edward Snowden and published by Dagbladet Information revealed that the US government negotiators were in receipt of information during the conference that was being obtained by spying against other conference delegations . The US National Security Agency provided US delegates with advance details other delegations ' positions , including the Danish plan to `` rescue '' the talks should they flounder . Members of the Danish negotiating team said that both the US and Chinese delegations were `` peculiarly well-informed '' about closed-door discussions : `` They simply sat back , just as we had feared they would if they knew about our document . ''"}
{"_id": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "title": "2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves", "headings": "", "text": "The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels."}
{"_id": "2010_Russian_wildfires", "title": "2010 Russian wildfires", "headings": "", "text": "The 2010 Russian wildfires were several hundred wildfires that broke out across Russia , primarily in the west in summer 2010 . They started burning in late July and lasted until early September 2010 . The fires were associated with record-high temperatures , which were attributed to climate change -- the summer had been the hottest recorded in Russian history -- and drought .   Russian President Dmitry Medvedev declared a state of emergency in seven regions , and 28 other regions were under a state of emergency due to crop failures caused by the drought . The fires cost roughly $ 15 billion in damages .   A combination of the smoke from the fires , producing heavy smog blanketing large urban regions and the record-breaking heat wave put stress on the Russian healthcare system . Munich Re estimated that in all , 56,000 people died from the effects of the smog and the heat wave . The 2010 wildfires were the worst on record to that time ; in 2012 , however , new wildfires broke out , and they proved even more extensive and damaging ."}
{"_id": "2010_United_Kingdom_general_election", "title": "2010 United Kingdom general election", "headings": "", "text": "The 2010 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday 6 May 2010, with 45,597,461 registered voters entitled to vote to elect members to the House of Commons. The election took place in 650 constituencies across the United Kingdom under the first-past-the-post system. The election resulted in a large swing to the Conservative Party similar to that seen in 1979; the Labour Party lost the 66-seat majority it had previously enjoyed, but no party achieved the 326 seats needed for a majority. The Conservatives, led by David Cameron, won the most votes and seats, but still fell 20 seats short. This resulted in a hung parliament where no party was able to command a majority in the House of Commons. This was only the second general election since the Second World War to return a hung parliament, the first being the February 1974 election. However, a hung parliament was anticipated this time, so politicians and voters were better prepared for the constitutional process that would follow such a result. The coalition government that was subsequently formed was the first to eventuate directly from a UK election. The hung parliament came about in spite of the Conservatives managing both a higher vote total and a higher share of the vote than the previous Labour government had done in 2005, when it secured a comfortable majority. A total of 149 sitting MPs stood down at the election, the highest since 1945, including many former New Labour Cabinet ministers such as former Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, Alan Milburn, Geoff Hoon, Ruth Kelly, James Purnell and John Reid. One reason for the very high number of MPs standing down was the parliamentary expenses scandal a year earlier. Coalition talks began immediately between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats, and lasted for five days. There was an aborted attempt to put together a Labour/Liberal Democrat coalition (although 11 seats from other smaller parties would have been required). To facilitate this, Gordon Brown announced on the evening of Monday 10 May that he would resign as Leader of the Labour Party. Realising that a deal between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats was imminent, Brown resigned the next day, on Tuesday 11 May, as Prime Minister, marking the end of 13 years of Labour government. This was accepted by Queen Elizabeth II, who then invited David Cameron to form a government in her name and become Prime Minister. Just after midnight on 12 May, the Liberal Democrats approved the agreement \"overwhelmingly\", sealing a coalition government of Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. None of the three main party leaders had previously led a general election campaign, a situation which had not occurred since the 1979 election. During the campaign, the three main party leaders engaged in the first televised debates. The Liberal Democrats achieved a breakthrough in opinion polls after the first debate, in which their leader Nick Clegg was widely seen as the strongest performer. Nonetheless, on polling day their share of the vote increased by only 1%, with a net loss of five seats. This was still the Liberal Democrats' largest popular vote since the party's creation in 1988, and they found themselves in a pivotal role in the formation of the new government. The share of votes for parties other than Labour or the Conservatives was 35%, the largest since the 1918 general election. In terms of votes it was the most \"three-cornered\" election since 1923, and in terms of seats since 1929. The Green Party of England and Wales won its first ever seat in the House of Commons, and the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland also gained its first elected member. The general election saw a 5.1% national swing from Labour to the Conservatives, the third-largest since 1945. The result in one constituency, Oldham East and Saddleworth, was subsequently declared void on petition because of illegal practices during the campaign, the first such instance since 1910."}
{"_id": "2010s", "title": "2010s", "headings": "", "text": ""}
{"_id": "2011_Wisconsin_protests", "title": "2011 Wisconsin protests", "headings": "", "text": "The 2011 Wisconsin protests were a series of demonstrations in the state of Wisconsin in the United States beginning in February involving at its zenith as many as 100,000 protesters opposing the 2011 Wisconsin Act 10 , also called the `` Wisconsin Budget Repair bill . '' Subsequently , anti-tax activists and other conservatives , including Tea Party advocates , launched small pockets of counter protests . The protests centered on the Wisconsin State Capitol in Madison , with satellite protests also occurring at other municipalities throughout the state . Demonstrations took place at various college campuses , including the University of Wisconsin -- Madison and the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee . After the collective bargaining bill was upheld by the Wisconsin Supreme Court on June 14 , the number of protesters declined to about 1,000 within a couple days .   The protests were a major driving force for recall elections of state senators in 2011 and 2012 , the failed recall of Governor Scott Walker in 2012 and a contentious Wisconsin Supreme Court election in 2011 ."}
{"_id": "2012_in_science", "title": "2012 in science", "headings": "", "text": "The year 2012 involved many significant scientific events and discoveries , including the first orbital rendezvous by a commercial spacecraft , the discovery of a particle highly similar to the long-sought Higgs boson , and the near-eradication of guinea worm disease . A total of 72 successful orbital spaceflights occurred in 2012 , and the year also saw numerous developments in fields such as robotics , 3D printing , stem cell research and genetics . Over 540,000 technological patent applications were made in the United States alone in 2012 .   2012 was declared the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All by the United Nations . 2012 also marked Alan Turing Year , a celebration of the life and work of the English mathematician , logician , cryptanalyst and computer scientist Alan Turing ."}
{"_id": "2013_New_South_Wales_bushfires", "title": "2013 New South Wales bushfires", "headings": "", "text": "The 2013 New South Wales bushfires were a series of bushfires in Australia across the state of New South Wales primarily starting , or becoming notable , on 13 October 2013 ; followed by the worst of the fires beginning in the Greater Blue Mountains Area on 16 and 17 October 2013 .   High fuel loads , coupled with warm , dry and windy weather , provided dangerous conditions which fuelled the fires . At the peak of the fires , on the morning of 18 October , over 100 fires were burning across the state . The Premier of New South Wales Barry O'Farrell declared a state of emergency on 20 October , empowering firefighters to evict residents and demolish fire-affected buildings .   The fires are the worst in New South Wales since the 1960s . , 248 houses and other structures were destroyed across the state . Two fatalities were attributed to the fires . It was estimated that claims will exceed 94 million ."}
{"_id": "2013_in_science", "title": "2013 in science", "headings": "", "text": "A number of significant scientific events occurred in 2013 , including the discovery of numerous Earthlike exoplanets , the development of viable lab-grown ears , teeth , livers and blood vessels , and the atmospheric entry of the most destructive meteor since 1908 . The year also saw successful new treatments for diseases such as HIV , Usher syndrome and leukodystrophy , and a major expansion in the use and capabilities of technologies such as 3D printing and autonomous cars .   The United Nations designated 2013 the International Year of Water Cooperation ."}
{"_id": "2013–14_North_American_winter", "title": "2013–14 North American winter", "headings": "", "text": "The 2013 -- 14 North American winter refers to winter as it occurred across the continent from late 2013 through early 2014 . While there is no well-agreed-upon date used to indicate the start of winter in the Northern Hemisphere , there are two definitions of winter which may be used . Based on the astronomical definition , winter begins at the winter solstice , which in 2013 occurred on December 21 , and ends at the March equinox , which in 2014 occurred on March 20 . Based on the meteorological definition , the first day of winter is December 1 and the last day February 28 . Both definitions involve a period of approximately three months , with some variability .  __ TOC __"}
{"_id": "2014_California_wildfires", "title": "2014 California wildfires", "headings": "", "text": "The 2014 California wildfire season saw several notable wildfires ignited in the state of California , especially during the month of May , when multiple fires were ablaze concurrently in Southern California , and during September , when several massive wildfires were burning in Northern California . In the context of the 2012 -- 15 North American drought ( especially the 2011 -- 15 California drought ) , as well as powerful Santa Ana winds , weather conditions were ideal for wildfires . The season began unusually early when a wildfire ignited on January 1 , followed by 6 more fires igniting later within the same month . During a heat wave and dry Santa Ana conditions in May 2014 , multiple wildfires broke out simultaneously in San Diego County , along with several other wildfires elsewhere in California . By mid-May , fire officials said they had already dealt with 1,400 wildfires in California in 2014 - twice the normal amount for that time of year - and a spokesman for CAL FIRE described the conditions as `` unprecedented . '' The May 2014 San Diego County wildfires were estimated to have caused at least $ 60 million ( 2014 USD ) in damage . In late June to early August , another group of wildfires ignited across the state , some of which reached over twenty thousand acres in size . In mid-September , the largest group of wildfires erupted , with some wildfires becoming larger than 50,000 acres in size . In early September 2014 , the Happy Complex Fire became the largest wildfire of the season , eventually topping out at 135369 acres in size on September 27 . On October 8 , an aerial tanker crashed during a firefighting effort at the Dog Rock Fire , which killed the pilot and sparked a small wildfire . From late September to late October , the latest flare-up of major wildfires were extinguished by cooler weather and precipitation . From December 10 -- 13 , a powerful winter storm extinguished the remaining wildfires that were present . In mid-December through late December , several more small wildfires sparked , but they were all extinguished by December 31 . A total of 5,620 wildfires ignited throughout the year , which burned at least 631434 acres of land . The wildfires caused a total of 146 injuries and 2 fatalities , in addition to causing at least $ 184.02 million ( 2014 USD ) in damage ."}
{"_id": "2014_in_science", "title": "2014 in science", "headings": "", "text": "A number of significant scientific events occurred in 2014 , including the first robotic landing on a comet and the first complete stem-cell-assisted recovery from paraplegia . The year also saw a significant expansion in the worldwide use and sophistication of technologies such as unmanned aerial vehicles and wearable electronics .   The United Nations declared 2014 the International Year of Family Farming and Crystallography ."}
{"_id": "2014–15_North_American_winter", "title": "2014–15 North American winter", "headings": "", "text": "The 2014 -- 15 North American winter refers to winter as it occurred across the continent from late 2014 through early 2015 . While there is no well-agreed-upon date used to indicate the start of winter in the Northern Hemisphere , there are two definitions of winter which may be used . Based on the astronomical definition , winter begins at the winter solstice , which in 2014 occurred on December 21 , and ends at the March equinox , which in 2015 occurred on March 20 . Based on the meteorological definition , the first day of winter is December 1 and the last day February 28 . Both definitions involve a period of approximately three months , with some variability .   While both the meteorological and astronomical definitions of winter involve the onset of winter occurring in December , many places in North America experienced their first wintry weather during mid November . A period of below-average temperatures affected much of the contiguous United States , and several records were broken . An early trace of snowfall was recorded in Arkansas . There were greater accumulations of snow across parts of Oklahoma as well . A quasi-permanent phenomenon referred to as the polar vortex may have been partly responsible for the cold weather . Temperatures in much of the United States dropped 15 to below average by November 19 following a southward `` dip '' of the polar vortex into the eastern two-thirds of the country . The effects of this dip were widespread , bringing about temperatures as low as 28 F in Pensacola , Florida . Following a significant snowstorm there , Buffalo , New York received several feet of snow from November 17 -- 21 . During the 2014 -- 15 winter season , Boston broke its all-time official seasonal 107.6 in snowfall record from the winter of 1995 -- 96 , with a total snowfall record of 108.6 in as of March 15 , 2015 .   Many records for snowfall and temperature were broken , many for the month of February , with every state east of the Mississippi River being colder than average , some for the entire winter . However , this meteorological winter was the 19th-warmest of the past 120 winters over the lower 48 states , largely due to persistent warm weather in the West ."}
{"_id": "2014–16_El_Niño_event", "title": "2014–16 El Niño event", "headings": "", "text": "The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean ."}
{"_id": "2015_Indian_heat_wave", "title": "2015 Indian heat wave", "headings": "", "text": "In May 2015 , India was struck by a severe heat wave . , it has caused the deaths of at least 2,500 people in multiple regions . The heat wave occurred during the Indian dry season , which typically lasts from March to July with peak temperatures in April and May . Although it typically remains hot until late October , Indian monsoons often provide some respite from the heat .   The South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and the neighbouring Telangana , where more than 1,735 and 585 people died respectively , were the areas most affected by the heat wave . Other casualties were from the eastern states of West Bengal and Odisha . The high demand for electricity to power air conditioning led to power outages in some cities . The 2015 heat wave has had the highest recorded temperatures since 1995 . In May 2016 , a new record was set in Phalodi ."}
{"_id": "2015_South_Indian_floods", "title": "2015 South Indian floods", "headings": "", "text": "The 2015 South Indian floods resulted from heavy rainfall generated by the annual northeast monsoon in November -- December 2015 . They affected the Coromandel Coast region of the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh , and the union territory of Puducherry , with Tamil Nadu and the city of Chennai particularly hard-hit . More than 500 people were killed and over 18 lakh ( 1.8 million ) people were displaced . With estimates of damages and losses ranging from nearly to over , the floods were the costliest to have occurred in 2015 , and were among the costliest natural disasters of the year . The flooding has been attributed to the 2014 -- 16 El Niño event ."}
{"_id": "2015_United_Kingdom_general_election", "title": "2015 United Kingdom general election", "headings": "", "text": "The 2015 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 7 May 2015 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons. It was the first general election at the end of a fixed-term Parliament. Local elections took place in most areas on the same day. Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second consecutive hung parliament that would be either similar or more complicated than the 2010 election. Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as the party unexpectedly won an outright majority, which bore resemblance to its victory at the 1992 general election. Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010, the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9% of the vote share, giving them a small overall majority of 12 seats and their first outright win for 23 years. The Labour Party, led by Ed Miliband, saw a small increase in its share of the vote to 30.4%, but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs. This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 general election. Senior Labour Shadow Cabinet members, notably Ed Balls, Douglas Alexander, and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy, were defeated. The Scottish National Party, enjoying a surge in support after the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, recorded a number of swings of over 30% from Labour, as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third-largest party in the Commons. The Liberal Democrats, led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, had their worst result since their formation in 1988, holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats, with Cabinet ministers Vince Cable, Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats. UKIP came third in terms of votes with 12.6%, but won only one seat, with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet. The Green Party won its highest-ever share of the vote with 3.8%, and retained its only seat. Labour's Miliband (as national leader) and Murphy (as Scottish leader) both resigned, as did Clegg. In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five-year absence, while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share."}
{"_id": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "title": "2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "headings": "", "text": "The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol .   The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York ,  and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) .   According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists .   Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol .   A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement ."}
{"_id": "2015_in_science", "title": "2015 in science", "headings": "", "text": "A number of significant scientific events occurred in 2015 . Gene editing based on CRISPR got improved significantly . A new human-like species , Homo naledi , was first described . Gravitational waves were observed for the first time ( announced publicly in 2016 ) , and dwarf planets Pluto and Ceres were visited by spacecrafts for the first time . The United Nations declared 2015 the International Year of Soils and Light-based Technologies ."}
{"_id": "2017_United_Kingdom_general_election", "title": "2017 United Kingdom general election", "headings": "", "text": "The 2017 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 8 June 2017, two years after the previous general election in 2015. The governing Conservative Party remained the largest single party in the House of Commons but lost its small overall majority, resulting in the formation of a Conservative-led minority government with a confidence-and-supply agreement with the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) of Northern Ireland.The Conservative Party, which had governed as a senior coalition partner from 2010 and as a single-party majority government from 2015, was defending a working majority of 17 seats against the Labour Party, the official opposition led by Jeremy Corbyn. Under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 an election had not been due until May 2020, but a call by Prime Minister Theresa May for a snap election was ratified by the necessary two-thirds vote in the House of Commons on 19 April 2017. May said that she hoped to secure a larger majority to \"strengthen [her] hand\" in the forthcoming Brexit negotiations.Opinion polls had consistently shown strong leads for the Conservatives over Labour. From a 21-point lead, the Conservatives' lead began to diminish in the final weeks of the campaign. In a surprising result, the Conservative Party made a net loss of 13 seats despite winning 42.4% of the vote (its highest share of the vote since 1983), whereas Labour made a net gain of 30 seats with 40.0% (its highest vote share since 2001 and the first time the party had gained seats since 1997). This was the closest result between the two major parties since February 1974 and their highest combined vote share since 1970. The Scottish National Party (SNP) and the Liberal Democrats, the third- and fourth-largest parties, both lost vote share; media coverage characterised the result as a return to two-party politics. The SNP, which had won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats at the previous general election in 2015, lost 21. The Liberal Democrats made a net gain of four seats. UKIP, the third-largest party in 2015 by number of votes, saw its share of the vote reduced from 12.6% to 1.8% and lost its only seat. In Wales, Plaid Cymru gained one seat, giving it a total of four seats. The Green Party retained its sole seat, but saw its share of the vote reduced. In Northern Ireland, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) won 10 seats, Sinn Féin won seven, and Independent Unionist Sylvia Hermon retained her seat. The Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) and Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) lost all their seats. Negotiation positions following the UK's invocation of Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union in March 2017 to leave the EU were expected to feature significantly in the campaign, but did not. The campaign was interrupted by two major terrorist attacks: Manchester and London Bridge; thus national security became a prominent issue in its final weeks."}
{"_id": "2018_British_Isles_heat_wave", "title": "2018 British Isles heat wave", "headings": "", "text": "The 2018 Britain and Ireland heat wave was a period of unusually hot weather that took place in June, July and August. It caused widespread drought, hosepipe bans, crop failures, and a number of wildfires. These wildfires worst affected northern moorland areas around the Greater Manchester region, the largest was at Saddleworth Moor and another was at Winter Hill, together these burned over 14 square miles (36 km2) of land over a period of nearly a month.A heat wave was officially declared on 22 June, with Scotland and Northern Ireland recording temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) for the first time since the July 2013 heat wave. The British Isles were in the middle of a strong warm anticyclone inside a strong northward meander of the jet stream, this was part of the wider 2018 European heat wave. The Met Office declared summer 2018 the joint hottest on record together with 1976, 2003 and 2006."}
{"_id": "2019_United_Kingdom_general_election", "title": "2019 United Kingdom general election", "headings": "", "text": "The 2019 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 12 December 2019. The Conservative Party, having failed to obtain a majority in the 2017 general election, had faced prolonged parliamentary deadlock over Brexit while it governed in minority with the support of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), a situation which had forced the resignation of the previous Prime Minister, Theresa May. In July 2019, after May's resignation, Boris Johnson was elected as Conservative leader and appointed as Prime Minister. Johnson could not induce Parliament to approve a revised withdrawal agreement by the end of October, and chose to call for a snap election. The House of Commons supported the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019 by 438–20, setting the election date for 12 December. Opinion polls up to polling day showed a firm lead for the Conservatives against Labour throughout the campaign.The election resulted in the Conservative Party receiving a landslide majority of 80 seats. The Conservatives made a net gain of 48 seats and won 43.6% of the popular vote – the highest percentage by any party since 1979. Many Conservative gains were made in long-held Labour Leave-voting seats dubbed the 'red wall'.  The Labour Party won 202 seats, its lowest number and proportion of seats since 1935. The Scottish National Party (SNP) made a net gain of 13 seats and won 3.9% of the UK vote (translating to 45% of the popular vote in Scotland), resulting in 48 out of 59 seats won in Scotland. The Liberal Democrats improved their vote share to 11.6% but won only 11 seats, a net loss of one since the last election. The DUP won a plurality of seats in Northern Ireland. There, the SDLP and Alliance regained parliamentary representation as the DUP lost seats. The election result allowed Johnson a mandate to ensure the UK's departure from the European Union on 31 January 2020. Labour's defeat led to Jeremy Corbyn announcing his intention to resign, triggering a leadership election. For Liberal Democrat leader Jo Swinson, the loss of her constituency's seat compelled her to resign as well, also triggering a leadership election. For the SNP leader, Nicola Sturgeon, her party's relative success led to renewed calls for a second independence referendum. In Northern Ireland, nationalist MPs outnumbered unionist ones for the first time in history, although the Unionist popular vote remained higher (43.1 per cent)."}
{"_id": "2019_heat_wave_in_India_and_Pakistan", "title": "2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan", "headings": "", "text": "From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing."}
{"_id": "2019_in_science", "title": "2019 in science", "headings": "", "text": "A number of significant scientific events occurred in 2019."}
{"_id": "2019–20_Australian_bushfire_season", "title": "2019–20 Australian bushfire season", "headings": "", "text": "The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, colloquially known as Black Summer, was a period of unusually intense bushfires in many parts of Australia. In June 2019, the Queensland Fire and Emergency Service acting director warned of the potential for an early start to the bushfire season which normally starts in August. The warning was based on the Northern Australia bushfire seasonal outlook noting exceptional dry conditions and a lack of soil moisture, combined with early fires in central Queensland. Throughout the summer, hundreds of fires burnt, mainly in the southeast of the country. The major fires peaked during December–January. As of 9 March 2020, the fires burnt an estimated 18.6 million hectares (46 million acres; 186,000 square kilometres; 72,000 square miles), destroyed over 5,900 buildings (including 2,779 homes) and killed at least 34 people. Nearly three billion terrestrial vertebrates alone – the vast majority being reptiles – were affected and some endangered species were believed to be driven to extinction. At its peak, air quality dropped to hazardous levels in all southern and eastern states. The cost of dealing with the bushfires is expected to exceed the A$4.4 billion of the 2009 Black Saturday fires, and tourism sector revenues fell by more than A$1 billion. However, economists estimated that the Australian bushfires may cost over A$103 billion in property damage and economic losses, making the bushfires Australia's costliest natural disaster to date. Nearly 80 percent of Australians were affected either directly or indirectly by the bushfires.  By 7 January 2020, the smoke had moved approximately 11,000 kilometres (6,800 mi) across the South Pacific Ocean to Chile and Argentina. As of 2 January 2020, NASA estimated that 306 million tonnes (337 million short tons) of CO2 had been emitted.From September 2019 to March 2020, fires heavily impacted various regions of the state of New South Wales. In eastern and north-eastern Victoria large areas of forest burnt out of control for four weeks before the fires emerged from the forests in late December. Multiple states of emergency were declared across New South Wales, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory. Reinforcements from all over Australia were called in to assist fighting the fires and relieve exhausted local crews in New South Wales. The Australian Defence Force was mobilised to provide air support to the firefighting effort and to provide manpower and logistical support. Firefighters, supplies and equipment from Canada, New Zealand, Singapore and the United States, among others, helped fight the fires, especially in New South Wales.During the ensuing crisis, an air tanker and two helicopters crashed during firefighting operations, the air tanker crash resulting in the deaths of the three crew. Two fire trucks were caught in fatal incidents caused directly by fire conditions, killing three fire fighters.By 4 March 2020, all fires in New South Wales had been extinguished completely (to the point where there were no fires in the state for the first time since July 2019), and the Victoria fires had all been contained. The last fire of the season occurred in Lake Clifton, Western Australia, in early May.There has been considerable debate regarding the underlying cause of the intensity and scale of the fires, including the role of fire management practices and climate change, which during the peak of the crisis attracted significant international attention. Politicians visiting fire impacted areas received mixed responses, in particular Prime Minister Scott Morrison. An estimated A$500 million was donated by the public at large, international organisations, public figures and celebrities for victim relief and wildlife recovery. Convoys of donated food, clothing and livestock feed were sent to affected areas."}
{"_id": "20th_century", "title": "20th century", "headings": "", "text": "The 20th century was a century that began on   January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 .   The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 .   Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) ."}
{"_id": "21st_century", "title": "21st century", "headings": "", "text": "The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era , in accordance with the Gregorian calendar . It began on January 1 , 2001 and will end on December 31 , 2100 . It is the first century of the 3rd millennium . It is distinct from the time span known as the 2000s , which began on January 1 , 2000 and will end on December 31 , 2099 ."}
{"_id": "A_Scientific_Dissent_from_Darwinism", "title": "A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism", "headings": "", "text": "A Scientific Dissent from Darwinism (or \"Dissent from Darwinism\") was a statement issued in 2001 by the Discovery Institute, a conservative think tank based in Seattle, Washington, U.S., best known for its promotion of the pseudoscientific principle of intelligent design. As part of the Discovery Institute\"s Teach the Controversy campaign, the statement expresses skepticism about the ability of random mutations and natural selection to account for the complexity of life, and encourages careful examination of the evidence for \"Darwinism\", a term intelligent design proponents use to refer to evolution.The statement was published in advertisements under an introduction which stated that its signatories dispute the assertion that Darwin's theory of evolution fully explains the complexity of living things, and dispute that \"all known scientific evidence supports [Darwinian] evolution\". The Discovery Institute states that the list was first started to refute claims made by promoters of the PBS television series \"Evolution\" that \"virtually every scientist in the world believes the theory to be true\". Further names of signatories have been added at intervals. The list continues to be used in Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns in an attempt to discredit evolution and bolster claims that intelligent design is scientifically valid by claiming that evolution lacks broad scientific support.The statement is misleading and ambiguous, using terms with multiple meanings such as \"Darwinism\", which can refer specifically to natural selection or informally to evolution in general, and presenting a straw man fallacy with its claim that random mutations and natural selection are insufficient to account for the complexity of life, when standard evolution theory involves other factors such as gene flow, genetic recombination, genetic drift and endosymbiosis. Scientists and educators have noted that its signatories, who include historians and philosophers of science as well as scientists, were a minuscule fraction of the numbers of scientists and engineers qualified to sign it. Intelligent design has failed to produce scientific research, and been rejected by the scientific community, including many leading scientific organizations. The statement in the document has also been criticized as being phrased to represent a diverse range of opinions, set in a context which gives it a misleading spin to confuse the public. The listed affiliations and areas of expertise of the signatories have also been criticized."}
{"_id": "Abadan,_Iran", "title": "Abadan, Iran", "headings": "", "text": "Abadan ( آبادان Ābādān ) is a city in and the capital of Abadan County , Khuzestan Province which is located in central west of Iran . It lies on Abadan Island ( 68 km long , 3 -- 19 km or 2 -- 12 miles wide ) , the island is bounded in the west by the Arvand waterway and to the east by the Bahmanshir outlet of the Karun River ( the Shatt al-Arab ) , 53 km from the Persian Gulf , near the Iraqi-Iran border . '' '"}
{"_id": "Abbott_Government", "title": "Abbott Government", "headings": "", "text": "The Abbott Government was the federal executive government of Australia led by Prime Minister Tony Abbott . The Government was made up of members of the Liberal -- National Coalition . The Leader of the Nationals , Warren Truss , served as Deputy Prime Minister . Following the 2013 Australian federal election on 7 September , the Coalition defeated the second Rudd Government , ending six years of Labor Government . The Abbott Government was sworn into office on 18 September 2013 . Less than two years later on 14 September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull defeated Abbott in a leadership ballot , 54 votes to 44 .   In economic policy , the Abbott Government aimed to rein in a budget deficit that reached A$ 48.5 billion by June 2014 . It concluded free trade agreements with China , Japan and South Korea . It removed the Rudd-Gillard era Resource Super Profits Tax and carbon pricing . It established the National Commission of Audit to advise on restoring the Budget to surplus ; instituted the Royal Commission into trade union governance and corruption ; founded the Medical Research Future Fund ; and produced White Papers on Developing Northern Australia and the Agricultural Competitiveness . Treasurer Joe Hockey delivered two Budgets , the first focused on expenditure reduction measures , but faced a hostile reception in the Senate and media . Partial deregulation of universities , and a $ 7 contribution to doctor visits were proposed , but blocked by the Senate . The second Budget emphasised stimulus for the small business sector .   Abbott campaigned in Opposition and in Office to halt the people smuggling trade , and unauthorised maritime arrivals ceased during his term of office under Operation Sovereign Borders . In foreign policy , Australia continued its military engagement in the Mid-East , amid the worsening Syrian conflict . In 2015 , The Abbott Government agreed to resettle an additional 12,000 refugees from the region . Abbott and Foreign Minister Julie Bishop challenged Russia at the United Nations over the shooting down of Malaysian Flight MH17 in Ukraine . The Government launched the New Colombo Plan to encourage educational exchange with the Indo-Pacific region .   Domestically , Abbott campaigned for recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Australian Constitution , flagging a referendum for 2017 , and promised a plebiscite on the issue of same-sex marriage . Air and road infrastructure was prioritised . Abbott had to negotiate a hostile Senate . The Palmer United Party had emerged at the 2013 Election , but fractured soon after . The Liberal Party faced Cabinet leaks and early leadership instability , after a poorly received first Budget and amid media criticism . Abbott became the shortest-serving Australian Prime Minister since William McMahon , when his government was succeeded by the Turnbull Government ."}
{"_id": "Abrupt_climate_change", "title": "Abrupt climate change", "headings": "", "text": "An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states .   Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth ."}
{"_id": "Academic_journal", "title": "Academic journal", "headings": "", "text": "An academic or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published . Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation , scrutiny and discussion of research . They are usually peer-reviewed or refereed . Content typically takes the form of articles presenting original research , review articles , and book reviews . The purpose of an academic journal , according to the first editor of the world 's oldest academic journal Henry Oldenburg , is to give researchers a venue to `` impart their knowledge to one another , and contribute what they can to the Grand design of improving natural knowledge , and perfecting all Philosophical Arts , and Sciences . ''   The term academic journal applies to scholarly publications in all fields ; this article discusses the aspects common to all academic field journals . Scientific journals and journals of the quantitative social sciences vary in form and function from journals of the humanities and qualitative social sciences ; their specific aspects are separately discussed ."}
{"_id": "Acid", "title": "Acid", "headings": "", "text": "An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron ( proton or hydrogen ion H + ) , or , alternatively , capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair ( a Lewis acid ) .   The first category of acids is the proton donors or Brønsted acids . In the special case of aqueous solutions , proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O + and are known as Arrhenius acids . Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents . A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H + .   Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties which provide a practical description of an acid . Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste , can turn blue litmus red , and react with bases and certain metals ( like calcium ) to form salts . The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/ac ēre meaning sour . An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as ` acid ' ( as in ` dissolved in acid ' ) , while the strict definition refers only to the solute . A lower pH means a higher acidity , and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution . Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic .   Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid ( a solution of hydrogen chloride which is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes ) , acetic acid ( vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid ) , sulfuric acid ( used in car batteries ) , and citric acid ( found in citrus fruits ) . As these examples show , acids ( in the colloquial sense ) can be solutions or pure substances , and can be derived from acids ( in the strict sense ) that are solids , liquids , or gases . Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive , but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid .   The second category of acids are Lewis acids , which form a covalent bond with an electron pair . An example is boron trifluoride ( BF3 ) , whose boron atom has a vacant orbital which can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base , for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia ( NH3 ) . Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition , so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly or by releasing protons ( H + ) into the solution , which then accept electron pairs . However , hydrogen chloride , acetic acid , and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids can not form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids . Conversely , many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids . In modern terminology , an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid , since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid ."}
{"_id": "Adam_Scaife", "title": "Adam Scaife", "headings": "", "text": "Adam Arthur Scaife B.A. M.A. MSc PhD FRMetS ( born 18 March 1970 ) is a British physicist , and head of long range prediction at the Met Office . He is an honorary visiting Professor at Exeter University . Scaife carries out research into long range weather forecasting and computer modelling of the climate . Scaife has published over 100 peer reviewed studies on atmospheric dynamics , computer modelling and climate predictability and change and recently published popular science and academic books on meteorology ."}
{"_id": "Adelaide", "title": "Adelaide", "headings": "", "text": "Adelaide ( -LSB- ˈædəleɪdaudio = En-au-Adelaide . oga -RSB- ) is the capital city of the state of South Australia , and the fifth-most populous city of Australia . In June 2016 , Adelaide had an estimated resident population of 1,326,354 . South Australia , with a total of 1.7 million inhabitants , has the most centralised population of any state in Australia , with more than 75 percent of its people living in greater Adelaide , while the other population centres in the state are relatively small .   Adelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula , on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges which surround the city . Adelaide stretches 20 km from the coast to the foothills , and 94 to 104 km from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south .   Named in honour of Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen , queen consort to King William IV , the city was founded in 1836 as the planned capital for a freely-settled British province in Australia . Colonel William Light , one of Adelaide 's founding fathers , designed the city and chose its location close to the River Torrens , in the area originally inhabited by the Kaurna people . Light 's design set out Adelaide in a grid layout , interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares , and entirely surrounded by parklands . Early Adelaide was shaped by prosperity and wealth -- until the Second World War , it was Australia 's third-largest city and one of the few Australian cities to not have convict history . It has been noted for early examples of religious freedom , a commitment to political progressivism and civil liberties . It has been known as the `` City of Churches '' since the mid-19th century . The demonym `` Adelaidean '' is used in reference to the city and its residents .   As South Australia 's seat of government and commercial centre , Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions . Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevard of North Terrace , King William Street and in various districts of the metropolitan area . Today , Adelaide is noted for its many festivals and sporting events , its food and wine , its long beachfronts , and its large defence and manufacturing sectors . It ranks highly in terms of liveability , being listed in the Top 10 of The Economist Intelligence Units World 's Most Liveable Cities index in 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2015 . It was also ranked the most liveable city in Australia by the Property Council of Australia in 2011 , 2012 and 2013 ."}
{"_id": "Adventure_Time", "title": "Adventure Time", "headings": "", "text": "Adventure Time is an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward for Cartoon Network . It follows the adventures of a boy named Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( John DiMaggio ) a dog with the magical power to change shape and size at will . Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo , where they interact with Princess Bubblegum ( Hynden Walch ) , the Ice King ( Tom Kenny ) , Marceline the Vampire Queen ( Olivia Olson ) , BMO ( Niki Yang ) , and others . The series is based on a 2007 short produced for Nicktoons and Frederator Studios ' animation incubator series Random ! Cartoons . After the short became a viral hit on the Internet , Cartoon Network commissioned a full-length series , which previewed on March 11 , 2010 , and officially premiered on April 5 , 2010 .   The series draws inspiration from a variety of sources , including the fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons and video games . It is produced using hand-drawn animation ; action and dialogue for episodes are decided by storyboarding artists . Because each episode takes roughly eight to nine months to complete , multiple episodes are worked on concurrently . The cast members record their lines in group recordings , and the series regularly employs guest actors for minor and recurring characters . Each episode runs for about eleven minutes ; pairs of episodes are often telecast to fill half-hour program slots . Eight seasons of the program have aired , and a ninth and final season premiered on April 21 , 2017 . , a feature-length film is in development .   Since its debut , Adventure Time has been a ratings success for Cartoon Network , with the highest-rated episodes having attracted over 3 million viewers . The show has received positive reviews from critics anddespite being aimed primarily at childrenhas developed a following among teenagers and adults . Adventure Time has won awards including : six Primetime Emmy Awards , a Peabody Award , three Annie Awards , two British Academy Children 's Awards , a Motion Picture Sound Editors Award , a Pixel Award , and a Kerrang ! Award . The series has also been nominated for three Critics ' Choice Television Awards , two Annecy Festival Awards , a TCA Award , and a Sundance Film Festival Award , among others . Of the many comic book spin-offs based on the series , one received an Eisner Award and two Harvey Awards . The series has also inspired various clothing items and related merchandise , video games , and DVD compilations ."}
{"_id": "Aeolis_quadrangle", "title": "Aeolis quadrangle", "headings": "", "text": "The Aeolis quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Astrogeology Research Program . The Aeolis quadrangle is also referred to as MC-23 ( Mars Chart-23 ) .  The Aeolis quadrangle covers 180 ° to 225 ° W and 0 ° to 30 ° south on Mars , and contains parts of the regions Elysium Planitia and Terra Cimmeria . A small part of the Medusae Fossae Formation lies in this quadrangle .   The name refers to the name of a floating western island of Aiolos , the ruler of the winds . In Homer 's account , Odysseus received the west wind Zephyr here and kept it in bags , but the wind got out .   It is famous as the site of two spacecraft landings : the Spirit rover landing site in Gusev crater ( January 4 , 2004 ) , and the Curiosity rover in Gale Crater ( August 6 , 2012 ) .   A large , ancient river valley , called Ma'adim Vallis , enters at the south rim of Gusev Crater , so Gusev Crater was believed to be an ancient lake bed . However , it seems that a volcanic flow covered up the lakebed sediments . Apollinaris Patera , a large volcano , lies directly north of Gusev Crater .   Gale Crater , in the northwestern part of the Aeolis quadrangle , is of special interest to geologists because it contains a 2 -- 4 km ( 1.2 -- 2.5 mile ) high mound of layered sedimentary rocks , named `` Mount Sharp '' by NASA in honor of Robert P. Sharp ( 1911 -- 2004 ) , a planetary scientist of early Mars missions . More recently , on 16 May 2012 , `` Mount Sharp '' was officially named Aeolis Mons by the USGS and IAU .   Some regions in the Aeolis quadrangle show inverted relief . In these locations , a stream bed may be a raised feature , instead of a valley . The inverted former stream channels may be caused by the deposition of large rocks or due to cementation . In either case erosion would erode the surrounding land but leave the old channel as a raised ridge because the ridge will be more resistant to erosion   Yardangs are another feature found in this quadrangle They are generally visible as a series of parallel linear ridges , caused by the direction of the prevailing wind ."}
{"_id": "African_humid_period", "title": "African humid period", "headings": "", "text": "The African humid period (AHP) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases, which may imply that anthropogenic global warming could result in a shrinkage of the Sahara desert. During the preceding last glacial maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, but its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling-Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa the period appears to have taken place in several steps such as the 4.2 kiloyear event. The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the Pharaonic civilization. They lived as hunter-gatherers until the agricultural revolution and domesticated cattle, goats and sheep. They left archeological sites and artifacts such as one of the oldest ships in the world, and rock paintings such as those in the Cave of Swimmers and in the Acacus Mountains. Earlier humid periods in Africa were postulated after the discovery of these rock paintings in now-inhospitable parts of the Sahara. When the period ended, humans gradually abandoned the desert in favour of regions with more secure water supplies, such as the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, where they gave rise to early complex societies."}
{"_id": "Agriculture", "title": "Agriculture", "headings": "", "text": "Agriculture or farming is the cultivation and breeding of animals , plants and fungi for food , fiber , biofuel , medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life . Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization , whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization . The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science . The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years , and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates , cultures , and technologies . Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology .   Modern agronomy , plant breeding , agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers , and technological developments have in many cases sharply increased yields from cultivation , but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects . Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat , but have raised concerns about animal welfare and the health effects of the antibiotics , growth hormones , and other chemicals commonly used in industrial meat production . Genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture , although they are banned in several countries . Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts . Significant degradation of land and water resources , including the depletion of aquifers , has been observed in recent decades , and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood .   The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods , fibers , fuels , and raw materials . Specific foods include cereals ( grains ) , vegetables , fruits , oils , meats and spices . Fibers include cotton , wool , hemp , silk and flax . Raw materials include lumber and bamboo . Other useful materials are also produced by plants , such as resins , dyes , drugs , perfumes , biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants . Over one third of the world 's workers are employed in agriculture , second only to the service sector , although the percentages of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries ."}
{"_id": "Air_National_Guard", "title": "Air National Guard", "headings": "", "text": "The Air National Guard ( ANG ) , also known as the Air Guard , is a federal military reserve force as well as the militia air force of each U.S. state , the District of Columbia , the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , and the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands . It , along with each state 's , district 's , commonwealth 's or territory 's Army National Guard component , makes up the National Guard of each state and the districts , commonwealths and territories as applicable .   When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role . However , if federalized by order of the President of the United States , ANG units become an active part of the United States Air Force . They are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau , a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States .   Air National Guard units are organized and federally recognized federal military reserve forces in each of the fifty U.S. states , the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands , and the District of Columbia of the United States . Each state , the District of Columbia and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has a minimum of one ANG flying unit with either assigned aircraft or aircraft shared with a unit of the active duty Air Force or the Air Force Reserve under an `` Associate '' arrangement . The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned and perform ground support functions . Air National Guard activities may be located on active duty air force bases , air reserve bases , naval air stations/joint reserve bases , or air national guard bases and stations which are either independent military facilities or collocated as tenants on civilian-controlled joint civil-military airports .   ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC . However , when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally gained by an active duty USAF major command ( MAJCOM ) . ANG units of the Combat Air Forces ( CAF ) based in the Continental United States ( CONUS ) , plus a single air control squadron of the Puerto Rico ANG , are gained by the Air Combat Command ( ACC ) . CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces ( MAF ) , plus the Puerto Rico ANG 's airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANG 's civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command ( AMC ) .   The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC . However , there remain a few exceptions , such as the Alaska ANG , Hawaii ANG and Guam ANG , whose CAF and MAF units are operationally gained by Pacific Air Forces ( PACAF ) , while a smaller number of ANG units in CONUS are operationally gained by Air Education and Training Command ( AETC ) , Air Force Global Strike Command ( AFGSC ) , Air Force Special Operations Command ( AFSOC ) , Air Force Space Command ( AFSPC ) , and United States Air Forces in Europe - Air Forces Africa ( USAFE-AFAFRICA ) ."}
{"_id": "Air_pollution", "title": "Air pollution", "headings": "", "text": "Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution .   Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency ."}
{"_id": "Aircraft_lease", "title": "Aircraft lease", "headings": "", "text": "Aircraft leases are leases used by airlines and other aircraft operators . Airlines lease aircraft from other airlines or leasing companies for two main reasons : to operate aircraft without the financial burden of buying them , and to provide temporary increase in capacity . The industry has two main leasing types : wet-leasing , which is normally used for short-term leasing , and dry-leasing which is more normal for longer-term leases . The industry also uses combinations of wet and dry . For example , when the aircraft is wet-leased to establish new services , then as the airline 's flight or cabin crews become trained , they can be switched to a dry lease .   50 % of global lessor set are based in Ireland and in 2015 over $ 120b of new commercial aircraft was delivered worldwide . Operating leases of jet airliner accounted for less than 2 % of the fleet in 1976 , then 15 % in the early 1990s , 25 % in 2000 and 40 % in 2017 , with lessors involved in 62 % of second hand mid-life aircraft transactions since 2000 : 42 % in Europe and 29 % in North America ."}
{"_id": "Airline", "title": "Airline", "headings": "", "text": "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight . Airlines utilize aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements . Generally , airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body .   Airlines vary in size , from small domestic airlines to full-service international airlines . Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental , domestic , regional , or international , and may be operated as scheduled services or charters . The largest airline currently is American Airlines Group ."}
{"_id": "Airliner", "title": "Airliner", "headings": "", "text": "An airliner is a type of aircraft for transporting passengers and air cargo . Such aircraft are most often operated by airlines . Although the definition of an airliner can vary from country to country , an airliner is typically defined as an aircraft intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service .   The largest airliners are wide-body jets . These aircraft are frequently called twin-aisle aircraft because they generally have two separate aisles running from the front to the back of the passenger cabin . These aircraft are usually used for long-haul flights between airline hubs and major cities with many passengers .   A smaller , more common class of airliners is the narrow-body or single aisle aircraft . These smaller airliners are generally used for short to medium-distance flights with fewer passengers than their wide-body counterparts .   Regional airliners typically seat fewer than 100 passengers and may be powered by turbofans or turboprops . These airliners are the non-mainline counterparts to the larger aircraft operated by the major carriers , legacy carriers , and flag carriers and are used to feed traffic into the large airline hubs . These regional routes then form the spokes of a hub-and-spoke air transport model .   The lightest ( light aircraft , list of light transport aircraft ) of short haul regional feeder airliner type aircraft that carry 19 or fewer passenger seats are called commuter aircraft , commuterliners , feederliners , and air taxis , depending on their size , engines , how they are marketed , region of the world , and seating configurations . The Beechcraft 1900 , for example , has only 19 seats ."}
{"_id": "Airplane", "title": "Airplane", "headings": "", "text": "An airplane or aeroplane ( informally plane ) is a powered , fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller . Airplanes come in a variety of sizes , shapes , and wing configurations . The broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation , transportation of goods and people , military , and research . Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of passengers daily on airliners . Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft , but some are designed to be remotely or computer-controlled .   The Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903 , recognized as `` the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight '' . They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799 , when he set forth the concept of the modern airplane ( and later built and flew models and successful passenger-carrying gliders ) . Between 1867 and 1896 , the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight . Following its limited use in World War I , aircraft technology continued to develop . Airplanes had a presence in all the major battles of World War II . The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939 . The first jet airliner , the de Havilland Comet , was introduced in 1952 . The Boeing 707 , the first widely successful commercial jet , was in commercial service for more than 50 years , from 1958 to at least 2013 ."}
{"_id": "Al_Gore", "title": "Al Gore", "headings": "", "text": "Albert Arnold Gore Jr. ( born March 31 , 1948 ) is an American politician and environmentalist who served as the 45th Vice President of the United States from 1993 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton . He was Clinton 's running mate in their successful campaign in 1992 , and was re-elected in 1996 . At the end of Clinton 's second term , Gore was picked as the Democratic nominee for the 2000 presidential election . After leaving office , Gore remained prominent as an author and environmental activist , whose work in climate change activism earned him ( jointly with the IPCC ) the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .   Gore was an elected official for 24 years . He was a Congressman from Tennessee ( 1977 -- 85 ) and from 1985 to 1993 served as one of the state 's Senators . He served as Vice President during the Clinton administration from 1993 to 2001 . In the 2000 presidential election , in what was one of the closest presidential races in history , Gore won the popular vote but lost in the Electoral College to Republican George W. Bush . A controversial election dispute over a vote recount in Florida was settled by the U.S. Supreme Court , which ruled 5 -- 4 in favor of Bush .   Gore is the founder and current chair of the Alliance for Climate Protection , the co-founder and chair of Generation Investment Management and the now-defunct Current TV network , a member of the Board of Directors of Apple Inc. , and a senior adviser to Google . Gore is also a partner in the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins Caufield & Byers , heading its climate change solutions group . He has served as a visiting professor at Middle Tennessee State University , Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism , Fisk University , and the University of California , Los Angeles . He served on the Board of Directors of World Resources Institute .   Gore has received a number of awards including the Nobel Peace Prize ( joint award with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 2007 ) , a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album ( 2009 ) for his book An Inconvenient Truth , a Primetime Emmy Award for Current TV ( 2007 ) , and a Webby Award ( 2005 ) . Gore was also the subject of the Academy Award-winning ( 2007 ) documentary An Inconvenient Truth in 2006 . In 2007 , he was named a runner-up for Time 2007 Person of the Year ."}
{"_id": "Alaska", "title": "Alaska", "headings": "", "text": "Alaska ( -LSB- əˈlæskə -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America . The Canadian administrative divisions of British Columbia and Yukon border the state to the east ; its most extreme western part is Attu Island ; it has a maritime border with Russia to the west across the Bering Strait . To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas -- the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean . The Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest . It is the largest state in the United States by area . In addition , it is the 3rd least populous and the most sparsely populated of the 50 United States ; nevertheless , it is by far the most populous territory located mostly north of the 60th parallel in North America , its population ( the total estimated at 738,432 by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 ) more than quadrupling the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland . Approximately half of Alaska 's residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area . Alaska 's economy is dominated by the fishing , natural gas , and oil industries , resources which it has in abundance . Military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy .   The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30 , 1867 , for 7.2 million U.S. dollars at approximately two cents per acre ( $ 4.74 / km2 ) . The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11 , 1912 . It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3 , 1959 ."}
{"_id": "Alaska_North_Slope", "title": "Alaska North Slope", "headings": "", "text": "The Alaska North Slope is the region of the U.S. state of Alaska located on the northern slope of the Brooks Range along the coast of two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean , the Chukchi Sea being on the western side of Point Barrow , and the Beaufort Sea on the eastern ."}
{"_id": "Albany,_New_York", "title": "Albany, New York", "headings": "", "text": "Albany ( -LSB- ˈɔːlbəni -RSB- ) is the capital of the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County . Roughly 150 mi north of New York City , Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River , about 10 mi south of its confluence with the Mohawk River . The population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census . Albany constitutes the economic and cultural core of the Capital District of New York State , which comprises the Albany-Schenectady-Troy , NY Metropolitan Statistical Area , including the nearby cities and suburbs of Troy , Schenectady , and Saratoga Springs . With a 2013 Census-estimated population of 1.1 million the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States .   Fortune 500 companies with offices in Albany include American Express , J.P. Morgan and Chase , Merrill Lynch , General Electric , Verizon , Goldman Sachs , International Paper , and Key Bank . In the 21st century , the Capital District has emerged as a major anchor of Tech Valley , the moniker describing the technologically-focused region of eastern New York State .   This was the first European settlement in the state . It was settled by Dutch colonists who in 1614 , built Fort Nassau for fur trading and Fort Orange in 1624 . They formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples , two major Native American nations in the region . The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange . In 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements , renaming the city as Albany , in honor of the then Duke of Albany , the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland . The city was officially chartered in 1686 under English rule . It became the capital of New York State in 1797 , following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War . Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies , and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States . Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere .   During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th , Albany was a center of trade and transportation . It is on the north end of the navigable Hudson River , was the original eastern terminus of the Erie Canal connecting to the Great Lakes , and was home to some of the earliest railroad systems in the world . Albany 's main exports at the time were beer , lumber , published works , and ironworks . Beginning in 1810 , Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States , a distinction it held until the 1860 census .   Albany is one of the first cities in the world to have installed public water mains , sewer lines , natural gas lines and electricity , infrastructure and utilities that attracted and supported substantial new industry to the city and surrounding area during the 19th century .   In the 20th century , the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world , the precursor of today 's Albany International Airport . During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital , connected to politics in New York City as well . It marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities .   The city 's skyline changed in the 1960s and 1970s with the construction of office towers around the Empire State Plaza and at the uptown campus of SUNY Albany , mainly under the direction of Governor Nelson Rockefeller . While Albany experienced a decline in its population due to urban sprawl and suburbanization , many of its historic neighborhoods were saved from destruction through the policies of Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd , the longest-serving mayor of any city in the United States . In the early 21st century , Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry , with great strides in the nanotechnology sector .   Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century , with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services . The city has rebounded from the urban decline of the 1970s and 1980s , with noticeable development taking place in the city 's downtown and midtown neighborhoods . Albany is known for its rich history , commerce , culture , architecture , and institutions of higher education . Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009 ."}
{"_id": "Albedo", "title": "Albedo", "headings": "", "text": "Albedo ( -LSB- ælˈbiːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a measure for reflectance or optical brightness ( Latin albedo , Arabic albayad , `` whiteness '' ) . It is dimensionless and measured on a scale from zero ( corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation ) to one ( corresponding to a white body that reflects all incident radiation ) .   Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiation reflected to the radiation incident on a surface . The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself , but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface . These factors vary with atmospheric composition , geographic location and time ( see Position of the Sun ) . While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence ( i.e. , for a given position of the sun ) , albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period . The temporal resolution may range from seconds ( as obtained from flux measurements ) to daily , seasonal or annual averages .   Unless given for a specific wavelength ( spectral albedo ) , albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation . Due to measurement constraints , it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface ( approximately between 0.3 and 3 μm ) . This spectrum includes visible light ( 0.39-0 .7 μm ) , which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark ( e.g. , trees absorb most radiation ) , whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright ( e.g. , snow reflects most radiation ) .   Albedo is an important concept in climatology , astronomy , and environmental management ( e.g. , as part of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) program for sustainable rating of buildings ) . The average albedo of the Earth at the top of the atmosphere , its planetary albedo , is 30 to 35 % because of cloud cover , but widely varies locally across the surface because of different geological and environmental features .   The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria ."}
{"_id": "Alcoa", "title": "Alcoa", "headings": "", "text": "Alcoa Corporation ( from Aluminum Company of America ) is an American industrial corporation . It is the world 's fifth largest producer of aluminum , with corporate headquarters in New York City . From its operational base in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania in the United States , Alcoa conducts operations in 10 countries . Alcoa is a major producer of primary aluminum , fabricated aluminum , and alumina combined , through its active and growing participation in all major aspects of the industry : technology , mining , refining , smelting , fabricating , and recycling .   In May 2007 Alcoa Inc. made a US$ 27 billion hostile takeover bid for Alcan in an attempt to form the world 's largest aluminum producer . The bid was withdrawn when Alcan announced a friendly takeover by Rio Tinto in July 2007 .   On November 1 , 2016 , Alcoa Inc. split into two new entities : Alcoa Corporation , which is engaged in the mining and manufacture of raw aluminum , and Arconic , which processes aluminum and other metals .   In April 2017 , Alcoa announced it will move its headquarters back to Pittsburgh effective September 1 ."}
{"_id": "Alcohol_(drug)", "title": "Alcohol (drug)", "headings": "", "text": "Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a psychoactive drug that is the active ingredient in drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor). It is one of the oldest and most common recreational substances, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication (\"drunkenness\"). Among other effects, alcohol produces a mood lift and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, and generalized depression of central nervous system function. Ethanol is only one of several types of alcohol, but it is the only type of alcohol that is found in alcoholic beverages or commonly used for recreational purposes; other alcohols such as methanol and isopropyl alcohol are significantly more toxic.  A mild, brief exposure to isopropanol, being only moderately more toxic than ethanol, is unlikely to cause any serious harm.  Methanol, being profoundly more toxic than ethanol, is lethal in quantities as small as 10–15 milliliters (2–3 tsp). Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. Short-term adverse effects include generalized impairment of neurocognitive function, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and hangover-like symptoms. Alcohol can be addictive to humans, as in alcoholism, and can result in dependence and withdrawal. It can have a variety of long-term adverse effects on health, for instance liver damage, brain damage, and its consumption is the fifth leading cause of cancer. The adverse effects of alcohol on health are most important when it is used in excessive quantities or with heavy frequency. However, some of them, such as increased risk of certain cancers, may occur even with light or moderate alcohol consumption. In high amounts, alcohol may cause loss of consciousness or, in severe cases, death. Alcohol works in the brain primarily by increasing the effects of a neurotransmitter called γ-aminobutyric acid, or GABA. This is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and by facilitating its actions, alcohol suppresses the activity of the central nervous system. The substance also directly affects a number of other neurotransmitter systems including those of glutamate, glycine, acetylcholine, and serotonin. The pleasurable effects of alcohol ingestion are the result of increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways of the brain. Alcohol also has toxic and unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its byproduct acetaldehyde.Alcohol has been produced and consumed by humans for its psychoactive effects for almost 10,000 years. Drinking alcohol is generally socially acceptable and is legal in most countries, unlike with many other recreational substances. However, there are often restrictions on alcohol sale and use, for instance a minimum age for drinking and laws against public drinking and drinking and driving. Alcohol has considerable societal and cultural significance and has important social roles in much of the world. Drinking establishments, such as bars and nightclubs, revolve primarily around the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, and parties, festivals, and social gatherings commonly involve alcohol consumption. Its use is also related to various societal problems, including driving accidents and fatalities, accidental injuries, sexual assaults, domestic abuse, and violent crime. Alcohol remains illegal for sale and consumption in a number of countries, mainly in the Middle East."}
{"_id": "Alentejo", "title": "Alentejo", "headings": "", "text": "Alentejo is a geographical , historical and cultural region of south-central and southern Portugal . Literally , in Portuguese it means `` beyond '' ( além ) Tagus river ( Tejo ) .   Alentejo includes the regions of Alto Alentejo and Baixo Alentejo . It corresponds to the districts of Beja , Évora , Portalegre and the Alentejo Litoral . The main cities are : Évora , Beja , Serpa , Estremoz , Elvas and Portalegre .   It has borders with Beira Baixa in the North , with Spain ( Andalucia and Extremadura in the east , with Algarve in the South and with the Atlantic Ocean , Ribatejo and Estremadura in the West .   The Alentejo is a region known for its traditional polyphonic singing groups , similar to those found in Tuscany , Corsica , and elsewhere ."}
{"_id": "Alf_Ramsey", "title": "Alf Ramsey", "headings": "", "text": "Sir Alfred Ernest `` Alf '' Ramsey ( 22 January 1920 -- 28 April 1999 ) was an English football player and manager who , as manager of the England national football team from 1963 to 1974 , guided England to victory in the 1966 FIFA World Cup . Knighted in 1967 in recognition of England 's World Cup win , Ramsey also managed England to third place in the 1968 European Championship and the quarter-finals of the 1970 World Cup and the 1972 European Championship respectively . As a player , Ramsey was a defender and a member of England 's 1950 World Cup squad . He is , , the only person to have been inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame twice , both as manager and player .   Ramsey was born and raised in Dagenham , which was then a quiet Essex village . He showed sporting promise from an early age and , after serving in the British Army during the Second World War , embarked on a football career , primarily as a right-back for Southampton and Tottenham Hotspur . He was generally considered a rather slow , but accomplished player with a tremendous grasp of the tactical side of the game . Nicknamed `` The General '' , he was part of the Tottenham side that won the English League championship in the 1950 -- 51 season ; he also played for England 32 times between 1948 and 1953 , captaining the side three times and scoring three goals from penalty kicks . England games in which Ramsey played include the shock 1 -- 0 defeat to the United States at the 1950 World Cup and the `` Match of the Century '' against Hungary three years later .   Ramsey retired from playing in 1955 to become the manager of Ipswich Town , then in the third tier of English football . Ipswich rose through the divisions over the next six years , winning the Third Division South in 1956 -- 57 and the Second Division in 1960 -- 61 . In the 1961 -- 62 season , Ipswich 's first campaign in the top division , Ramsey 's team defied expectations to become champions of England at the first attempt . Ramsey took charge of the England team a year later . In a distinct break with common practice of the day , he used a narrow formation that led to his England side being dubbed `` The Wingless Wonders '' . England 's World Cup victory at Wembley in 1966 made Ramsey a national hero , though he had his critics , both at the time and since . He lost the England job acrimoniously , following the team 's failure to qualify for the 1974 World Cup .   After briefly managing Birmingham City during the 1977 -- 78 season , then acting in an advisory role at the Greek club Panathinaikos in 1979 -- 80 , Ramsey retired to Ipswich , where he led a somewhat reclusive life over the next two decades . He died in Ipswich in 1999 , aged 79 . Soon after his death , a statue of Ramsey was built outside Ipswich 's home ground at Portman Road , and a neighbouring street was named after him . A stand at Portman Road was named after Ramsey in 2012 . A second statue of Ramsey was dedicated at the reconstructed Wembley Stadium in 2009 , in the players ' tunnel . Ramsey was an inaugural inductee into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 , in recognition of his achievements as a manager ; he was admitted again , as a player , in 2010 . He remains widely regarded as one of British football 's all-time great managers ."}
{"_id": "Algae", "title": "Algae", "headings": "", "text": "Algae ( -LSB- ˈældʒi , _ ˈælɡi -RSB- singular alga -LSB- ˈælɡə -RSB- ) is an informal term for a large , diverse group of photosynthetic organisms which are not necessarily closely related , and is thus polyphyletic . Included organisms range from unicellular genera , such as Chlorella and the diatoms , to multicellular forms , such as the giant kelp , a large brown alga which may grow up to 50 m in length . Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types , such as stomata , xylem , and phloem , which are found in land plants . The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds , while the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta , a division of green algae which includes , for example , Spirogyra and the stoneworts .   No definition of algae is generally accepted . One definition is that algae `` have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells '' . Some authors exclude all prokaryotes thus do not consider cyanobacteria ( blue-green algae ) as algae .   Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor , and although their plastids seem to have a single origin , from cyanobacteria , they were acquired in different ways . Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria . Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga .   Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies , from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction .   Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants , such as the phyllids ( leaf-like structures ) of bryophytes , rhizoids in nonvascular plants , and the roots , leaves , and other organs found in tracheophytes ( vascular plants ) . Most are phototrophic , although some are mixotrophic , deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy , myzotrophy , or phagotrophy . Some unicellular species of green algae , many golden algae , euglenids , dinoflagellates , and other algae have become heterotrophs ( also called colorless or apochlorotic algae ) , sometimes parasitic , relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus . Some other heterotrophic organisms , such as the apicomplexans , are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids , but are not traditionally considered as algae . Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis , unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria . Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago ."}
{"_id": "Alpine_climate", "title": "Alpine climate", "headings": "", "text": "Alpine climate is the average weather ( climate ) for the regions above the tree line . This climate is also referred to as a mountain climate or highland climate ."}
{"_id": "Alternative_fuel", "title": "Alternative fuel", "headings": "", "text": "Alternative fuels , known as non-conventional and advanced fuels , are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels , other than conventional fuels like ; fossil fuels ( petroleum ( oil ) , coal , and natural gas ) , as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium , as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors .   Some well-known alternative fuels include biodiesel , bioalcohol ( methanol , ethanol , butanol ) , refuse-derived fuel , chemically stored electricity ( batteries and fuel cells ) , hydrogen , non-fossil methane , non-fossil natural gas , vegetable oil , propane and other biomass sources ."}
{"_id": "Alternative_medicine", "title": "Alternative medicine", "headings": "", "text": "Alternative medicine -- or fringe medicine -- includes practices claimed to have the healing effects of medicine but which are disproven , unproven , impossible to prove , or are excessively harmful in relation to their effect ; and where the scientific consensus is that the therapy does not , or can not , work because the known laws of nature are violated by its basic claims ; or where it is considered so much worse than conventional treatment that it would be unethical to offer as treatment . Alternative therapies or diagnoses are not part of medicine or science-based healthcare systems . Alternative medicine consists of a wide variety of practices , products , and therapies -- ranging from those that are biologically plausible but not well tested , to those with known harmful and toxic effects . Contrary to popular belief , significant expense is paid to test alternative medicine , including over $ 2.5 billion spent by the United States government . Almost none show any effect beyond that of false treatment . Perceived effects of alternative medicine may be caused by placebo ; decreased effect of functional treatment ( and therefore potentially decreased side effects ) ; and regression toward the mean where improvement that would have occurred anyway is credited to alternative therapies ; or any combination of the above . Alternative treatments are neither the same as experimental medicine , nor traditional medicine -- although the latter , when used today may be considered alternative .   Alternative medicine has grown in popularity and is used by a significant percentage of the population in many countries . While it has extensively rebranded itself : from quackery to complementary or integrative medicine -- it promotes essentially the same practices . Newer proponents often suggest alternative medicine be used together with functional medical treatment , in a belief that it `` complements '' ( improves the effect of , or mitigates the side effects of ) the treatment . There is no evidence showing they do so , and significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may instead negatively influence treatments , making them less effective , notably cancer therapy . Despite being illegal to market alternative therapies for cancer treatment in most of the developed world , many cancer patients use them .   Alternative medical diagnoses and treatments are not taught as part of science-based curricula in medical schools , and are not used in any practice where treatment is based on scientific knowledge or proven experience . Alternative therapies are often based on religion , tradition , superstition , belief in supernatural energies , pseudoscience , errors in reasoning , propaganda , fraud , or lies . Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine and health care providers varies between and within countries .   Alternative medicine is criticized for being based on misleading statements , quackery , pseudoscience , antiscience , fraud , or poor scientific methodology . Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical . Testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis has been called a waste of scarce research resources . Critics state `` there is really no such thing as alternative medicine , just medicine that works and medicine that does n't '' , and the problem with the idea of `` alternative '' treatments in this sense is that the `` underlying logic is magical , childish or downright absurd '' . It has been strongly suggested that the very idea of any alternative treatment that works is paradoxical , as any treatment proven to work is by definition `` medicine '' ."}
{"_id": "Amazon_basin", "title": "Amazon basin", "headings": "", "text": "The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries . The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,500,000 km2 , or roughly 40 percent of the South American continent . It is located in the countries of Bolivia , Brazil , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Peru , Suriname and Venezuela .   Most of the basin is covered by the Amazon Rainforest , also known as Amazonia . With a 5500000 km2 area of dense tropical forest , this is the largest rainforest in the world ."}
{"_id": "Amazon_rainforest", "title": "Amazon rainforest", "headings": "", "text": "The Amazon rainforest ( Portuguese : Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia ; Selva Amazónica , Amazonía or usually Amazonia ; Forêt amazonienne Amazoneregenwoud ) , also known in English as Amazonia or the Amazon Jungle , is a moist broadleaf forest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America . This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 , of which 5,500,000 km2 are covered by the rainforest . This region includes territory belonging to nine nations . The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil , with 60 % of the rainforest , followed by Peru with 13 % , Colombia with 10 % , and with minor amounts in Venezuela , Ecuador , Bolivia , Guyana , Suriname and French Guiana . States or departments in four nations contain `` Amazonas '' in their names . The Amazon represents over half of the planet 's remaining rainforests , and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world , with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species ."}
{"_id": "American_Civil_War", "title": "American Civil War", "headings": "", "text": "The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865 . After a long standing controversy over slavery and state 's rights , war broke out in April 1861 , when Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina , shortly after Abraham Lincoln was elected . The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution . They faced secessionists of the Confederate States of America advocating states ' rights to perpetual slavery and its expansion in the Americas .   Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861 , seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America . The Confederacy grew to include eleven states ; it claimed two more border states ( Kentucky and Missouri ) , the Indian Territory , and the southern portions of the Union 's western territories of Arizona and New Mexico , which was organized and incorporated into the Confederacy as Confederate Arizona . The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government , nor was it recognized by any foreign country ( although Britain and France granted it belligerent status ) . The states that remained loyal , including the border states where slavery was legal , were known as the Union or the North .   The North and South quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years . During this time many innovations in warfare occurred , including the development and use of iron-clad ships , ultimately changing naval strategy around the world . The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the battle of Appomattox , which triggered a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states . Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead , a higher number than the number of American military deaths in World War I and World War II combined , and much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed . The Confederacy collapsed , slavery was abolished and 4 million slaves were freed . The Reconstruction Era ( 1863 -- 1877 ) overlapped and followed the war , with the process of restoring national unity , strengthening the national government , and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country . The Civil War is arguably the most studied and written about episode in American history ."}
{"_id": "American_Legislative_Exchange_Council", "title": "American Legislative Exchange Council", "headings": "", "text": "The American Legislative Exchange Council ( ALEC ) is a nonprofit organization of conservative state legislators and private sector representatives that drafts and shares model state-level legislation for distribution among state governments in the United States .   ALEC provides a forum for state legislators and private sector members to collaborate on model bills -- draft legislation that members may customize and introduce for debate in their own state legislatures . ALEC has produced model bills on a broad range of issues , such as reducing regulation and individual and corporate taxation , combating illegal immigration , loosening environmental regulations , tightening voter identification rules , weakening labor unions and opposing gun control . Some of these bills dominate legislative agendas in states such as Arizona , Wisconsin , Colorado , Michigan , New Hampshire , and Maine . Approximately 200 model bills become law each year . ALEC also serves as a networking tool among state legislators , allowing them to research conservative policies implemented in other states . Many ALEC legislators say the organization converts campaign rhetoric and nascent policy ideas into legislative language .   ALEC 's activities , while legal , received public scrutiny after being reported by liberal groups in 2011 and after news reports from outlets such as The New York Times and Bloomberg Businessweek described ALEC as an organization that gave corporate interests outsized influence . Resulting public pressure led to a number of legislators and corporations withdrawing from the organization ."}
{"_id": "Americans", "title": "Americans", "headings": "", "text": "Americans are citizens of the United States of America . The country is home to people of many different national origins . As a result , Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity , but with citizenship and allegiance . Although citizens make up the majority of Americans , non-citizen residents , dual citizens , and expatriates may also claim an American identity .   The use in English of the term `` American '' to exclusively mean people of the United States developed from its original use to differentiate English people of the American colonies from English people of England despite its linguistic ambiguity in other senses of the word `` American '' , which can also refer to people from the Americas in general . See Names for United States citizens ."}
{"_id": "Amundsen–Scott_South_Pole_Station", "title": "Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station", "headings": "", "text": "The Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station is a United States scientific research station at the South Pole , the southernmost place on the Earth . The station is located on the high plateau of Antarctica at an elevation of 2,835 metres ( 9,301 feet ) above sea level and is administered by the Division of Polar Programs within the National Science Foundation under the United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) .   The original Amundsen -- Scott Station was built by Navy Seabees for the Federal government of the United States during November 1956 , as a part of its commitment to the scientific goals of the International Geophysical Year ( IGY ) , an international effort lasting from January 1957 through June 1958 , to study , among other things , the geophysics of the polar regions of Earth .   Before November 1956 , there was no permanent human structure at the South Pole , and very little human presence in the interior of Antarctica at all . The few scientific stations in Antarctica were located on and near its seacoast . The station has been continuously occupied since it was built . The Amundsen -- Scott Station has been rebuilt , demolished , expanded , and upgraded several times since 1956 .   Since the Amundsen -- Scott Station is located at the South Pole , it is at the only place on the land surface of the Earth where the Sun is continuously up for six months and then continuously down for six months . ( The only other such place is at the North Pole , on the sea ice in the middle of the Arctic Ocean . ) Thus , during each year , this station experiences one extremely long `` day '' and one extremely long `` night '' . During the six-month `` day '' , the angle of elevation of the Sun above the horizon varies continuously . The Sun rises on the September equinox , reaches its maximum angle above the horizon on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere , around December 20 , and sets on the March equinox .   During the six-month `` night '' , it gets extremely cold at the South Pole , with air temperatures sometimes dropping below -73 ° C . This is also the time of the year when blizzards , sometimes with gale-force winds , strike the Amundsen -- Scott Station . The continuous period of darkness and dry atmosphere make the station an excellent place from which to make astronomical observations , although the Moon is up for two weeks of every 27.3 days .   The number of scientific researchers and members of the support staff housed at the Amundsen -- Scott Station has always varied seasonally , with a peak population of about 200 in the summer operational season from October to February . In recent years the winter-time population has been around 50 people ."}
{"_id": "An_Inconvenient_Truth", "title": "An Inconvenient Truth", "headings": "", "text": "An Inconvenient Truth is a 2006 American documentary film directed by Davis Guggenheim about former United States Vice President Al Gore 's campaign to educate citizens about global warming via a comprehensive slide show that , by his own estimate made in the film , he has given more than a thousand times . The idea to document his efforts came from producer Laurie David , who saw his presentation at a town-hall meeting on global warming , which coincided with the opening of The Day After Tomorrow . Laurie David was so inspired by Gore 's slide show that she , with producer Lawrence Bender , met with Guggenheim to adapt the presentation into a film .   Premiering at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and opening in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24 , 2006 , the documentary was a critical and box office success , winning two Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song . The film grossed $ 24 million in the U.S. and $ 26 million at the international box office , becoming the tenth highest grossing documentary film to date in the United States . Since the film 's release , An Inconvenient Truth has been credited for raising international public awareness of global warming and reenergizing the environmental movement . The documentary has also been included in science curricula in schools around the world , which has spurred some controversy . A sequel to the film , titled An Inconvenient Sequel : Truth to Power , will be released on July 28 , 2017 ."}
{"_id": "Anaerobic_digestion", "title": "Anaerobic digestion", "headings": "", "text": "Anaerobic digestion is a collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen . The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels . Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products , as well as home fermentation , uses anaerobic digestion .   Anaerobic digestion occurs naturally in some soils and in lake and oceanic basin sediments , where it is usually referred to as `` anaerobic activity '' . This is the source of marsh gas methane as discovered by Volta in 1776 .   The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials . Insoluble organic polymers , such as carbohydrates , are broken down to soluble derivatives that become available for other bacteria . Acidogenic bacteria then convert the sugars and amino acids into carbon dioxide , hydrogen , ammonia , and organic acids . These bacteria convert these resulting organic acids into acetic acid , along with additional ammonia , hydrogen , and carbon dioxide . Finally , methanogens convert these products to methane and carbon dioxide . The methanogenic archaea populations play an indispensable role in anaerobic wastewater treatments .   Anaerobic digestion is used as part of the process to treat biodegradable waste and sewage sludge . As part of an integrated waste management system , anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere . Anaerobic digesters can also be fed with purpose-grown energy crops , such as maize .   Anaerobic digestion is widely used as a source of renewable energy . The process produces a biogas , consisting of methane , carbon dioxide and traces of other ` contaminant ' gases . This biogas can be used directly as fuel , in combined heat and power gas engines or upgraded to natural gas-quality biomethane . The nutrient-rich digestate also produced can be used as fertilizer .   With the re-use of waste as a resource and new technological approaches that have lowered capital costs , anaerobic digestion has in recent years received increased attention among governments in a number of countries , among these the United Kingdom ( 2011 ) , Germany and Denmark ( 2011 ) ."}
{"_id": "Anders_Jonas_Ångström", "title": "Anders Jonas Ångström", "headings": "", "text": "Anders Jonas Ångström ( -LSB- ˈan.ˈdəʂ ˈjuː.ˈnas ˈɔŋ.ˈstrøm -RSB- ; 13 August 181421 June 1874 ) was a Swedish physicist and one of the founders of the science of spectroscopy ."}
{"_id": "Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain", "title": "Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain", "headings": "", "text": "The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain describes the process which changed the language and culture of most of what became England from Romano-British to Germanic . The Germanic-speakers in Britain , themselves of diverse origins , eventually developed a common cultural identity as Anglo-Saxons . This process occurred from the mid 5th to early 7th centuries , following the end of Roman power in Britain around the year 410 . The settlement was followed by the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the south and east of Britain , later followed by the rest of modern England .   The available evidence includes the scanty contemporary and near-contemporary written record , and archaeological and genetic information . The few literary sources tell of hostility between incomers and natives . They describe violence , destruction , massacre and the flight of the Romano-British population . Also , it has long been supposed that the influence of Celtic languages on Old English was slight . These points have suggested a very large-scale invasion by various Germanic peoples . In this view , held by the majority of historians until the mid to late twentieth century , much of England was cleared of its prior inhabitants . If this ` traditional ' viewpoint were to be correct , the genes of the later English people would have been overwhelmingly inherited from Germanic migrants .   Another view , probably the most widely held today , is that the migrants were relatively few , centred on a warrior elite . They then dominated a process of acculturation to Germanic language and material culture . Consistent with this theory , archaeologists find that settlement patterns and land-use show no clear break with the Romano-British past , though there are marked changes in material culture . This view predicts that the ancestry of the people of Anglo-Saxon and modern England would be largely derived from the native Romano-British . The uncertain results of genetic studies tend to support this prediction .   There are also two less well-supported theories , held by a minority of scholars , both originating from population genetics studies . First , Stephen Oppenheimer has argued that Germanic peoples , language and culture existed in eastern regions of Britain , even in pre-Roman times . This idea has been very actively challenged by a number of linguists . Second , that the early settlers may have arrived in considerable numbers but represented a minority relative to the natives . If these incomers established themselves as a social elite , this could have allowed them enhanced reproductive success ( the so-called ` Apartheid Theory ' ) . In this case , the genes of later Anglo-Saxon England could have been largely derived from moderate numbers of Germanic migrants ."}
{"_id": "Angstrom", "title": "Angstrom", "headings": "", "text": "The angstrom (, ; ANG-strəm, ANG-strum) or ångström is a metric unit of length equal to 10−10 m; that is, one ten-billionth of a metre, 0.1 nanometre, or 100 picometres. Its symbol is Å, a letter of the Swedish alphabet. The ångström is not a part of the SI system of units, but it can be considered part of the metric system in general. Although deprecated by both the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the unit is still often used in the natural sciences and technology to express sizes of atoms, molecules, microscopic biological structures, and lengths of chemical bonds, arrangement of atoms in crystals, wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, and dimensions of integrated circuit parts. The atomic (covalent) radii of phosphorus, sulfur, and chlorine are about 1 ångström, while that of hydrogen is about 0.5 ångströms. Visible light has wavelengths in the range of 4000–7000 Å.The unit is named after 19th-century Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Ångström (Swedish: [ˈɔ̂ŋːstrœm]). The BIPM and NIST use the spelling ångström, including Swedish letters; but this form is rare in English texts. Some popular US dictionaries list only the spelling angstrom. The symbol should always be \"Å\", no matter how the unit is spelled. Nonetheless, \"A\" is often used in less formal contexts or typographically limited media."}
{"_id": "Anoxic_event", "title": "Anoxic event", "headings": "", "text": "Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events ( anoxia conditions ) refer to intervals in the Earth 's past where portions of oceans become depleted in oxygen ( O2 ) at depths over a large geographic area . During some of these events , euxinia , waters that contained hydrogen sulfide , developed . Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years , the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past . Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them . These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating . Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation , climatic warming , and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism ( the release of CO2 ) as the `` central external trigger for euxinia '' ."}
{"_id": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "title": "Antarctic ice sheet", "headings": "", "text": "The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there .   In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves ."}
{"_id": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "title": "Antarctic sea ice", "headings": "", "text": "Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not .   Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice ."}
{"_id": "Antarctica", "title": "Antarctica", "headings": "", "text": "Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula .   Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra .   Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians .   Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations ."}
{"_id": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "title": "Antarctica cooling controversy", "headings": "", "text": "An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 ."}
{"_id": "Anthony_Watts_(blogger)", "title": "Anthony Watts (blogger)", "headings": "", "text": "Willard Anthony Watts ( born 1958 ) is an American blogger who runs Watts Up With That ? , a popular climate change denial blog that opposes the scientific consensus on climate change . A former television meteorologist and current radio meteorologist , he is also founder of the Surface Stations project , a volunteer initiative to document the condition of U.S. weather stations . The Heartland Institute helped fund some of Watts ' projects , including publishing a report on the Surface Stations project , and has invited him to be a paid speaker at the International Conference on Climate Change from 2008 to 2014 ."}
{"_id": "Anthozoa", "title": "Anthozoa", "headings": "", "text": "Anthozoa is a class within the phylum Cnidaria . Unlike other cnidarians , anthozoans do not have a medusa stage in their development . Instead , they release sperm and eggs that form a planula , which attaches to some substrate on which the cnidarian grows . Some anthozoans can also reproduce asexually through budding . More than 6,100 species have been described .   The name comes from the Greek words -LSB- : wikt : άνθος , άνθος -RSB- ( ánthos ; `` flower '' ) and -LSB- : wikt : ζῷον , ζώα -RSB- ( zóa ; `` animals '' ) , hence ανθόζωα ( anthozoa ) = `` flower animals '' , a reference to the floral appearance of their perennial polyp stage ."}
{"_id": "Anti-submarine_warfare", "title": "Anti-submarine warfare", "headings": "", "text": "Anti-submarine warfare ( ASW , or in older form A/S ) is a branch of underwater warfare that uses surface warships , aircraft , or other submarines to find , track and deter , damage or destroy enemy submarines .   Successful anti-submarine warfare depends on a mix of sensor and weapon technology , training , and experience . Sophisticated sonar equipment for first detecting , then classifying , locating and tracking the target submarine is a key element of ASW . To destroy submarines both the torpedo and mine are used , launched from air , surface and underwater platforms . Other means of destruction have been used in the past but are now obsolete . ASW also involves protecting friendly ships ."}
{"_id": "Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction", "title": "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction", "headings": "", "text": "Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction is a subgenre of science fiction , science fantasy or horror fiction literature in which the Earth 's technological civilization is collapsing or has collapsed . The apocalypse event may be climatic , such as runaway climate change ; natural , such as an impact event ; man-made , such as nuclear warfare ; medical , such as a plague or virus , whether natural or man-made ; or imaginative , such as zombie apocalypse or alien invasion . The story may involve attempts to prevent an apocalypse event , deal with the impact and consequences of the event itself , or it may be post-apocalyptic , set after the event . The time frame may be immediately after the catastrophe , focusing on the travails or psychology of survivors , the way to maintain the human race alive and together as one , or considerably later , often including the theme that the existence of pre-catastrophe civilization has been forgotten ( or mythologized ) . Post-apocalyptic stories often take place in a non-technological future world , or a world where only scattered elements of society and technology remain .   Various ancient societies , including the Babylonian and Judaic , produced apocalyptic literature and mythology which dealt with the end of the world and of human society , such as the Epic of Gilgamesh , written ca. 2000 -- 1500 BC . And recognizable modern apocalyptic novels had existed since at least the first quarter of the 19th century , when Mary Shelley 's The Last Man ( 1826 ) was published . However , this form of literature gained widespread popularity after World War II , when the possibility of global annihilation by nuclear weapons entered the public consciousness .   As shown above , the apocalypse is also depicted in visual art , for example in Albert Goodwin 's painting Apocalypse ( 1903 ) ."}
{"_id": "Apple_Corps", "title": "Apple Corps", "headings": "", "text": "Apple Corps Ltd ( informally known as Apple ) is a multi-armed multimedia corporation founded in London in January 1968 by the members of the Beatles to replace their earlier company ( Beatles Ltd ) and to form a conglomerate . Its name ( pronounced `` apple core '' ) is a pun . Its chief division is Apple Records , which was launched in the same year . Other divisions included Apple Electronics , Apple Films , Apple Publishing and Apple Retail , whose most notable venture was the ill-fated Apple Boutique , on the corner of Baker Street and Paddington Street in central London . Apple 's headquarters in the late 1960s was at the upper floors of 94 Baker Street , after that at 95 Wigmore Street , and subsequently at 3 Savile Row . The latter address was also known as the Apple Building , which was home to the Apple Studio .   From 1970 to 2007 , Apple 's chief executive was former Beatles road manager Neil Aspinall , although he did not officially bear that title until Allen Klein had left the company . The current CEO is Jeff Jones . In 2010 , Apple Corps ranked number 2 on the Fast Company magazine 's list of the world 's most innovative companies in the music industry , thanks to the release of The Beatles : Rock Band video game and the remastering of the Beatles ' catalogue ."}
{"_id": "Aqua_(satellite)", "title": "Aqua (satellite)", "headings": "", "text": "Aqua ( EOS PM-1 ) is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth , studying the precipitation , evaporation , and cycling of water . It is the second major component of the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) preceded by Terra ( launched 1999 ) and followed by Aura ( launched 2004 ) .   The name `` Aqua '' comes from the Latin word for water . The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on May 4 , 2002 , aboard a Delta II rocket . Aqua is on a Sun-synchronous orbit . It flies as the second in the satellite formation called the `` A Train '' with several other satellites ( Aura , CALIPSO , CloudSat , OCO-2 , the French PARASOL , and the Japanese GCOM W1 ) ."}
{"_id": "Arab_Spring", "title": "Arab Spring", "headings": "", "text": "The Arab Spring ( الربيع العربي ar-Rabīʻ al-ʻArabī ) also referred to as Arab revolutions ( الثورات العربية aṯ - ` awrāt al-ʻarabiyyah ) or Democracy Spring ( الربيع الديمقراطي ar-Rabīʻ ad-Dīmuqrāṭī ) was a revolutionary wave of both violent and non-violent demonstrations , protests , riots , coups and civil wars in North Africa and the Middle East that began on 17 December 2010 in Tunisia with the Tunisian Revolution .   The Tunisian Revolution effect spread strongly to five other countries : Libya , Egypt , Yemen , Syria and Iraq , where either the regime was toppled or major uprisings and social violence occurred , including civil wars or insurgencies .   Sustained street demonstrations took place in Morocco , Bahrain , Algeria , Iran , Lebanon , Jordan , Kuwait , Oman and Sudan . Minor protests occurred in Djibouti , Mauritania , the Palestinian territories , Saudi Arabia , Somalia and the Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara . A major slogan of the demonstrators in the Arab world is ash-shaʻb yurīd isqāṭ an-niẓām ( `` the people want to bring down the regime '' ) .   The wave of initial revolutions and protests faded by mid-2012 , as many Arab Spring demonstrations were met with violent responses from authorities , as well as from pro-government militias and counter-demonstrators . These attacks were answered with violence from protestors in some cases .  Large-scale conflicts resulted -- the Syrian Civil War , Iraqi insurgency and the following civil war , the Egyptian Crisis and coup , the Libyan Crisis , and the Crisis in Yemen .   A power struggle continued after the immediate response to the Arab Spring . While leadership changed and regimes were held accountable , power went up for grabs across the Arab world . Ultimately it came down to a contentious battle between a consolidation of power by religious elites and the growing support for democracy in many Muslim-majority states . The early hopes that these popular movements would end corruption , increase political participation , and bring about greater economic equity , quickly collapsed in the wake of the counterrevolutionary moves of the deep state in Egypt , the regional and international interventions in Bahrain and Yemen , and the destructive civil wars in Syria and Libya .   Some have referred to the succeeding and still ongoing conflicts as the Arab Winter . As of July 2016 , only the uprising in Tunisia resulted in a transition to constitutional democratic governance ."}
{"_id": "Aralam_Wildlife_Sanctuary", "title": "Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary", "headings": "", "text": "Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary is the northernmost wildlife sanctuary of Kerala , southwest India . It is 55 km2 in area and located on the western slope of the Western Ghats . It was established in 1984 . The headquarters of the sanctuary is near Iritty . Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary is situated in the southeast part of Kannur District . It lies between 11 ° 54 ′ and 11 ° 59 ′ north latitude and 75 ° 47 ′ and 75 ° 57 ′ east longitude .   The sanctuary area falls in Aralam , Kelakam and Kottiyoor revenue villages and is located in the northwest slopes of Western Ghats contiguous with the forests of Coorg ( Kodagu ) district of Karnataka state .   The PA ( protected area ) consists of Aralam Range , the only range of Aralam wildlife division , which is part of Northern Wildlife Circle ( Northern Region ) Palakkad . The extent of the sanctuary is 55 km2 . The sanctuary was constituted in 1984 as per GO ( P ) 300/84/AD dated 15 October 1984 .   It was formed by carving out areas from the Odanthode Malavaram of Thalassery special division which was an erstwhile private forest , subsequently taken over by Govt . as per the provisions of the Kerala Private Forests ( vesting and assignment ) Act 1971 and from the Kottiyoor RF of Wayanad Forest Division .   The vested forest portion of the sanctuary is 32.64 km2 and the 22.36 km2 is part of Kottiyoor RF ( Reserved Forest ) .   Till 30.6.98 this sanctuary was a range in Wayanad Wildlife Division . It started functioning as an independent wildlife division since 1.7.98 as per GO ( MS ) 36/98 dated 27.5.98 .   In the First Management Plan the entire area was divided into two zones viz : the Core Zone and the Buffer Zone.Climatic factors include rainfall , temperature , humidity , frost and so on .   Average rainfall : 4000 mm  Temperature : 11.0 ° C to 40.0 ° C  Humidity : 60 to 100 %  Wind : Regular wind during Southwest monsoon  Water source : Cheenkannipuzha"}
{"_id": "Arctic", "title": "Arctic", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places .   The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_Circle", "title": "Arctic Circle", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the abstract five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of the Earth . It marks the northernmost point at which the noon sun is just visible on the northern winter solstice and the southernmost point at which the midnight sun is just visible on the northern summer solstice . The region north of this circle is known as the Arctic , and the zone just to the south is called the Northern Temperate Zone . North of the Arctic Circle , the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore visible at midnight ) and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year ( and therefore not visible at noon ) ; this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Southern Hemisphere , the Antarctic Circle .   The position of the Arctic Circle is not fixed ; as of , it runs north of the Equator . Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt , which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000-year period , due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon . Consequently , the Arctic Circle is currently drifting northwards at a speed of about 15 m per year ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge", "title": "Arctic National Wildlife Refuge", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ( ANWR or Arctic Refuge ) is a national wildlife refuge in northeastern Alaska , United States . It consists of 19286722 acre in the Alaska North Slope region . It is the largest National Wildlife Refuge in the country , slightly larger than the Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge . The refuge is administered from offices in Fairbanks .   Just across the border in Yukon , Canada , are two Canadian National Parks , Ivvavik and Vuntut ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_Ocean", "title": "Arctic Ocean", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean .   Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_fox", "title": "Arctic fox", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic fox ( Vulpes lagopus ) , also known as the white fox , polar fox , or snow fox , is a small fox native to the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and common throughout the Arctic tundra biome . It is well adapted to living in cold environments . It has a deep thick fur which is brown in summer and white in winter . Its body length ranges from 46 to , with a generally rounded body shape to minimize the escape of body heat .   The Arctic fox preys on any small creatures such as : lemmings , voles , ringed seal pups , fish , waterfowl , and seabirds . It also eats carrion , berries , seaweed , insects , and other small invertebrates . Arctic foxes form monogamous pairs during the breeding season and they stay together to raise their young in complex underground dens . Occasionally , other family members may assist in raising their young ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_ice_pack", "title": "Arctic ice pack", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_methane_emissions", "title": "Arctic methane emissions", "headings": "", "text": "Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas .   The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits .   Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_oscillation", "title": "Arctic oscillation", "headings": "", "text": "The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows :  `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . ''  This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace .   The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way .   Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . )   The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail :   `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . ''   Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency :  `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... ''   A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs .   However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it ."}
{"_id": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "title": "Arctic sea ice decline", "headings": "", "text": "Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification ."}
{"_id": "Argo_(oceanography)", "title": "Argo (oceanography)", "headings": "", "text": "Argo is an international program that uses profiling floats to observe temperature , salinity , currents , and , recently , bio-optical properties in the Earth 's oceans ; it has been operational since the early 2000s . The real-time data it provides is used in climate and oceanographic research . A special research interest is to quantify the ocean heat content ( OHC ) .   The Argo fleet consists of almost 4000 drifting `` Argo floats '' ( as profiling floats used by the Argo program are often called ) deployed worldwide . Each float weighs 20 -- 30 kg . In most cases probes drift at a depth of 1000 metres ( the so-called parking depth ) and , every 10 days , by changing their buoyancy , dive to a depth of 2000 metres and then move to the sea-surface , measuring conductivity and temperature profiles as well as pressure . From these , salinity and density can be calculated . Seawater density is important in determining large-scale motions in the ocean . Average current velocities at 1000 metres are directly measured by the distance and direction a float drifts while parked at that depth , which is determined by GPS or Argos system positions at the surface . The data are transmitted to shore via satellite , and are freely available to everyone , without restrictions .   The Argo program is named after the Greek mythical ship Argo to emphasize the complementary relationship of Argo with the Jason satellite altimeters ."}
{"_id": "Argument", "title": "Argument", "headings": "", "text": "In philosophy and logic , an argument is a series of statements typically used to persuade someone of something or to present reasons for accepting a conclusion . The general form of an argument in a natural language is that of premises ( typically in the form of propositions , statements or sentences ) in support of a claim : the conclusion . The structure of some arguments can also be set out in a formal language , and formally defined `` arguments '' can be made independently of natural language arguments , as in math , logic , and computer science .   In a typical deductive argument , the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion , while in an inductive argument , they are thought to provide reasons supporting the conclusion 's probable truth . The standards for evaluating non-deductive arguments may rest on different or additional criteria than truth , for example , the persuasiveness of so-called `` indispensability claims '' in transcendental arguments , the quality of hypotheses in retroduction , or even the disclosure of new possibilities for thinking and acting .   The standards and criteria used in evaluating arguments and their forms of reasoning are studied in logic . Ways of formulating arguments effectively are studied in rhetoric ( see also : argumentation theory ) . An argument in a formal language shows the logical form of the symbolically represented or natural language arguments obtained by its interpretations ."}
{"_id": "Art_Robinson", "title": "Art Robinson", "headings": "", "text": "Arthur Brouhard Robinson (born March 24, 1942) is an American biochemist, conservative activist, and politician. He was the five-time Republican nominee for the United States House of Representatives for Oregon's 4th congressional district. In 2020 he became Senator-elect of Oregons 2nd Senate District. A former faculty member of the University of California, San Diego, Robinson now runs a privately funded laboratory known as the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine in Cave Junction, Oregon, a newsletter called Access to Energy, and publishes the Robinson Self-Teaching Home School Curriculum.As the Republican nominee for the Fourth District in Oregon, Robinson ran and lost to Democratic incumbent Peter DeFazio in five consecutive elections: 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018. He served as Chairman of the Oregon Republican Party from August 2013 to February 2015."}
{"_id": "Arthur_D._Levinson", "title": "Arthur D. Levinson", "headings": "", "text": "Arthur D. Levinson ( born March 31 , 1950 ) is an American businessman and is the current CEO of Calico ( an Alphabet Inc. venture ) and chairman of Apple Inc. ( 2011 to present ) . He is the former chief executive officer ( 1995 to 2009 ) and chairman ( 1999 to 2014 ) of Genentech .   In addition to serving on the board of Apple Inc. ( 2000 -- present ) , Levinson serves on the board of directors of the Broad Institute ( affiliated with MIT and Harvard ) . Previously , Levinson had served on the board of directors at F. Hoffmann-La Roche ( 2010-2014 ) , NGM Biopharmaceuticals ( 2009-2014 ) , and Amyris Biotechnologies ( 2009-2014 ) . He currently serves on the Board of Scientific Consultants of the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center , the Industrial Advisory Board of the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences ( QB3 ) , the Advisory Council for the Princeton University Department of Molecular Biology and the Advisory Council for the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics ."}
{"_id": "Artificial_intelligence", "title": "Artificial intelligence", "headings": "", "text": "Artificial intelligence ( AI ) is intelligence exhibited by machines . In computer science , the field of AI research defines itself as the study of `` intelligent agents '' : any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of success at some goal . Colloquially , the term `` artificial intelligence '' is applied when a machine mimics `` cognitive '' functions that humans associate with other human minds , such as `` learning '' and `` problem solving '' .   As machines become increasingly capable , mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition . For instance , optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of `` artificial intelligence '' , having become a routine technology . Capabilities currently classified as AI include successfully understanding human speech , competing at a high level in strategic game systems ( such as chess and Go ) , self-driving cars , intelligent routing in content delivery networks , military simulations , and interpreting complex data .   AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems , approaches , the use of a particular tool , or towards satisfying particular applications .   The central problems ( or goals ) of AI research include reasoning , knowledge , planning , learning , natural language processing ( communication ) , perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects . General intelligence is among the field 's long-term goals . Approaches include statistical methods , computational intelligence , and traditional symbolic AI . Many tools are used in AI , including versions of search and mathematical optimization , logic , methods based on probability and economics . The AI field draws upon computer science , mathematics , psychology , linguistics , philosophy , neuroscience , artificial psychology plus many others .   The field was founded on the claim that human intelligence `` can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it '' . This raises philosophical arguments about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence , issues which have been explored by myth , fiction and philosophy since antiquity . Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly . Attempts to create artificial intelligence have experienced many setbacks , including the ALPAC report of 1966 , the abandonment of perceptrons in 1970 , the Lighthill Report of 1973 , the second AI winter 1987 -- 1993 and the collapse of the Lisp machine market in 1987 .   In the twenty-first century , AI techniques , both hard ( using a symbolic approach ) and soft ( sub-symbolic ) , have experienced a resurgence following concurrent advances in computer power , sizes of training sets , and theoretical understanding , and AI techniques have become an essential part of the technology industry , helping to solve many challenging problems in computer science . Recent advancements in AI , and specifically in machine learning , have contributed to the growth of Autonomous Things such as drones and self-driving cars , becoming the main driver of innovation in the automotive industry ."}
{"_id": "Assam", "title": "Assam", "headings": "", "text": "Assam ( -LSB- langpronəˈsæm -RSB- is a state in northeastern India . Located south of the eastern Himalayas , Assam comprises the Brahmaputra Valley and the Barak Valley along with the Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao districts with an area of 30,285 mi2 . Assam , along with Arunachal Pradesh , Nagaland , Manipur , Mizoram , Tripura , and Meghalaya , is one of the Seven Sister States . Geographically , Assam and these states are connected to the rest of India via a 22 km strip of land in West Bengal called the Siliguri Corridor or `` Chicken 's Neck '' . Assam shares an international border with Bhutan and Bangladesh ; and its culture , people and climate are similar to those of Southeast Asia -- comprising the elements in India 's Look East policy .   Assam is known for Assam tea and Assam silk . The first oil well in Asia was drilled here . The state has conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction , along with the wild water buffalo , pygmy hog , tiger and various species of Asiatic birds . It provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant . The Assamese economy is aided by wildlife tourism , centred around Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park which are World Heritage Sites . Sal tree forests are found in the state which , as a result of abundant rainfall , looks green all year round . Assam receives more rainfall compared to most parts of India . This rain feeds the Brahmaputra River , whose tributaries and oxbow lakes provide the region with a hydro-geomorphic environment ."}
{"_id": "Association_of_Chief_Police_Officers", "title": "Association of Chief Police Officers", "headings": "", "text": "The Association of Chief Police Officers ( ACPO ) , officially The Association of Chief Police Officers of England , Wales and Northern Ireland , was a not-for-profit private limited company that for many years led the development of policing practices in England , Wales , and Northern Ireland . Established in 1948 , ACPO provided a forum for chief police officers to share ideas and coordinate their strategic operational responses , and advised government in matters such as terrorist attacks and civil emergencies . ACPO coordinated national police operations , major investigations , cross-border policing , and joint law enforcement . ACPO designated Senior Investigative Officers for major investigations and appointed officers to head ACPO units specialising in various areas of policing and crime reduction .   ACPO was led by Chief Constable Sir Hugh Orde , QPM , who was , until 2009 , the Chief Constable of the Police Service of Northern Ireland . He was elected as president by fellow members of ACPO in April 2009 .   ACPO was funded by Home Office grants , profits from commercial activities and contributions from the 44 police authorities in England , Wales , and Northern Ireland .   Following the Parker Review into ACPO , it was replaced in 2015 by a new body , the National Police Chiefs ' Council , set up under a police collaboration agreement under Section 22A of the Police Act 1996 ."}
{"_id": "Astronomy", "title": "Astronomy", "headings": "", "text": "Astronomy ( from Greek : αστρονομία ) is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena . It applies mathematics , physics , and chemistry , in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution . Objects of interest include planets , moons , stars , galaxies , and comets ; while the phenomena include supernova explosions , gamma ray bursts , and cosmic microwave background radiation . More generally , all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earth 's atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy . A related but distinct subject , physical cosmology , is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole .   Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences . The early civilizations in recorded history , such as the Babylonians , Greeks , Indians , Egyptians , Nubians , Iranians , Chinese , and Maya performed methodical observations of the night sky . Historically , astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry , celestial navigation , observational astronomy and the making of calendars , but professional astronomy is now often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics .   During the 20th century , the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches . Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects , which is then analyzed using basic principles of physics . Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena . The two fields complement each other , with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results .   Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role , especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena . Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries , such as finding new comets ."}
{"_id": "Atlanta", "title": "Atlanta", "headings": "", "text": "Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia , with an estimated 2016 population of 472,522 . Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area , home to 5,710,795 people and the ninth largest metropolitan area in the United States . Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County , and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County .   In 1837 , Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two railroad lines , and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce . In the decades following the Civil Rights Movement , the city earned a reputation as `` too busy to hate '' for the relatively progressive views of its citizens and leaders compared to other cities in the Deep South . Atlanta attained international prominence , and it became the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States , via highway , railroad , and air , with Hartsfield -- Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world 's busiest airport since 1998 .   Atlanta rated an `` alpha - '' world city that exerts a significant impact upon commerce , finance , research , technology , education , media , art , and entertainment . It ranks 40th among world cities and 8th in the nation with a gross domestic product of $ 270 billion . Atlanta 's economy is considered diverse , with dominant sectors that include logistics , professional and business services , media operations , and information technology . Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage . Revitalization of Atlanta 's neighborhoods , initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta , has intensified in the 21st century , altering the city 's demographics , politics , and culture ."}
{"_id": "Atlantic_Ocean", "title": "Atlantic Ocean", "headings": "", "text": "The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world 's oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 km2 . It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earth 's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area . It separates the `` Old World '' from the `` New World '' .   The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated , S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east , and the Americas to the west . As one component of the interconnected global ocean , it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean , to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest , the Indian Ocean in the southeast , and the Southern Ocean in the south ( other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica ) . The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean at about 8 ° N.   Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the Challenger expedition , the German Meteor expedition , Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office ."}
{"_id": "Atlantic_hurricane", "title": "Atlantic hurricane", "headings": "", "text": "An Atlantic hurricane or tropical storm is a tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean , usually in the summer or fall . A hurricane differs from a cyclone or typhoon only on the basis of location . A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean , a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean .   Tropical cyclones can be categorized by intensity . Tropical storms have one-minute maximum sustained winds of at least 39 mph ( 34 knots , 17 m/s , 63 km/h ) , while hurricanes have one-minute maximum sustained winds exceeding 74 mph ( 64 knots , 33 m/s , 119 km/h ) . Most North Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30 . The United States National Hurricane Center monitors the basin and issues reports , watches , and warnings about tropical weather systems for the North Atlantic Basin as one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers for tropical cyclones , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization .   In recent times , tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a predetermined list . Hurricanes that result in significant damage or casualties may have their names retired from the list at the request of the affected nations in order to prevent confusion should a subsequent storm be given the same name . On average , in the North Atlantic basin ( from 1966 to 2009 ) 11.3 named storms occur each season , with an average of 6.2 becoming hurricanes and 2.3 becoming major hurricanes ( Category 3 or greater ) . The climatological peak of activity is around September 11 each season .   In March 2004 , Catarina was the first hurricane-intensity tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Atlantic Ocean . Since 2011 , the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center has started to use the same scale of the North Atlantic Ocean for tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic Ocean and assign names to those which reach 35 kn ."}
{"_id": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "title": "Atmosphere of Earth", "headings": "", "text": "The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) .   By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres .   The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition .   The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann ."}
{"_id": "Atmosphere_of_Jupiter", "title": "Atmosphere of Jupiter", "headings": "", "text": "The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System . It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions ; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide and water . Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere , its directly measured concentration is very low . The nitrogen , sulfur , and noble gas abundances in Jupiter 's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three .   The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet . From lowest to highest , the atmospheric layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , thermosphere and exosphere . Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients . The lowest layer , the troposphere , has a complicated system of clouds and hazes , comprising layers of ammonia , ammonium hydrosulfide and water . The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter 's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows ( winds ) known as jets . The bands alternate in color : the dark bands are called belts , while light ones are called zones . Zones , which are colder than belts , correspond to upwellings , while belts mark descending air . The zones ' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice ; what gives the belts their darker colors is uncertain . The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood , though a `` shallow model '' and a `` deep model '' exist .   The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena , including band instabilities , vortices ( cyclones and anticyclones ) , storms and lightning . The vortices reveal themselves as large red , white or brown spots ( ovals ) . The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot ( GRS ) and Oval BA , which is also red . These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic . Smaller anticyclones tend to be white . Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers . Located in the southern hemisphere , the GRS is the largest known vortex in the Solar System . It could engulf two or three Earths and has existed for at least three hundred years . Oval BA , south of GRS , is a red spot a third the size of GRS that formed in 2000 from the merging of three white ovals .   Jupiter has powerful storms , often accompanied by lightning strikes . The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water . They are sites of strong upward motion of the air , which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds . The storms form mainly in belt regions . The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth . However , there are so few , that the amount of lightning activity is comparable to Earth ."}
{"_id": "Atmosphere_of_Mars", "title": "Atmosphere of Mars", "headings": "", "text": "The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km .   The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity .   The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter .   On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost .   On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars .   On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years ."}
{"_id": "Atmosphere_of_Venus", "title": "Atmosphere of Venus", "headings": "", "text": "The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts .   Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia .   Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell .   Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases .   Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization .   On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''"}
{"_id": "Atmospheric_methane", "title": "Atmospheric methane", "headings": "", "text": "Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical .   Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today .   Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor ."}
{"_id": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "title": "Attribution of recent climate change", "headings": "", "text": "Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are :  increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases  global changes to land surface , such as deforestation  increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols .   There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity .   According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence .   Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities :  A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established .  Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual .  Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included .  Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming .   The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) ."}
{"_id": "Austin,_Texas", "title": "Austin, Texas", "headings": "", "text": "Austin ( -LSB- audio = En-us-Austin . ogaˈɒstᵻn , _ ˈɔː - -RSB- ) is the capital of the U.S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County , although portions extend into Hays and Williamson counties . It is the city in the U.S. and the in Texas . It is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix , Arizona . As of the U.S. Census Bureau 's July 1 , 2015 estimate , Austin has a population of 931,830 . Located in in the foothills of Texas Hill Country , the city is home to numerous lakes , rivers , and waterways including Lady Bird Lake , Barton Springs , McKinney Falls , the Colorado River , Lake Travis , and Lake Walter E. Long . It is the cultural and economic center of the metropolitan area , which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1 , 2016 .   In the 1830s , pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River . In 1839 , the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name `` Waterloo . '' Shortly thereafter , the name was changed to `` Austin '' in honor of Stephen F. Austin , the `` Father of Texas '' and the republic 's first secretary of state . The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin . After a lull in growth from the Great Depression , Austin resumed its development into a major city and , by the 1980s , it emerged as a center for technology and business . A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin , including Amazon.com , Apple Inc. , Cisco , eBay , Google , IBM , Intel , Oracle Corporation , Texas Instruments , 3M , and Whole Foods Market . Dell 's worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock , a suburb of Austin .   Residents of Austin are known as Austinites . They include a diverse mix of government employees , college students , musicians , high-tech workers , blue-collar workers , and a vibrant LGBT community . The city 's official slogan promotes Austin as `` The Live Music Capital of the World , '' a reference to the many musicians and live music venues within the city , as well as the long-running PBS TV concert series Austin City Limits . The city also adopted `` Silicon Hills '' as a nickname in the 1990s due to a rapid influx of technology and development companies . In recent years , some Austinites have also adopted the unofficial slogan `` Keep Austin Weird , '' which refers to the desire to protect small , unique , and local businesses from being overrun by large corporations . In the late 19th century , Austin was known as the `` City of the Violet Crown '' because of the colorful glow of light across the hills just after sunset . Even today , many Austin businesses use the term `` Violet Crown '' in their name . Austin is known as a `` clean-air city '' for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings , including restaurants and bars . The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U.S. for the year 2012 . U.S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U.S. in 2017 ."}
{"_id": "Australia", "title": "Australia", "headings": "", "text": "Australia ( -LSB- əˈstreɪliə -RSB- , -LSB- ɒ - -RSB- , -LSB- - ljə -RSB- ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . The neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . Australia 's capital is Canberra , and its largest urban area is Sydney .   For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians ,  who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades , and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Australia has since maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard .   Australia has the world 's 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income ( IMF ) . With the second-highest human development index globally , the country ranks highly in quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum ."}
{"_id": "Australian_residential_architectural_styles", "title": "Australian residential architectural styles", "headings": "", "text": "Australian residential architectural styles have evolved significantly over time , from the early days of structures made from relatively cheap and imported corrugated iron ( which can still be seen in the roofing of historic homes ) to more sophisticated styles borrowed from other countries , such as the Victorian style from the United Kingdom , the Georgian style from North America and Europe and the Californian bungalow from the United States . A common feature of the Australian home is the use of fencing in front gardens , also common in both the UK and the USA . Climate has also influenced housing styles , with balconies and veranda spaces being more prevalent in subtropical Queensland due to the mild , generally warm winters experienced in the state . For many years , Australian homes were built with little understanding of the Australian climate and were widely dependant on European styles that were unsympathetic to Australian landscapes . In recent times , modern Australian residential architecture has reflected the climatic conditions of the country , with adaptations such as double and triple glazing on windows , coordination considerations , use of east and west shade , sufficient insulation , strongly considered to provide comfort to the dweller .   Another aspect of Australian suburbia is that the suburbs tend to have a combination of both upper class and middle class housing in the same neighbourhood . In Melbourne , for instance , one early observer noted that `` a poor house stands side by side with a good house . '' This is somewhat less common today , with home renovations , gentrification and the teardown ( `` knock down , rebuild '' ) method becoming more and more common in affluent suburbs , giving a broader distinction between wealthy and lower class areas . However , the teardown technique has led to home buyers purchasing land or older homes in poorer metropolitan areas and building extravagant McMansion style homes on the land , which look out of place and excessive , failing to match with the remaining houses in the street .   Because architectural styles have varied in the country over the years ( from villas to bungalows and brick renders ) , there is a slight inconsistency in the architectural flow of the suburban streets , with one writer noting that Australian housing styles sometimes `` co-mingle '' and `` co-exist '' awkwardly . This is less common in the United States of America and England , where most homes along a road were built around the same time , typically in similar styles ."}
{"_id": "Austria", "title": "Austria", "headings": "", "text": "Austria ( listen ) , is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe . It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north , Hungary and Slovakia to the east , Slovenia and Italy to the south , and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west . The territory of Austria covers 83879 km2 . The terrain is highly mountainous , lying within the Alps ; only 32 % of the country is below 500 m , and its highest point is 3798 m . The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language , and Austrian German in its standard form is the country 's official language . Other local official languages are Hungarian , Burgenland Croatian , and Slovene .   The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty , when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire . From the time of the Reformation , many northern German princes , resenting the authority of the Emperor , used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion . The Thirty Years War , the influence of the Kingdom of Sweden and Kingdom of France , the rise of the Kingdom of Prussia , and the Napoleonic invasions all weakened the power of the Emperor in the north of Germany , but in the south , and in non-German areas of the Empire , the Emperor and Catholicism maintained control . During the 17th and 18th centuries , Austria retained its position as one of the great powers of Europe and , in response to the coronation of Napoleon as the Emperor of the French , the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804 . Following Napoleon 's defeat , Prussia emerged as Austria 's chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany . Austria 's defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz , during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 , cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany . In 1867 , the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary . After the defeat of France in the 1870-1 Franco-Prussian War , Austria was excluded from the new German Empire , although in the following decades , its politics , and its foreign policy , increasingly converged with those of the Prussian-led Empire . During the 1914 July Crisis that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on June 28 , Austria-Hungary , emboldened by a pledge of German support , on July 28 declared war on Serbia because that country had not fully complied with an Austrian ultimatum . Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis , which would ultimately escalate into World War I.   After the collapse of the Habsburg ( Austro-Hungarian ) Empire in 1918 at the end of World War I , Austria adopted and used the name the Republic of German-Austria ( Deutschösterreich ) , later changed to Österreich , in an attempt at union with Germany , but this was forbidden under the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ( 1919 ) . The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919 . In 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss . This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945 , after which Germany was occupied by the Allies and Austria 's former democratic constitution was restored . In 1955 , the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state , ending the occupation . In the same year , the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral .   Today , Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states . The capital and largest city , with a population exceeding 1.7 million , is Vienna . Other major urban areas of Austria include Graz , Linz , Salzburg and Innsbruck . Austria is one of the richest countries in the world , with a nominal per capita GDP of $ 43,724 . The country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index . Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955 , joined the European Union in 1995 , and is a founder of the OECD . Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995 , and adopted the euro currency in 1999 ."}
{"_id": "Avian_influenza", "title": "Avian influenza", "headings": "", "text": "Avian influenza -- known informally as avian flu or bird flu -- refers to `` influenza caused by viruses adapted to birds . '' The type with the greatest risk is highly pathogenic avian influenza ( HPAI ) .   `` Bird flu '' is a phrase similar to `` swine flu , '' `` dog flu , '' `` horse flu , '' or `` human flu '' in that it refers to an illness caused by any of many different strains of influenza viruses that have adapted to a specific host . Out of the three types of influenza viruses ( A , B , and C ) , influenza A virus is a zoonotic infection with a natural reservoir almost entirely in birds . Avian influenza , for most purposes , refers to the influenza A virus .   Though influenza A is adapted to birds , it can also stably adapt and sustain person-to person transmission . Recent influenza research into the genes of the Spanish flu virus shows it to have genes adapted from both human and avian strains . Pigs can also be infected with human , avian , and swine influenza viruses , allow for mixtures of genes ( reassortment ) to create a new virus , which can cause an antigenic shift to a new influenza A virus subtype which most people have little to no immune protection .   Avian influenza strains are divided into two types based on their pathogenicity : high pathogenicity ( HP ) or low pathogenicity ( LP ) . The most well-known HPAI strain , H5N1 , appeared in China in 1996 , and also has low pathogenic strains found in North America . Companion birds in captivity are unlikely to contract the virus and there has been no report of a companion bird with avian influenza since 2003 . Pigeons do not contract or spread the virus .   In the approximate four years from early 2013 to early 2017 , 916 lab-confirmed human cases of H7N9 were reported to the World Health Organization ( WHO ) .   On 9 January 2017 , the National Health and Family Planning Commission of China reported to WHO 106 cases of H7N9 which occurred from late November through late December , including 35 deaths , 2 potential cases of human-to-human transmission , and 80 of these 106 persons stating that they have visited live poultry markets . The cases are reported from Jiangsu ( 52 ) , Zhejiang ( 21 ) , Anhui ( 14 ) , Guangdong ( 14 ) , Shanghai ( 2 ) , Fujian ( 2 ) and Hunan ( 1 ) . Similar sudden increases in the number of human cases of H7N9 have occurred in previous years during December and January ."}
{"_id": "Avoided_Deforestation_Partners", "title": "Avoided Deforestation Partners", "headings": "", "text": "Avoided Deforestation Partners , or AD Partners , is a non-profit organization under the auspices of the Center for International Policy in Washington , D.C. AD Partners is involved in the global effort to solve climate change by working to end deforestation in tropical rainforest countries . By avoiding the practice of deforestation , i.e. , clearing forests to provide inexpensive farmland ( also known as `` slash and burn agriculture '' ) , the world gains the significant climate benefits of not releasing carbon into the atmosphere . In addition , avoiding deforestation also allows forests to sequester carbon and scrub the air of pollutants . Beyond protecting our air quality , tropical forests create the conditions for rain , recharge our water sources , provide habitats for myriad plant and animal species , and support a way of life for 1.6 billion forest dependent people . Leading scientists and economists say that ending deforestation is the most cost effective and scalable method of reducing greenhouse gases . In fact , they believe that ending deforestation will cut the timeframe for solving the climate crisis in half .   AD Partners ' focus has been and continues to be on advocating for U.S. and international forest protection policies . A large part of their efforts go towards convening global leaders from government , civil society and the business world at the international United National Climate summits , also known as the UNFCCC COP meetings .   Most recently , AD Partners has joined television and movie climate change projects to help raise awareness about the critical link between climate change and the massive deforestation that continues to occur in rainforest countries such as Brazil and Indonesia . For most of the world , the concept that ending deforestation has a direct and profound link to solving the climate crisis is still very much unknown ."}
{"_id": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "title": "Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference)", "headings": "", "text": "In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target."}
{"_id": "Axial_precession", "title": "Axial precession", "headings": "", "text": "In astronomy , axial precession is a gravity-induced , slow , and continuous change in the orientation of an astronomical body 's rotational axis . In particular , it can refer to the gradual shift in the orientation of Earth 's axis of rotation , which , similar to a wobbling top , traces out a pair of cones joined at their apices in a cycle of approximately 26,000 years . The term `` precession '' typically refers only to this largest part of the motion ; other changes in the alignment of Earth 's axis -- nutation and polar motion -- are much smaller in magnitude .   Earth 's precession was historically called the precession of the equinoxes , because the equinoxes moved westward along the ecliptic relative to the fixed stars , opposite to the yearly motion of the Sun along the ecliptic . This term is still used in non-technical discussions , that is , when detailed mathematics are absent . Historically ,  the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes is usually attributed in the west to the Hellenistic-era ( 2nd century BC ) astronomer , Hipparchus , although there are claims of its earlier discovery , such as in the Indian text , Vedanga Jyotisha , dating from 700 BC .  With improvements in the ability to calculate the gravitational force between and among planets during the first half of the nineteenth century , it was recognized that the ecliptic itself moved slightly , which was named planetary precession , as early as 1863 , while the dominant component was named lunisolar precession . Their combination was named general precession , instead of precession of the equinoxes .   Lunisolar precession is caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun on Earth 's equatorial bulge , causing Earth 's axis to move with respect to inertial space . Planetary precession ( an advance ) is due to the small angle between the gravitational force of the other planets on Earth and its orbital plane ( the ecliptic ) , causing the plane of the ecliptic to shift slightly relative to inertial space . Lunisolar precession is about 500 times greater than planetary precession . In addition to the Moon and Sun , the other planets also cause a small movement of Earth 's axis in inertial space , making the contrast in the terms lunisolar versus planetary misleading , so in 2006 the International Astronomical Union recommended that the dominant component be renamed , the precession of the equator , and the minor component be renamed , precession of the ecliptic , but their combination is still named general precession . Many references to the old terms exist in publications predating the change ."}
{"_id": "BP", "title": "BP", "headings": "", "text": "BP P.L.C. , formerly British Petroleum , is a British multinational oil and gas company headquartered in London , England . It is one of the world 's seven oil and gas `` supermajors '' , whose performance in 2012 made it the world 's sixth-largest oil and gas company , the sixth-largest energy company by market capitalization and the company with the world 's fifth-largest revenue ( turnover ) . It is a vertically integrated company operating in all areas of the oil and gas industry , including exploration and production , refining , distribution and marketing , petrochemicals , power generation and trading . It also has renewable energy interests in biofuels and wind power .   As of 31 December 2016 , BP had operations in 72 countries worldwide , produced around 3.3 e6oilbbl/d of oil equivalent , and had total proved reserves of 17.81 e9oilbbl of oil equivalent . The company has around 18,000 service stations worldwide . Its largest division is BP America in the United States . In Russia BP owns a 19.75 % stake in Rosneft , the world 's largest publicly traded oil and gas company by hydrocarbon reserves and production . BP has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index . It has secondary listings on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the New York Stock Exchange .   BP 's origins date back to the founding of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company in 1908 , established as a subsidiary of Burmah Oil Company to exploit oil discoveries in Iran . In 1935 , it became the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and in 1954 British Petroleum . In 1959 , the company expanded beyond the Middle East to Alaska and it was one of the first companies to strike oil in the North Sea . British Petroleum acquired majority control of Standard Oil of Ohio in 1978 . Formerly majority state-owned , the British government privatised the company in stages between 1979 and 1987 . British Petroleum merged with Amoco in 1998 , becoming BP Amoco plc , and acquired ARCO and Burmah Castrol in 2000 , becoming BP plc in 2001 . From 2003 to 2013 , BP was a partner in the TNK-BP joint venture in Russia .   BP has been directly involved in several major environmental and safety incidents . Among them were the 2005 Texas City Refinery explosion , which caused the death of 15 workers and resulted in a record-setting OSHA fine ; Britain 's largest oil spill , the wreck of Torrey Canyon ; and the 2006 Prudhoe Bay oil spill , the largest oil spill on Alaska 's North Slope , which resulted in a US$ 25 million civil penalty , the largest per-barrel penalty at that time for an oil spill .   The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill , the largest accidental release of oil into marine waters in history , resulted in severe environmental , health and economic consequences , and serious legal and public relations repercussions for BP . 1.8 million gallons of Corexit oil dispersant were used in the cleanup response , becoming the largest application of such chemicals in US history . The company pleaded guilty to 11 counts of felony manslaughter , two misdemeanors , one felony count of lying to Congress , and agreed to pay more than $ 4.5 billion in fines and penalties , the largest criminal resolution in US history . On July 2 , 2015 , BP and five states announced an $ 18.5 billion settlement to be used for Clean Water Act penalties and various claims ."}
{"_id": "Bachelor's_degree", "title": "Bachelor's degree", "headings": "", "text": "A bachelor 's degree ( from Middle Latin baccalaureus ) or baccalaureate ( from Modern Latin baccalaureatus ) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years ( depending on institution and academic discipline ) . In some institutions and educational systems , some bachelor 's degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed . In countries with qualifications frameworks , bachelor 's degrees are normally one of the major levels in the framework ( sometimes two levels where non-honours and honours bachelor 's degrees are considered separately ) , although some qualifications titled bachelor 's degrees may be at other levels ( e.g. MBBS ) and some qualifications with non-bachelor 's titles may be classified as bachelor 's degrees ( e.g. the Scottish MA and Canadian MD ) .   The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor , who was too young or poor to gather vassals under his own banner . By the end of the 13th century , it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities . By folk etymology or wordplay , the word baccalaureus came to be associated with bacca lauri ( `` laurel berry '' ) in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours .   Under the British system , and those influenced by it , undergraduate academic degrees are differentiated as either non-honours degrees ( known variously as pass degrees , ordinary degrees or general degrees ) or honours degrees , the latter sometimes denoted by the addition of '' ( Hons ) '' after the degree abbreviation . An honours degree generally requires a higher academic standard than a pass degree , and in some systems an additional year of study beyond the non-honours bachelor 's . In some countries , e.g. Australia , there is a `` postgraduate '' bachelor 's honours degree , which may be taken as a consecutive academic degree , continuing on from the completion of a bachelor 's degree program in the same field , or ( in a similar manner to the UK system ) as part of an integrated honours program ."}
{"_id": "Baffin_Island", "title": "Baffin Island", "headings": "", "text": "Baffin Island ( ᕿᑭᖅᑖᓗᒃ , Qikiqtaaluk -LSB- qikiqtaːluk -RSB- , Île de Baffin or Terre de Baffin ) , in the Canadian territory of Nunavut , is the largest island in Canada and the fifth largest island in the world . Its area is 507451 km2 and its population is about 11,000 ( 2007 estimate ) . It is located 65.4215 N and 70.9654 W. Named after English explorer William Baffin , it is likely that the island was known to Pre-Columbian Norse explorers from Greenland and Iceland and that it was the location of Helluland , spoken of in the Icelandic sagas ( the Grœnlendinga saga and the Saga of Erik the Red , Eiríks saga rauða ) ."}
{"_id": "Bahrain", "title": "Bahrain", "headings": "", "text": "Bahrain ( -LSB- bɑːˈreɪn -RSB- البحرين ) , officially the Kingdom of Bahrain , is a small Arab monarchy in the Arabian Gulf . It is an island country consisting of a small archipelago centered around Bahrain Island , situated between the Qatar peninsula and the north eastern coast of Saudi Arabia , to which it is connected by the 25 km King Fahd Causeway . Bahrain 's population is 1,234,571 ( c. 2010 ) , including 666,172 non-nationals . It is 780 km2 in size , making it the third smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore .   Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation . It has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries , which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century . Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam ( 628 ) . Following a period of Arab rule , Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521 , who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire . In 1783 , the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family , with Ahmed al Fateh as Bahrain 's first hakim . In the late 1800s , following successive treaties with the British , Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom . In 1971 , Bahrain declared independence . Formerly an emirate , Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002 . In 2011 , the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring .   Bahrain had the first post-oil economy in the Arabian Gulf . Since the late 20th century , Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors . Many large financial institutions have a presence in Manama , the country 's capital . Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy ."}
{"_id": "Baltimore", "title": "Baltimore", "headings": "", "text": "Baltimore ( -LSB- ˈbɔːltᵻˌmɔːr -RSB- , locally : -LSB- - allˈbɔɫ.mɔɻ -RSB- ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Maryland , and the 29th-most populous city in the country . It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county ; thus , it is the largest independent city in the United States , with a population of 621,849 as of 2015 . As of 2016 , the population of the Baltimore metropolitan area was estimated to be just under 2.8 million making it the 21st largest metropolitan area in the country .   Founded in 1729 , Baltimore is the second-largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic . Baltimore 's Inner Harbor was once the second leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States and a major manufacturing center . After a decline in major manufacturing , industrialization and rail transportation , Baltimore shifted to a service-oriented economy , with the Johns Hopkins Hospital ( founded 1889 ) , and Johns Hopkins University ( founded 1876 ) , now the city 's top two employers .   With hundreds of identified districts , Baltimore has been dubbed `` a city of neighborhoods '' . Famous residents have included the writers Edgar Allan Poe , Edith Hamilton , Frederick Douglass , and H.L. Mencken ; jazz musician James `` Eubie '' Blake ; singer Billie Holiday ; actor and filmmaker John Waters ; and baseball player Babe Ruth . In the War of 1812 , Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner , later the American national anthem , in Baltimore . Baltimore has more public monuments per capita than any other city in the country and is home to some of the earliest National Register historic districts in the nation , including Fell 's Point ( 1969 ) , Federal Hill ( 1970 ) and Mount Vernon Place ( 1971 ) . More than 65,000 properties , or roughly one in three buildings in the city , are listed on the National Register , more than any other city in the nation ."}
{"_id": "Bangladesh", "title": "Bangladesh", "headings": "", "text": "Bangladesh ( -LSB- bæŋɡləˈdɛʃ -RSB- -LSB- ˌbɑːŋɡləˈdɛʃ -RSB- -LSB- : bn : বাংলাদেশ , বাংলাদেশ -RSB- , -LSB- ˈbaŋlad̪eʃ -RSB- , lit . `` The country of Bengal '' ) , officially the People 's Republic of Bangladesh , is a country in South Asia . It shares land borders with India and Myanmar ( Burma ) . Nepal , Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it . The country 's maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area . Bangladesh is the world 's eighth most populous country . Dhaka is its capital and largest city , followed by Chittagong , which has the country 's largest port .   Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region . Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions . Bengalis , who speak the official Bengali language , make up 98 % of the population . The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the world 's third largest Muslim-majority country . Most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta , the largest delta on Earth . The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km ( 5,000 miles ) of inland waterways . Highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country . Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef . It is home to the Sundarbans , the largest mangrove forest in the world . The country 's biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife , including critically endangered Bengal tigers , the national animal .   The Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai , a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent , in the 3rd century BCE . Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh , which had international trade links for millennia . The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries . The region was home to many principalities that had inland naval prowess . It was also a notable center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade . As part of British India , the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance and played an important role in anti-colonial movements . The Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan ; and was renamed as East Pakistan . The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 . After independence , a parliamentary republic was established . A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990 , followed by a return to parliamentary democracy . The country has also been affected by poverty , natural disasters , hunger , dominant party systems and military coups .   Bangladesh is a middle power and a major developing nation . Within South Asia , the country ranks first in gender equality , second in foreign exchange earnings and third in life expectancy and peacefulness . Listed as one of the Next Eleven , its economy ranks 46th in terms of nominal gross domestic product ( GDP ) and 29th in terms of purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . It is one of the largest textile exporters in the world . Its major trading partners are the European Union , the United States , China , India , Japan , Malaysia and Singapore . With its strategically vital location between Southern , Eastern and Southeast Asia , Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation . It is a founding member of SAARC , BIMSTEC , the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Forum for Regional Cooperation and the Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative . It is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , the Developing 8 Countries , the OIC , the Non Aligned Movement , the Group of 77 and the World Trade Organization . Bangladesh is one of the largest contributors to United Nations peacekeeping forces ."}
{"_id": "Barack_Obama", "title": "Barack Obama", "headings": "", "text": "Barack Hussein Obama II ( -LSB- bəˈrɑːk_huːˈseɪn_oʊˈbɑːmə -RSB- ; born August 4 , 1961 ) is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017 . He is the first African American to have served as president . He previously served in the U.S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008 , and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004 .   Obama was born in Honolulu , Hawaii , two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state . Raised largely in Hawaii , Obama also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia . After graduating from Columbia University in 1983 , he worked as a community organizer in Chicago . In 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School , where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review . After graduation , he became a civil rights attorney and professor , teaching constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004 . Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004 , when he ran for the U.S. Senate . Obama received national attention in 2004 , with his unexpected March primary win , his well-received July Democratic National Convention keynote address , and his landslide November election to the Senate . In 2008 , Obama was nominated for president , a year after his campaign began , and after a close primary campaign against Hillary Clinton . He was elected over Republican John McCain , and was inaugurated on January 20 , 2009 . Nine months later , Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate .   During his first two years in office , Obama signed many landmark bills . Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( often referred to as `` Obamacare '' ) , the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , and the Do n't Ask , Do n't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 . The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 served as economic stimulus amidst the Great Recession , but the GOP regained control of the House of Representatives in 2011 . After a lengthy debate over the national debt limit , Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts . In foreign policy , Obama increased U.S. troop levels in Afghanistan , reduced nuclear weapons with the U.S.-Russian New START treaty , and ended military involvement in the Iraq War . He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi , and the military operation that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden .   After winning re-election by defeating Republican nominee Mitt Romney , Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013 . During his second term , Obama promoted greater inclusiveness for LGBT Americans , with his administration filing briefs that urged the Supreme Court to strike down same-sex marriage bans as unconstitutional ( United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges ) . Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting , and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration . In foreign policy , Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq , continued the process of ending U.S. combat operations in Afghanistan , promoted discussions that led to the 2015 Paris Agreement on global climate change , initiated the sanctions against Russia following the invasion in Ukraine , brokered a nuclear deal with Iran , and normalized U.S. relations with Cuba .   Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60 % approval rating . He currently resides in Washington , D.C. His presidential library will be built in Chicago ."}
{"_id": "Barrier_island", "title": "Barrier island", "headings": "", "text": "Barrier islands are coastal landforms and a type of dune system that are exceptionally flat or lumpy areas of sand that form by wave and tidal action parallel to the mainland coast . They usually occur in chains , consisting of anything from a few islands to more than a dozen . They are subject to change during storms and other action , but absorb energy and protect the coastlines and create areas of protected waters where wetlands may flourish . A barrier chain may extend uninterrupted for over a hundred kilometers , excepting the tidal inlets that separate the islands , the longest and widest being Padre Island of Texas . The length and width of barriers and overall morphology of barrier coasts are related to parameters including tidal range , wave energy , sediment supply , sea-level trends , and basement controls . The amount of vegetation on the barrier has a large impact on the height and evolution of the island .   Chains of barrier islands can be found along approximately thirteen percent of the world 's coastlines . They display different settings , suggesting that they can form and be maintained in a variety of environmental settings . Numerous theories have been given to explain their formation ."}
{"_id": "Base_load", "title": "Base load", "headings": "", "text": "The base load on a grid is the minimum level of demand on an electrical grid over a span of time , for example , one week . Base load power sources are power stations which can economically generate the electrical power needed to satisfy this minimum demand . Because they have a relatively high annual contribution to the energy supply , they are designed with features to minimize fuel cost . Daily peaks in grid load are met with generating plants that may have higher fuel costs , but which operate for only a part of a day ."}
{"_id": "Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea", "title": "Battle of the Coral Sea", "headings": "", "text": "The Battle of the Coral Sea , fought from 4 to 8 May 1942 , was a major naval battle between the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) and naval and air forces from the United States and Australia , taking place in the Pacific Theater of World War II . The battle is historically significant as the first action in which aircraft carriers engaged each other , as well as the first in which neither side 's ships sighted or fired directly upon the other .   In an attempt to strengthen its defensive position in the South Pacific , Japan decided to invade and occupy Port Moresby ( in New Guinea ) and Tulagi ( in the southeastern Solomon Islands ) . The plan to accomplish this was called Operation MO , and involved several major units of Japan 's Combined Fleet . These included two fleet carriers and a light carrier to provide air cover for the invasion forces . It was under the overall command of Japanese Admiral Shigeyoshi Inoue .   The U.S. learned of the Japanese plan through signals intelligence , and sent two United States Navy carrier task forces and a joint Australian-American cruiser force to oppose the offensive . These were under the overall command of American Admiral Frank J. Fletcher .   On 3 -- 4 May , Japanese forces successfully invaded and occupied Tulagi , although several of their supporting warships were sunk or damaged in surprise attacks by aircraft from the U.S. fleet carrier . Now aware of the presence of U.S. carriers in the area , the Japanese fleet carriers advanced towards the Coral Sea with the intention of locating and destroying the Allied naval forces . Beginning on 7 May , the carrier forces from the two sides engaged in airstrikes over two consecutive days . On the first day , the U.S. sank the Japanese light carrier ; meanwhile , the Japanese sank a U.S. destroyer and heavily damaged a fleet oiler ( which was later scuttled ) . The next day , the Japanese fleet carrier was heavily damaged , the U.S. fleet carrier critically damaged ( and later scuttled ) , and Yorktown damaged . With both sides having suffered heavy losses in aircraft and carriers damaged or sunk , the two forces disengaged and retired from the battle area . Because of the loss of carrier air cover , Inoue recalled the Port Moresby invasion fleet , intending to try again later .   Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk , the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for several reasons . The battle marked the first time since the start of the war that a major Japanese advance had been checked by the Allies . More importantly , the Japanese fleet carriers Shōkaku and -- the former damaged and the latter with a depleted aircraft complement -- were unable to participate in the Battle of Midway the following month , while Yorktown did participate , ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two adversaries and contributing significantly to the U.S. victory in that battle . The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the Japanese from reattempting to invade Port Moresby from the ocean and helped prompt their ill-fated land offensive over the Kokoda trail . Two months later , the Allies took advantage of Japan 's resulting strategic vulnerability in the South Pacific and launched the Guadalcanal Campaign ; this , along with the New Guinea Campaign , eventually broke Japanese defenses in the South Pacific and was a significant contributing factor to Japan 's ultimate defeat in World War II ."}
{"_id": "Beach_nourishment", "title": "Beach nourishment", "headings": "", "text": "Beach nourishment ( also referred to as beach renourishment , beach replenishment , or sand replenishment ) describes a process by which sediment , usually sand , lost through longshore drift or erosion is replaced from other sources . A wider beach can reduce storm damage to coastal structures by dissipating energy across the surf zone , protecting upland structures and infrastructure from storm surges , tsunamis and unusually high tides . Beach nourishment is typically part of a larger coastal defense scheme . Nourishment is typically a repetitive process since it does not remove the physical forces that cause erosion but simply mitigates their effects .   The first nourishment project in the United States was at Coney Island , New York in 1922 and 1923 . It is now a common shore protection measure used by public and private entities ."}
{"_id": "Bearded_seal", "title": "Bearded seal", "headings": "", "text": "The bearded seal ( Erignathus barbatus ) , also called the square flipper seal , is a medium-sized pinniped that is found in and near to the Arctic Ocean . It gets its generic name from two Greek words ( eri and gnathos ) that refer to its heavy jaw . The other part of its Linnaean name means bearded and refers to its most characteristic feature , the conspicuous and very abundant whiskers . When dry , these whiskers curl very elegantly , giving the bearded seal a `` raffish '' look .   Fossils first described in 2002 indicated that , during the Pleistocene epoch , bearded seals ranged as far south as South Carolina ."}
{"_id": "Beaufort_Sea", "title": "Beaufort Sea", "headings": "", "text": "The Beaufort Sea ( mer de Beaufort ) is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean , located north of the Northwest Territories , the Yukon , and Alaska , west of Canada 's Arctic islands . The sea is named after hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort . The major Mackenzie River empties into the Canadian part of the sea , west of Tuktoyaktuk , which is one of the few permanent settlements on the sea shores .   The sea , characterized by severe climate , is frozen over most of the year . Historically , only a narrow pass up to 100 km opened in August -- September near its shores , but recently due to climate change in the Arctic the ice-free area in late summer has greatly enlarged . Claims that the seacoast was populated about 30,000 years ago have been largely discredited ( see below ) ; present population density is very low . The sea contains significant resources of petroleum and natural gas under its shelf , such as the Amauligak field . They were discovered in the period between the 1950s and 1980s , and their exploration became the major human activity in the area since the 1980s . The traditional occupations of fishery and whale and seal hunting are practiced only locally , and have no commercial significance . As a result , the sea hosts one of the largest colonies of beluga whales , and there is no sign of overfishing . To prevent overfishing in its waters , the US adopted precautionary commercial fisheries management plan in August 2009 . In April 2011 the Canadian government signed a memorandum of understanding with the Inuvialuit as a first step in developing a larger ocean management plan . The Canadian government announced in October 2014 that no new commercial fisheries in the Beaufort Sea will be considered until research has shown sustainable stocks that would be made available to Inuvialuit first .   The Canadian government has set a new block of the Beaufort Sea off the Parry Peninsula in the Amundsen as a Marine Protected Area ( MPA ) . The protected area is set to protect species and habits for the Inuvialuit community ."}
{"_id": "Beef", "title": "Beef", "headings": "", "text": "Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle , particularly skeletal muscle . Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times . Beef is an excellent source of high-quality protein and essential nutrients .   Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts , short ribs or steak ( filet mignon , sirloin steak , rump steak , rib steak , rib eye steak , hanger steak , etc. ) . Some cuts are processed ( corned beef or beef jerky ) , and trimmings , usually mixed with meat from older , leaner cattle , are ground , minced or used in sausages . The blood is used in some varieties of blood sausage . Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and offal , such as the oxtail , liver , tongue , tripe from the reticulum or rumen , glands ( particularly the pancreas and thymus , referred to as sweetbread ) , the heart , the brain ( although forbidden where there is a danger of bovine spongiform encephalopathy , BSE ) , the kidneys , and the tender testicles of the bull ( known in the United States as calf fries , prairie oysters , or Rocky Mountain oysters ) . Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is , but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings . The bones are used for making beef stock .   Beef from steers and heifers is very similar . According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit , heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses , but USDA quality grade was not significantly different . Depending on economics , the number of heifers kept for breeding varies . The meat from older bulls is usually tougher , so it is frequently used for mince ( known as ground beef in the United States ) . Cattle raised for beef may be allowed to roam free on grasslands , or may be confined at some stage in pens as part of a large feeding operation called a feedlot ( or concentrated animal feeding operation ) , where they are usually fed a ration of grain , protein , roughage and a vitamin/mineral preblend .   Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world , accounting for about 25 % of meat production worldwide , after pork and poultry at 38 % and 30 % respectively . In absolute numbers , the United States , Brazil , and the People 's Republic of China are the world 's three largest consumers of beef ; Uruguay , however , has the highest beef and veal consumption per capita , followed by Argentina and Brazil . According to the data from OECD , the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014 , representing the highest beef/veal consumption per capita in the world . In comparison , the average American consumed only about 24 kg beef or veal in the same year , while African countries , such as Mozambique , Ghana , and Nigeria , consumed the least beef or veal per capita .   Cows are considered holy in the culture of India and there are restrictions on selling and consumption of beef in much of India . Though India is the largest producer and exporter of buffalo meat in the world .   In 2015 , the world 's largest exporters of beef , ( including buffalo meat ) , were India , Brazil and Australia . Beef production is also important to the economies of Uruguay , Canada , Paraguay , Mexico , Argentina , Belarus and Nicaragua ."}
{"_id": "Begging_the_question", "title": "Begging the question", "headings": "", "text": "To beg a question means to assume the conclusion of an argument -- a type of circular reasoning . This is an informal fallacy , in which an arguer includes the conclusion to be proven within a premise of the argument , often in an indirect way such that its presence within the premise is hidden or at least not easily apparent .   The term `` begging the question '' , as this is usually phrased , originated in the 16th century as a mistranslation of the Latin petitio principii , which actually translates as `` assuming the initial point '' . In modern vernacular usage , `` to beg the question '' is frequently used to mean `` to invite the question '' ( as in `` This begs the question of whether ... '' ) or `` to dodge a question '' . Many consider these usages incorrect in contexts that demand strict adherence to the technical definition ."}
{"_id": "Benny_Peiser", "title": "Benny Peiser", "headings": "", "text": "Benny Josef Peiser ( born 1957 ) is a social anthropologist specialising in the environmental and socio-economic impact of physical activity on health . He was a senior lecturer in the School of Sport and Exercise Sciences at Liverpool John Moores University ( LJMU ) and is a visiting fellow at the University of Buckingham .   Peiser established the Cambridge Conference Network in 1997 . Peiser acknowledges that he is `` not a climate scientist '' and has `` never claimed to be one . '' His interest as a social anthropologist , is in `` how climate change is portrayed as a potential disaster and how we respond to that . ''   As an outspoken climate change sceptic , Peiser became director of the newly established UK lobbying group Global Warming Policy Foundation in 2009 . He serves as co-editor of the journal , Energy & Environment and is a regular contributor to Canada 's National Post.The National Post , former media magnate Conrad Black 's national flagship title was established to provide a voice for Canadian conservatives and to compete with Canada 's The Globe and Mail , the establishment newspaper with a liberal bias in Canadian newspapers . Outside Toronto , the National Post was built on the printing and distribution infrastructure of Black 's national newspaper chain , formerly called Southam Newspapers , that included papers such as the Ottawa Citizen , Montreal Gazette , Edmonton Journal , Calgary Herald , and Vancouver Sun and Benny Peiser continues to participate in stories with these newspapers as well ."}
{"_id": "Beringia", "title": "Beringia", "headings": "", "text": "Beringia is defined today as the land and maritime area bounded on the west by the Lena River in Russia ; on the east by the Mackenzie River in Canada ; on the north by 72 degrees north latitude in the Chukchi Sea ; and on the south by the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula . It includes the Chukchi Sea , the Bering Sea , the Bering Strait , the Chukchi and Kamchatka Peninsulas in Russia as well as Alaska in the United States .   The area includes land lying on the North American Plate and Siberian land east of the Chersky Range . Historically , it formed a land bridge that was up to 1000 km wide at its greatest extent and which covered an area as large as British Columbia and Alberta together , totaling at approximately 1600000 km2 . Today , the only land that is visible from the central part of the Bering land bridge are the Diomede Islands , the Pribilof Islands of St. Paul and St. George , St. Lawrence Island , and King Island .   The term Beringia was coined by the Swedish botanist Eric Hultén in 1937 . During the ice ages , Beringia , like most of Siberia and all of North and Northeast China , was not glaciated because snowfall was very light . It was a grassland steppe , including the land bridge , that stretched for hundreds of kilometres into the continents on either side .   It is believed that a small human population of at most a few thousand arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before expanding into the settlement of the Americas sometime after 16,500 years ago during the Late Glacial Maximum as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted , but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP .   Before European colonization , Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits . This culture remains in the region today along with others . In 2012 , the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish `` a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage '' . Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and the planned Beringia National Park in Russia ."}
{"_id": "Berlin", "title": "Berlin", "headings": "", "text": "Berlin ( -LSB- bəɹˈlɪn -RSB- , -LSB- bɛɐ̯ˈliːn -RSB- ) is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its 16 constituent states . With a population of approximately 3.7 million , Berlin is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union . Located in northeastern Germany on the banks of the rivers Spree and Havel , it is the centre of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region , which has roughly 6 million residents from more than 180 nations . Due to its location in the European Plain , Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate . Around one-third of the city 's area is composed of forests , parks , gardens , rivers , canals and lakes .   First documented in the 13th century and situated at the crossing of two important historic trade routes , Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg ( 14171701 ) , the Kingdom of Prussia ( 1701 -- 1918 ) , the German Empire ( 1871 -- 1918 ) , the Weimar Republic ( 1919 -- 1933 ) and the Third Reich ( 1933 -- 1945 ) . Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world . After World War II and its subsequent occupation by the victorious countries , the city was divided ; East Berlin was declared capital of East Germany , while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave , surrounded by the Berlin Wall ( 1961 -- 1989 ) and East German territory . Following German reunification in 1990 , Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany .   Berlin is a world city of culture , politics , media and science . Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector , encompassing a diverse range of creative industries , research facilities , media corporations and convention venues . Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network . The metropolis is a popular tourist destination . Significant industries also include IT , pharmaceuticals , biomedical engineering , clean tech , biotechnology , construction and electronics .   Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities , orchestras , museums , entertainment venues and is host to many sporting events . Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions . The city is well known for its festivals , diverse architecture , nightlife , contemporary arts and a high quality of living . Since the 2000s Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene ."}
{"_id": "Bernie_Sanders_2016_presidential_campaign", "title": "Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign", "headings": "", "text": "In the 2016 presidential campaign, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders sought the Democratic Party's nomination in a field of six major candidates and was the runner up with 46% of the pledged delegates behind former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who won the contest with 54%. Sanders, the junior United States Senator and former Representative from Vermont, began with an informal announcement on April 30, 2015, and a formal announcement that he planned to seek the Democratic Party's nomination for President of the United States on May 26, 2015, in Burlington, Vermont. Sanders had been considered a potential candidate for president since at least September 2014. Though he had previously run as an independent, he routinely caucused with the Democratic Party, as many of his views align with Democrats. Running as a Democrat made it easier to participate in debates and get his name on state ballots.Sanders's chief competitor for the nomination was Hillary Clinton, a former secretary of state. Sanders drew large crowds to his speaking events and his populist and social democratic politics won him particular support among Americans under 40. He performed strongly with white voters, but consistently trailed Clinton by 30 or more percentage points among black voters; polls showed a close race among Hispanic voters.Sanders focused on income and wealth inequality, which he argued is eroding the American middle class, and on campaign finance reform. Unlike most other major presidential candidates, Sanders eschewed an unlimited super PAC, instead choosing to receive most of his funding from direct individual campaign donations. In September 2015, The New York Times reported that the campaign had received one million individual donations, becoming the first in 2015 to reach that threshold.  Sanders raised $20,000,000 in the month of January 2016, $5,000,000 more than Clinton during the same time period, with an average donation of $27. Sanders frequently mentioned this $27 figure on the campaign trail as proof of his grassroots support.Following the final primary election (the District of Columbia's, on June 14), Clinton became the presumptive Democratic nominee. Sanders did then endorse Clinton, and said he would work with her to defeat the presumptive Republican nominee, Donald Trump. On June 16, Sanders gave a live online speech to his supporters, saying, \"The political revolution continues\". On July 12, Sanders officially endorsed Clinton at a unity rally with her in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. On July 22, 2016, various emails from the Democratic National Committee (DNC), the governing body of the Democratic Party, were leaked and published, revealing bias against the Sanders campaign on the part of the Committee and its chair, Debbie Wasserman Schultz. Schultz subsequently resigned as DNC chair and was replaced by Donna Brazile, who was also implicated in the leaks and apologized to Sanders and his supporters. In the Democratic National Convention roll-call vote on July 26, 2016, Sanders received 1,865 votes (39% of the vote), which consisted of 1,848 pledged delegates won in primary and caucus contests (46% of the total) and 17 superdelegates (4%). After the roll call, Sanders put forward a motion to formally nominate Clinton, which passed by voice vote."}
{"_id": "Big_data", "title": "Big data", "headings": "", "text": "Big data is a term for data sets that are so large or complex that traditional data processing application software is inadequate to deal with them . Challenges include capture , storage , analysis , data curation , search , sharing , transfer , visualization , querying , updating and information privacy . The term `` big data '' often refers simply to the use of predictive analytics , user behavior analytics , or certain other advanced data analytics methods that extract value from data , and seldom to a particular size of data set . `` There is little doubt that the quantities of data now available are indeed large , but that 's not the most relevant characteristic of this new data ecosystem . ''  Analysis of data sets can find new correlations to `` spot business trends , prevent diseases , combat crime and so on . '' Scientists , business executives , practitioners of medicine , advertising and governments alike regularly meet difficulties with large data-sets in areas including Internet search , fintech , urban informatics , and business informatics . Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work , including meteorology , genomics , connectomics , complex physics simulations , biology and environmental research .   Data sets grow rapidly - in part because they are increasingly gathered by cheap and numerous information-sensing Internet of things devices such as mobile devices , aerial ( remote sensing ) , software logs , cameras , microphones , radio-frequency identification ( RFID ) readers and wireless sensor networks . The world 's technological per-capita capacity to store information has roughly doubled every 40 months since the 1980s ; , every day 2.5 exabytes ( 2.5 × 1018 ) of data are generated . One question for large enterprises is determining who should own big-data initiatives that affect the entire organization .   Relational database management systems and desktop statistics - and visualization-packages often have difficulty handling big data . The work may require `` massively parallel software running on tens , hundreds , or even thousands of servers '' . What counts as `` big data '' varies depending on the capabilities of the users and their tools , and expanding capabilities make big data a moving target . `` For some organizations , facing hundreds of gigabytes of data for the first time may trigger a need to reconsider data management options . For others , it may take tens or hundreds of terabytes before data size becomes a significant consideration . ''"}
{"_id": "Bikini_Atoll", "title": "Bikini Atoll", "headings": "", "text": "Bikini Atoll ( pronounced -LSB- ˈbɪkᵻˌniː -RSB- or -LSB- bᵻˈkiːni -RSB- Marshallese : Pikinni , -LSB- pyuhKhuy ( n ) n ^ : yuyuy -RSB- , meaning coconut place ) is an atoll in the Marshall Islands which consists of 23 islands totaling 3.4 sqmi surrounding a deep 229.4 sqmi central lagoon . It is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain , approximately 87 km northwest of Ailinginae Atoll and 850 km northwest of Majuro . Within Bikini Atoll , Bikini , Eneu , Nam , and Enidrik islands comprise just over 70 % of the land area . Bikini and Eneu are the only islands of the atoll that hosted a permanent population . Bikini Island is the northeastern most and largest islet . Before World War II , the atoll was known by its German name , Eschscholtz Atoll ."}
{"_id": "Biodiesel", "title": "Biodiesel", "headings": "", "text": "Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil - or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl ( methyl , ethyl , or propyl ) esters . Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids ( e.g. , vegetable oil , soybean oil , animal fat ( tallow ) ) with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters .   Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines . Biodiesel can be used alone , or blended with petrodiesel in any proportions . Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil .   The National Biodiesel Board ( USA ) also has a technical definition of `` biodiesel '' as a mono-alkyl ester ."}
{"_id": "Biodiversity", "title": "Biodiversity", "headings": "", "text": "Biodiversity a portmanteau of `` biological diversity , '' generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic , the species , and the ecosystem level . Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator , which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity . Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth , and is richest in the tropics . These tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earth 's surface , and contain about 90 percent of the world 's species . Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific , where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans . There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity . Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots , and has been increasing through time , but will be likely to slow in the future .   Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions . More than 99.9 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes . In comparison , the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC ( trillion tons of carbon ) . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth .   The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old . The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago , during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon . There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia . Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland . More recently , in 2015 , `` remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . According to one of the researchers , `` If life arose relatively quickly on Earth . . then it could be common in the universe . ''   Since life began on Earth , five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity . The Phanerozoic eon ( the last 540 million years ) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion -- a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared . The next 400 million years included repeated , massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events . In the Carboniferous , rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life . The Permian -- Triassic extinction event , 251 million years ago , was the worst ; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years . The most recent , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs .   The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity . Named the Holocene extinction , the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts , particularly habitat destruction . Conversely , biodiversity impacts human health in a number of ways , both positively and negatively .   The United Nations designated 2011 -- 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity ."}
{"_id": "Biogas", "title": "Biogas", "headings": "", "text": "Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen . Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste , manure , municipal waste , plant material , sewage , green waste or food waste . Biogas is a renewable energy source .   Biogas can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic organisms , which digest material inside a closed system , or fermentation of biodegradable materials .   Biogas is primarily methane and carbon dioxide and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulfide , moisture and siloxanes . The gases methane , hydrogen , and carbon monoxide can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen . This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel ; it can be used for any heating purpose , such as cooking . It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat .   Biogas can be compressed , the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG , and used to power motor vehicles . In the UK , for example , biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17 % of vehicle fuel . It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world . Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards , when it becomes bio-methane . Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous , and it generates no net carbon dioxide . Organic material grows , is converted and used and then regrows in a continually repeating cycle . From a carbon perspective , as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released when the material is ultimately converted to energy ."}
{"_id": "Bioterrorism", "title": "Bioterrorism", "headings": "", "text": "Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents . These agents are bacteria , viruses , or toxins , and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-modified form . For the use of this method in warfare , see biological warfare ."}
{"_id": "Bjerknes_Centre_for_Climate_Research", "title": "Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research", "headings": "", "text": "The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research is a climate research centre in Bergen , Norway . The centre has a special focus on Northern Europe and the Polar regions .   The centre was started in 2000 and is a co-operation between University of Bergen , Institute of Marine Research , the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center and Uni Research . The centre was part of Research Council of Norway 's Centre of Excellence program from 2003 to 2013 . Eystein Jansen headed the centre from 2000 to 2013 , while Tore Furevik has been director since 2014 .   Researchers from the Bjerknes Centre have taken part in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change assessment reports ; Eystein Jansen as one of the lead authors in the fourth report and upcoming fifth report .   It is named after Vilhelm Bjerknes and his son Jacob Bjerknes ."}
{"_id": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "title": "Bjørn Lomborg", "headings": "", "text": "Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature .   In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics .   In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' ."}
{"_id": "Black_carbon", "title": "Black carbon", "headings": "", "text": "Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot .   Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality .   In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years .   The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients ."}
{"_id": "Black_hole", "title": "Black hole", "headings": "", "text": "A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing -- not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light -- can escape from inside it . The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole . The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon . Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it , no locally detectable features appear to be observed . In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body , as it reflects no light . Moreover , quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation , with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass . This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass , making it essentially impossible to observe .   Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace . The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916 , although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published by David Finkelstein in 1958 . Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity ; it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity . The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality .   Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle . After a black hole has formed , it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings . By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes , supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form . There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies .   Despite its invisible interior , the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light . Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction , forming some of the brightest objects in the universe . If there are other stars orbiting a black hole , their orbits can be used to determine the black hole 's mass and location . Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars . In this way , astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems , and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A * , at the core of our own Milky Way galaxy , contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses .   On 11 February 2016 , the LIGO collaboration announced the first observation of gravitational waves ; because these waves were generated from a black hole merger it was the first ever direct detection of a binary black hole merger . On 15 June 2016 , a second detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced ."}
{"_id": "Boeing", "title": "Boeing", "headings": "", "text": "The Boeing Company ( -LSB- ˈboʊ.ɪŋ -RSB- ) is an American multinational corporation that designs , manufactures , and sells airplanes , rotorcraft , rockets , and satellites worldwide . The company also provides leasing and product support services . Boeing is among the largest global aircraft manufacturers ; it is the second-largest defense contractor in the world based on 2015 revenue , and is the largest exporter in the United States by dollar value . Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average .   The Boeing Company 's corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President and CEO Dennis Muilenburg . Boeing is organized into five primary divisions : Boeing Commercial Airplanes ( BCA ) ; Boeing Defense , Space & Security ( BDS ) ; Engineering , Operations & Technology ; Boeing Capital ; and Boeing Shared Services Group . In 2015 , Boeing recorded $ 96.11 billion in sales , ranked 27th on the Fortune magazine `` Fortune 500 '' list ( 2015 ) , ranked 90th on the `` Fortune Global 500 '' list ( 2015 ) , and ranked 27th on the `` World 's Most Admired Companies '' list ( 2015 ) ."}
{"_id": "Botany", "title": "Botany", "headings": "", "text": "Botany , also called plant science ( s ) , plant biology or phytology , is the science of plant life and a branch of biology . A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field . The term `` botany '' comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη ( botanē ) meaning `` pasture '' , `` grass '' , or `` fodder '' ; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν ( boskein ) , `` to feed '' or `` to graze '' . Traditionally , botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively , with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress . Nowadays , botanists ( in the strict sense ) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants ( including ca 369,000 species of flowering plants ) , and ca 20,000 are bryophytes .   Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify -- and later cultivate -- edible , medicinal and poisonous plants , making it one of the oldest branches of science . Medieval physic gardens , often attached to monasteries , contained plants of medical importance . They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities , founded from the 1540s onwards . One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden . These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants . Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy , and led in 1753 to the binomial system of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day .   In the 19th and 20th centuries , new techniques were developed for the study of plants , including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging , electron microscopy , analysis of chromosome number , plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins . In the last two decades of the 20th century , botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis , including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately .   Modern botany is a broad , multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science and technology . Research topics include the study of plant structure , growth and differentiation , reproduction , biochemistry and primary metabolism , chemical products , development , diseases , evolutionary relationships , systematics , and plant taxonomy . Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics , which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues . Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods , materials such as timber , oil , rubber , fibre and drugs , in modern horticulture , agriculture and forestry , plant propagation , breeding and genetic modification , in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production , in environmental management , and the maintenance of biodiversity ."}
{"_id": "Bread", "title": "Bread", "headings": "", "text": "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water , usually by baking . Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods , having been of importance since the dawn of agriculture .   Proportions of types of flour and other ingredients vary widely , as do modes of preparation . As a result , types , shapes , sizes , and textures of breads differ around the world . Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes , chemicals , industrially produced yeast , or high-pressure aeration . Some bread is cooked before it can leaven , including for traditional or religious reasons . Non-cereal ingredients such as fruits , nuts and fats may be included . Commercial bread commonly contains additives to improve flavor , texture , color , shelf life , and ease of manufacturing .   Bread is served in various forms with any meal of the day . It is eaten as a snack , and used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations , such as sandwiches , and fried items coated in bread crumbs to prevent sticking . It forms the bland main component of bread pudding , as well as of stuffings designed to fill cavities or retain juices that otherwise might drip out .   Bread has a social and emotional significance beyond its importance as nourishment . It plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular culture . Its prominence in daily life is reflected in language , where it appears in proverbs , colloquial expressions ( `` He stole the bread from my mouth '' ) , in prayer ( `` Give us this day our daily bread '' ) and in the etymology of words , such as `` companion '' ( from Latin com `` with '' + panis `` bread '' ) ."}
{"_id": "Breathing", "title": "Breathing", "headings": "", "text": "Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs , to allow the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the external environment into and out of the blood . `` Breathing '' sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other respiratory organs such as gills in fish and spiracles in certain arthropods . For organisms with lungs , breathing is also called ventilation , which consists of inhalation ( breathing in ) and exhalation ( breathing out ) . Breathing is one part of physiological respiration required to sustain life . Aerobic organisms ( all animals , most plants and many micro-organisms ) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by metabolizing energy-rich molecules such as fatty acids and glucose . This is often referred to as cellular respiration . Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes excess carbon dioxide . After breathing , the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system , and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells . Breathing fulfills another vital function : that of regulating the pH of the extracellular fluids of the body . It is , in fact , this homeostatic function which determines the rate and depth of breathing . The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea .   At the end of each exhalation the adult human lungs still contain 2.5 -- 3.0 liters of air , termed the functional residual capacity ( FRC ) . Breathing replaces only about 15 % of this volume of gas with moistened ambient air with each breath . This ensures that the composition of the FRC changes very little during the breathing cycle , and remains significantly different from the composition of the ambient air . The partial pressures of the gases in the blood flowing through the alveolar capillaries equilibrate with the partial pressures of the gases in the FRC , ensuring that the partial pressures of carbon dioxide , and oxygen of the arterial blood , and therefore its pH , remain constant . The equilibration of the gases in the alveolar blood with those in the alveolar air ( i.e. the gas exchange between the two ) occurs by passive diffusion .   Breathing is used for a number of subsidiary functions , such as speech , expression of the emotions ( e.g. laughing . yawning etc. ) , self-maintenance activities ( coughing and sneezing etc. ) and , in animals that can not sweat through the skin , panting ."}
{"_id": "British_Columbia", "title": "British Columbia", "headings": "", "text": "British Columbia ( BC ) is the westernmost province of Canada , with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains .  British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion , along with the U.S. states of Idaho , Oregon , Washington , Alaska , and western Montana .   The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria , established in 1843 , which gave rise to the city of Victoria , at first the capital of the separate Colony of Vancouver Island . Subsequently , on the mainland , the Colony of British Columbia ( 1858 -- 66 ) was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers , Columbia Detachment , in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush . Moody was Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for the Colony and the first Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia : he was hand-picked by the Colonial Office in London to transform British Columbia into the British Empire 's `` bulwark in the farthest west '' , and `` to found a second England on the shores of the Pacific '' . Moody selected the site for and founded the original capital of British Columbia , New Westminster , established the Cariboo Road and Stanley Park , and designed the first version of the Coat of arms of British Columbia . Port Moody is named after him .   In 1866 , Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia , and Victoria became the united colony 's capital . In 1871 , British Columbia became the sixth province of Canada . Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu ( `` Splendour without Diminishment '' ) .   The capital of British Columbia remains Victoria , the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada , named for the Queen who created the original European colonies . The largest city is Vancouver , the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada , the largest in Western Canada , and the third-largest in the Pacific Northwest . In October 2013 , British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371 ( about 2.5 million of whom were in Greater Vancouver ) . The province is currently governed by the BC Liberal Party , led by Premier Christy Clark , who became leader as a result of a leadership convention vote on February 26 , 2011 , and who led her party to an election victory on May 14 , 2013 .   British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871 . First Nations , the original inhabitants of the land , have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area . Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title , long ignored , has become a legal and political question of frequent debate as a result of recent court actions . Notably , the Tsilhqot ` in Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory , as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision ( William -LSB- Tsilhqot ` in Nation -RSB- v. British Columbia ) .   BC 's economy is diverse , with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the province 's GDP . It is the endpoint of transcontinental railways , and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade . Though less than 5 % of its vast 944735 km2 land is arable , the province is agriculturally rich ( particularly in the Fraser and Okanagan valleys ) , because of milder weather near the coast and in certain sheltered southern valleys . Its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism , though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction , principally logging , farming , and mining . Vancouver , the province 's largest city and metropolitan area , also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies . It also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average . While the coast of British Columbia and certain valleys in the south-central part of the province have mild weather , the majority of its land mass experiences a cold-winter-temperate climate similar to that of the rest of Canada . The Northern Interior region has a subarctic climate with very cold winters . The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities , with nighttime January temperatures averaging above the freezing point ."}
{"_id": "Brown_bear", "title": "Brown bear", "headings": "", "text": "The brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) is a large bear with the widest distribution of any living ursid . The species is distributed across much of northern Eurasia and North America . It is one of the two largest terrestrial carnivorans alive today , rivaled in body size only by its close cousin , the polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) , which is much less variable in size and averages larger due to this . There are several recognized subspecies , many of which are quite well-known within their native ranges , found in the brown bear species .   The brown bear 's principal range includes parts of Russia , Central Asia , China , Canada , the United States ( mostly Alaska ) , Scandinavia and the Carpathian region ( especially Romania ) , Anatolia , and Caucasus . The brown bear is recognized as a national and state animal in several European countries .   While the brown bear 's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions , it remains listed as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) with a total population of approximately 200,000 . As of 2012 , this and the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN . However , the Californian , North African ( Atlas bear ) , and Mexican subspecies were hunted to extinction in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , and many of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered . One of the smaller-bodied subspecies , the Himalayan brown bear , is critically endangered , occupying only 2 % of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its parts . The Marsican brown bear , one of several currently isolated populations of the main Eurasian brown bear race , in central Italy is believed to have a population of just 30 to 40 bears ."}
{"_id": "Buffalo_meat", "title": "Buffalo meat", "headings": "", "text": "Buffalo meat is the meat of the water buffalo , a large bovid , raised for its milk and meat in many countries including India , Nepal , Pakistan , Bangladesh , Bulgaria , Italy , Russia , Czech Republic , Slovakia and Egypt .   Buffalo meat is known by various names in different countries . In some places it is known as buffen , or buff in Nepal ; in some countries it is known as carabeef , from the Spanish term and breed name carabao . Meat taken from a buffalo younger than 20 months is known as padwa in India and Pakistan or pado in Nepal . Buffalo calves are often referred to as buffalo broilers and brought up exclusively on milk for the purpose of being slaughtered young for meat ."}
{"_id": "Burkina_Faso", "title": "Burkina Faso", "headings": "", "text": "Burkina Faso ( -LSB- usbər ` kiːnə _ , fɑːsoʊ -RSB- ; -LSB- buʁkina faso -RSB- ) is a landlocked country located in West Africa . It covers an area of around 274200 km2 and is surrounded by six countries : Mali to the north ; Niger to the east ; Benin to the southeast ; Togo and Ghana to the south ; and Ivory Coast to the southwest . Its capital is Ouagadougou . In 2014 its population was estimated at just over 17.3 million . Burkina Faso is a francophone country and French is an official language of government and business . Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta , the country was renamed `` Burkina Faso '' on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara . The citizens of Burkina Faso are known as Burkinabé ( -LSB- bərˈkiːnəbeɪ -RSB- ) .   The northwestern part of present-day Burkina Faso was populated by hunter-gatherers from 14,000 BC to 5,000 BC . From the 3rd to the 13th centuries AD , the Iron-Age Bura culture was situated in the territory of present-day southeastern Burkina Faso and southwestern Niger . Various ethnic groups of present-day Burkina Faso , such as the Mossi , Fula and Dyula , arrived in successive waves between the 8th and 15th centuries . From the 11th century the Mossi people established several separate kingdoms . In the 1890s during the European Scramble for Africa , the territory of Burkina Faso was invaded by France , and colonial control was established following a war of conquest between 1896 to 1904 . The territory was made part of French West Africa in 1904 , and the colony of French Upper Volta was established on 1 March 1919 . The colony was named for its location on the upper courses of the Volta River ( the Black , Red and White Volta ) .   The Republic of Upper Volta was established on 11 December 1958 as a self-governing colony within the French Community , and on 5 August 1960 it gained full independence , with Maurice Yaméogo as President . After protests by students and labour unions , Yaméogo was deposed in the 1966 coup d'état led by Sangoulé Lamizana , who became President . His rule coincided with the Sahel drought and famine , and facing problems from the country 's traditionally powerful trade unions , he was deposed in the 1980 coup d'état led by Saye Zerbo . Encountering resistance from trade unions once again , Zerbo 's government was overthrown in the 1982 coup d'état led by Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo . The leader of the leftist faction of Ouédraogo 's government , Thomas Sankara , became Prime Minister but was imprisoned . Efforts to free him led to the popularly-supported 1983 coup d'état , in which he became President . Sankara renamed the country to Burkina Faso and launched an ambitious socioeconomic programme which included a nationwide literacy campaign , land redistribution to peasants , railway and road construction and the outlawing of female genital mutilation , forced marriages and polygamy . Sankara was overthrown and killed in the 1987 coup d'état led by Blaise Compaoré -- deteriorating relations with the former coloniser France and its ally the Ivory Coast was the reason given for the coup .   In 1987 Blaise Compaoré became President and , after an alleged 1989 coup attempt , was later elected in 1991 and 1998 , elections which were boycotted by the opposition and received a considerably low turnout , and in 2005 . He remained head of state until he was ousted from power by the popular youth upheaval of 31 October 2014 . He then fled to the Ivory Coast . Michel Kafando subsequently became the transitional President of the country . On 16 September 2015 a military coup d'état against the Kafando government was carried out by the Regiment of Presidential Security . On 24 September 2015 , after pressure from the African Union , ECOWAS and the armed forces , the military junta agreed to step down , and Michel Kafando was reinstated as Acting President . In the general election held on 29 November 2015 , Roch Marc Christian Kaboré won in the first round with 53.5 % of the vote and was sworn in as President on 29 December 2015 ."}
{"_id": "Bushfires_in_Australia", "title": "Bushfires in Australia", "headings": "", "text": "Bushfires in Australia are frequent events during the warmer months of the year , due to Australia 's mostly hot , dry climate . Each year , such fires impact extensive areas . On one hand , they can cause property damage and loss of human life . On the other hand , certain native flora in Australia have evolved to rely on bushfires as a means of reproduction , and fire events are an interwoven and an essential part of the ecology of the continent . For thousands of years , Indigenous Australians have used fire to foster grasslands for hunting and to clear tracks through dense vegetation .   Major firestorms that result in severe loss of life are often named based on the day on which they occur , such as Ash Wednesday and Black Saturday . Some of the most intense , extensive and deadly bushfires commonly occur during droughts and heat waves , such as the 2009 Southern Australia heat wave , which precipitated the conditions during the 2009 Black Saturday bushfires in which 173 people lost their lives . Other major conflagrations include the 1983 Ash Wednesday bushfires , the 2003 Eastern Victorian alpine bushfires and the 2006 December Bushfires .   Global warming is increasing the frequency and severity of bushfires ."}
{"_id": "CLOUD_experiment", "title": "CLOUD experiment", "headings": "", "text": "Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 .   The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models ."}
{"_id": "Caffeine", "title": "Caffeine", "headings": "", "text": "Caffeine is a central nervous system ( CNS ) stimulant of the methylxanthine class . It is the world 's most widely consumed psychoactive drug . Unlike many other psychoactive substances , it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world . There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine . The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine . Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system .   Caffeine is a bitter , white crystalline purine , a methylxanthine alkaloid , and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) and ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) . It is found in the seeds , nuts , or leaves of a number of plants native to South America and East Asia and helps to protect them against predator insects and to prevent germination of nearby seeds . The most well known source of caffeine is the coffee bean , a misnomer for the seed of Coffea plants . Beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance . To make these drinks , caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water , a process called infusion . Caffeine-containing drinks , such as coffee , tea , and cola , are very popular ; in 2005 , 90 % of North American adults consumed caffeine daily .   Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects . It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity . Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines . It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases , including Parkinson 's disease and certain types of cancer . One meta-analysis concluded that cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery disease and stroke is less likely with 3 -- 5 cups of non-decaffeinated coffee per day but more likely with over 5 cups per day . Some people experience insomnia or sleep disruption if they consume caffeine , especially during the evening hours , but others show little disturbance . Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal ; some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less . Caffeine can produce a mild form of drug dependence -- associated with withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness , headache , and irritability -- when an individual stops using caffeine after repeated daily intake . Tolerance to the autonomic effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate , and increased urine output , develops with chronic use ( i.e. , these symptoms become less pronounced or do not occur following consistent use ) .   Caffeine is classified by the Food and Drug Administration as `` generally recognized as safe '' ( GRAS ) . Toxic doses , over 10 grams per day for an adult , are much higher than typical doses of under 500 milligrams per day . A cup of coffee contains 80 -- 175 mg of caffeine , depending on what `` bean '' ( seed ) is used and how it is prepared ( e.g. drip , percolation , or espresso ) . Thus it requires roughly 50 -- 100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach a lethal dose . However pure powdered caffeine , which is available as a dietary supplement , can be lethal in tablespoon-sized amounts ."}
{"_id": "Calcium_carbonate", "title": "Calcium carbonate", "headings": "", "text": "Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3 . It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite ( most notably as limestone , which contains both of those minerals ) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms , snails , and eggs . Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale . It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid , but excessive consumption can be hazardous ."}
{"_id": "California", "title": "California", "headings": "", "text": "California ( -LSB- kælᵻˈfɔːrnjə , _ - ni.ə -RSB- , ) is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area . Located on the western ( Pacific Ocean ) coast of the U.S. , California is bordered by the other U.S. states of Oregon , Nevada , and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California . The state capital is Sacramento . Los Angeles is California 's most populous city , and the country 's second largest after New York City . The Greater Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation 's second - and fifth-most populous urban regions , respectively . California also has the nation 's most populous county , Los Angeles County , and its largest county by area , San Bernardino County .   California 's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east ; and from the redwood -- Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast . The Central Valley , a major agricultural area , dominates the state 's center . Though California is well-known for its warm Mediterranean climate , the large size of the state means it can vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north , to arid desert in the interior , as well as snowy alpine in the mountains .   What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries . The Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony . The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its successful war for independence , but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican -- American War . The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California , and admitted as the 31st state on September 9 , 1850 . The California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes , with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom .   If it were a country , California would be the 6th largest economy in the world and the 35th most populous . It is also regarded as a global trendsetter in both popular culture and politics , and is the origin of the film industry , the hippie counterculture , the Internet , and the personal computer , among others . Fifty-eight percent of the state 's economy is centered on finance , government , real estate services , technology , and professional , scientific and technical business services . The San Francisco Bay Area has the nation 's highest median household income by metropolitan area , and is the headquarters of three of the world 's largest 40 firms by revenue , Chevron , Apple , and McKesson . Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the state 's economy , California 's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state ."}
{"_id": "Cambrian", "title": "Cambrian", "headings": "", "text": "The Cambrian Period ( -LSB- pronˈkæmbriən -RSB- or -LSB- ˈkeɪmbriən -RSB- ) was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era , of the Phanerozoic Eon . The Cambrian lasted 55.6 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 541 million years ago ( mya ) to the beginning of the Ordovician Period mya . Its subdivisions , and its base , are somewhat in flux . The period was established ( as `` Cambrian series '' ) by Adam Sedgwick , who named it after Cambria , the Latinised form of Cymru , the Welsh name for Wales , where Britain 's Cambrian rocks are best exposed . The Cambrian is unique in its unusually high proportion of lagerstätte sedimentary deposits , sites of exceptional preservation where `` soft '' parts of organisms are preserved as well as their more resistant shells . As a result , our understanding of the Cambrian biology surpasses that of some later periods .   The Cambrian marked a profound change in life on Earth ; prior to the Cambrian , the majority of living organisms on the whole were small , unicellular and simple ; the Precambrian Charnia being exceptional . Complex , multicellular organisms gradually became more common in the millions of years immediately preceding the Cambrian , but it was not until this period that mineralized -- hence readily fossilized -- organisms became common . The rapid diversification of lifeforms in the Cambrian , known as the Cambrian explosion , produced the first representatives of all modern animal phyla . Phylogenetic analysis has supported the view that during the Cambrian radiation , metazoa ( animals ) evolved monophyletically from a single common ancestor : flagellated colonial protists similar to modern choanoflagellates .   Although diverse life forms prospered in the oceans , the land was comparatively barren -- with nothing more complex than a microbial soil crust and a few molluscs that emerged to browse on the microbial biofilm . Most of the continents were probably dry and rocky due to a lack of vegetation . Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents created during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia . The seas were relatively warm , and polar ice was absent for much of the period .   The United States Federal Geographic Data Committee uses a `` barred capital C '' character similar to the capital letter Ukrainian Ye to represent the Cambrian Period .  The proper Unicode character is ."}
{"_id": "Cambridge,_Massachusetts", "title": "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "headings": "", "text": "Cambridge ( -LSB- ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ -RSB- ) is a city in Middlesex County , Massachusetts , and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area .   Situated directly north of the city of Boston , across the Charles River , it was named in honor of the University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom , an important center of the Puritan theology embraced by the town 's founders . Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , two of the world 's most prestigious universities , are located in Cambridge , as was Radcliffe College , one of the leading colleges for women in the United States until it merged with Harvard .   According to the 2010 Census , the city 's population was 105,162 . , it was the fifth most populous city in the state , behind Boston , Worcester , Springfield and Lowell . Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997 ; Lowell was the other .   Kendall Square in Cambridge has been called `` the most innovative square mile on the planet '' , in reference to the high concentration of entrepreneurial start-ups and quality of innovation which have emerged in the vicinity of the square since 2010 ."}
{"_id": "Canada", "title": "Canada", "headings": "", "text": "Canada ( -LSB- ˈkænədə -RSB- -LSB- kanadɑ -RSB- ) is a country in the northern part of North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean , covering 9.98 e6km2 , making it the world 's second-largest country by total area and the fourth-largest country by land area . Canada 's border with the United States is the world 's longest binational land border . The majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate , but southerly areas are warm in summer . Canada is sparsely populated , the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains . It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities , many near the southern border . One third of the population lives in the three largest cities : Toronto , Montreal and Vancouver . Its capital is Ottawa , and other major urban areas include Calgary , Edmonton , Quebec City , Winnipeg and Hamilton .   Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization . Beginning in the 16th century , British and French claims were made on the area , with the colony of Canada first being established by the French in 1535 during Jacques Cartier 's second voyage to New France . As a consequence of various conflicts , Great Britain gained and lost territories within British North America until it was left , in the late 18th century , with what mostly geographically comprises Canada today . Pursuant to the British North America Act , on July 1 , 1867 , the colonies of Canada , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia joined to form the semi-autonomous federal Dominion of Canada . This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada .   In 1931 , Canada achieved near total independence from the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster 1931 , but at the time , Canada decided to allow the British Parliament to temporarily retain the power to amend Canada 's constitution , on request from the Parliament of Canada . With the Constitution Act 1982 , Canada took over that authority ( as the conclusion of Patriation ) , removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom , giving the country full sovereignty .   Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state . The country is officially bilingual at the federal level . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries . Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks . Canada 's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture .   Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index . It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic freedom , and education . Canada is a Commonwealth realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations , a member of the Francophonie , and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations , the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the G8 , the Group of Ten , the G20 , the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum ."}
{"_id": "Cancer", "title": "Cancer", "headings": "", "text": "Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body . Not all tumors are cancerous ; benign tumors do not spread to other parts of the body . Possible signs and symptoms include a lump , abnormal bleeding , prolonged cough , unexplained weight loss and a change in bowel movements . While these symptoms may indicate cancer , they may have other causes . Over 100 types of cancers affect humans .   Tobacco use is the cause of about 22 % of cancer deaths . Another 10 % is due to obesity , poor diet , lack of physical activity , and excessive drinking of alcohol . Other factors include certain infections , exposure to ionizing radiation and environmental pollutants . In the developing world nearly 20 % of cancers are due to infections such as hepatitis B , hepatitis C and human papillomavirus ( HPV ) . These factors act , at least partly , by changing the genes of a cell . Typically many genetic changes are required before cancer develops . Approximately 5 -- 10 % of cancers are due to inherited genetic defects from a person 's parents . Cancer can be detected by certain signs and symptoms or screening tests . It is then typically further investigated by medical imaging and confirmed by biopsy .   Many cancers can be prevented by not smoking , maintaining a healthy weight , not drinking too much alcohol , eating plenty of vegetables , fruits and whole grains , vaccination against certain infectious diseases , not eating too much processed and red meat , and avoiding too much sunlight exposure . Early detection through screening is useful for cervical and colorectal cancer . The benefits of screening in breast cancer are controversial . Cancer is often treated with some combination of radiation therapy , surgery , chemotherapy , and targeted therapy . Pain and symptom management are an important part of care . Palliative care is particularly important in people with advanced disease . The chance of survival depends on the type of cancer and extent of disease at the start of treatment . In children under 15 at diagnosis the five-year survival rate in the developed world is on average 80 % . For cancer in the United States the average five-year survival rate is 66 % .   In 2015 about 90.5 million people had cancer . About 14.1 million new cases occur a year ( not including skin cancer other than melanoma ) . It caused about 8.8 million deaths ( 15.7 % ) of human deaths . The most common types of cancer in males are lung cancer , prostate cancer , colorectal cancer and stomach cancer . In females , the most common types are breast cancer , colorectal cancer , lung cancer and cervical cancer . If skin cancer other than melanoma were included in total new cancers each year it would account for around 40 % of cases . In children , acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and brain tumors are most common except in Africa where non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs more often . In 2012 , about 165,000 children under 15 years of age were diagnosed with cancer . The risk of cancer increases significantly with age and many cancers occur more commonly in developed countries . Rates are increasing as more people live to an old age and as lifestyle changes occur in the developing world . The financial costs of cancer were estimated at $ 1.16 trillion US dollars per year as of 2010 ."}
{"_id": "Cannabis_cultivation", "title": "Cannabis cultivation", "headings": "", "text": "This article presents common techniques and facts regarding the cultivation of the flowering plant Cannabis , primarily for the production and consumption of cannabis flowers ( `` buds '' ) . Cultivation techniques for other purposes ( such as hemp production ) differ ."}
{"_id": "Captain_America:_The_First_Avenger", "title": "Captain America: The First Avenger", "headings": "", "text": "Captain America : The First Avenger is a 2011 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character Captain America , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures . It is the fifth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Joe Johnston , written by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely , and stars Chris Evans , Tommy Lee Jones , Hugo Weaving , Hayley Atwell , Sebastian Stan , Dominic Cooper , Neal McDonough , Derek Luke , and Stanley Tucci . Set predominantly during World War II , Captain America : The First Avenger tells the story of Steve Rogers , a sickly man from Brooklyn who is transformed into super-soldier Captain America and must stop the Red Skull , who intends to use an artifact called the `` Tesseract '' as an energy-source for world domination .   Captain America : The First Avenger began as a concept in 1997 and was scheduled for distribution by Artisan Entertainment . However , a lawsuit , not settled until September 2003 , disrupted the project . In 2005 , Marvel Studios received a loan from Merrill Lynch , and planned to finance and release it through Paramount Pictures . Directors Jon Favreau and Louis Leterrier were interested in directing the project before Johnston was approached in 2008 . The principal characters were cast between March and June 2010 . Production of Captain America : The First Avenger began in June 2010 , and filming took place in London , Manchester , Caerwent , and Liverpool in the United Kingdom , and Los Angeles in the United States . The film was converted to 3D in post-production .   Captain America : The First Avenger premiered in Hollywood on July 19 , 2011 , and was released in the United States on July 22 , 2011 . The film received positive reviews and was commercially successful , grossing over $ 370 million worldwide . The Blu-ray and DVD were released on October 25 , 2011 . A sequel titled Captain America : The Winter Soldier was released on April 4 , 2014 , and a third film titled Captain America : Civil War was released on May 6 , 2016 ."}
{"_id": "Captain_Cold", "title": "Captain Cold", "headings": "", "text": "Captain Cold ( Leonard Snart ) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . Captain Cold is the leader of the Rogues , a loose criminal association , , as well as the older brother of Golden Glider . He also has served as a bitter enemy to the Silver Age Flash Barry Allen , both enemy and grudging friend to the third Flash Wally West , and one of the killers of the fourth Flash Bart Allen .   IGN 's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villains Of All Time List ranked Captain Cold as # 27 . Actor Wentworth Miller has portrayed the character in The CW 's live action Arrowverse ."}
{"_id": "Captain_Planet_and_the_Planeteers", "title": "Captain Planet and the Planeteers", "headings": "", "text": "Captain Planet and the Planeteers is an American animated environmentalist television program created by Ted Turner and Barbara Pyle . The series was produced by Turner Program Services and DIC Entertainment and it was broadcast on TBS from September 15 , 1990 , to December 5 , 1992 . A sequel series , The New Adventures of Captain Planet , was produced by Hanna-Barbera and Turner Program Services and was broadcast from September 11 , 1993 , to May 11 , 1996 . Both series continue today in syndication . The program is a form of edutainment and advocates environmentalism and is famous for having a number of famous actors providing voices for the villains .   In February 2009 , Mother Nature Network began airing episodes and unreleased footage of Captain Planet and the Planeteers on its website ."}
{"_id": "Car", "title": "Car", "headings": "", "text": "A car ( or automobile ) is a wheeled , self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry . Most definitions of the term specify that cars are designed to run primarily on roads , to have seating for one to eight people , to typically have four wheels with tyres , and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods . The year 1886 is regarded as the birth year of the modern car . In that year , German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen . Cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century . One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T , an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company . Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America , where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts , but took much longer to be accepted in Western Europe and other parts of the world .   Cars are equipped with controls used for driving , parking , passenger comfort and safety , and controlling a variety of lights . Over the decades , additional features and controls have been added to vehicles , making them progressively more complex . Examples include rear reversing cameras , air conditioning , navigation systems , and in car entertainment . Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by an internal combustion engine , fueled by deflagration of gasoline ( also known as petrol ) or diesel . Both fuels cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming . Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries . Electric cars , which were invented early in the history of the car , began to become commercially available in 2008 .   There are costs and benefits to car use . The costs of car usage include the cost of : acquiring the vehicle , interest payments ( if the car is financed ) , repairs and auto maintenance , fuel , depreciation , driving time , parking fees , taxes , and insurance . The costs to society of car use include : maintaining roads , land use , road congestion , air pollution , public health , health care , and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life . Road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide .   The benefits may include on-demand transportation , mobility , independence , and convenience . The societal benefits may include : economic benefits , such as job and wealth creation from car production , sales and maintenance , transportation provision , society well-being derived from leisure and travel opportunities , and revenue generation from the tax opportunities . The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies . It was estimated in 2014 that the number of cars had risen to over 1.25 billion vehicles , up from the 500 million of 1986 . The numbers are increasing rapidly , especially in China , India and other newly industrialized countries ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "title": "Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme", "headings": "", "text": "The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme .   The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS .   After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_capture_and_storage", "title": "Carbon capture and storage", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ( or carbon capture and sequestration ) is the process of capturing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources , such as fossil fuel power plants , transporting it to a storage site , and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere , normally an underground geological formation . The aim is to prevent the release of large quantities of into the atmosphere ( from fossil fuel use in power generation and other industries ) . It is a potential means of mitigating the contribution of fossil fuel emissions to global warming and ocean acidification . Although has been injected into geological formations for several decades for various purposes , including enhanced oil recovery , the long term storage of is a relatively new concept . The first commercial example was the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project in 2000 . Other examples include SaskPower 's Boundary Dam and Mississippi Power 's Kemper Project . ` CCS ' can also be used to describe the scrubbing of from ambient air as a climate engineering technique .   An integrated pilot-scale CCS power plant was to begin operating in September 2008 in the eastern German power plant Schwarze Pumpe run by utility Vattenfall , to test the technological feasibility and economic efficiency . CCS applied to a modern conventional power plant could reduce emissions to the atmosphere by approximately 80 -- 90 % compared to a plant without CCS . The IPCC estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until year 2100 .   Carbon dioxide can be captured out of air or fossil fuel power plant flue gas using adsorption ( or carbon scrubbing ) , membrane gas separation , or adsorption technologies . Amines are the leading carbon scrubbing technology .  Capturing and compressing may increase the energy needs of a coal-fired CCS plant by 25 -- 40 % . These and other system costs are estimated to increase the cost per watt energy produced by 21 -- 91 % for fossil fuel power plants . Applying the technology to existing plants would be more expensive , especially if they are far from a sequestration site . A 2005 industry report suggests that with successful research , development and deployment ( RD&D ) , sequestered coal-based electricity generation in 2025 may cost less than unsequestered coal-based electricity generation today .   Storage of the is envisaged either in deep geological formations , or in the form of mineral carbonates . Deep ocean storage is not currently considered feasible due to the associated effect of ocean acidification . Geological formations are currently considered the most promising sequestration sites . The National Energy Technology Laboratory ( NETL ) reported that North America has enough storage capacity for more than 900 years worth of carbon dioxide at current production rates . A general problem is that long term predictions about submarine or underground storage security are very difficult and uncertain , and there is still the risk that might leak into the atmosphere ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_credit", "title": "Carbon credit", "headings": "", "text": "A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide .   Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources .   The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world .   There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_cycle", "title": "Carbon cycle", "headings": "", "text": "The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks .   The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_dioxide", "title": "Carbon dioxide", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas .   As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product .   Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas .   It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting .   Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "title": "Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years .   Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds .   The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "title": "Carbon dioxide removal", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken .   The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy .   The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_footprint", "title": "Carbon footprint", "headings": "", "text": "A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent .   In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as :   A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .   Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted .   Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint .   The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere .   Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_monoxide", "title": "Carbon monoxide", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone .   Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_neutrality", "title": "Carbon neutrality", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel .   The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article .   The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways :  Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) .  Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some .   The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_offset", "title": "Carbon offset", "headings": "", "text": "A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere .   Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases .   There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions .   In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes .   Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects .   Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel .   Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets .  Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets .   Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_price", "title": "Carbon price", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' .   Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain .   The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions .   The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_sequestration", "title": "Carbon sequestration", "headings": "", "text": "Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels .   Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_sink", "title": "Carbon sink", "headings": "", "text": "A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period . The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration . Public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol , which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset . There are also different strategies used to enhance this process ."}
{"_id": "Carbon_tax", "title": "Carbon tax", "headings": "", "text": "A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel .   Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health .   Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups .   A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly .   Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation ."}
{"_id": "Carbonic_acid", "title": "Carbonic acid", "headings": "", "text": "Not to be confused with Carbolic acid , an antiquated name for phenol .   Carbonic acid is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H2CO3 ( equivalently OC ( OH ) 2 ) . It is also a name sometimes given to solutions of carbon dioxide in water ( carbonated water ) , because such solutions contain small amounts of H2CO3 . In physiology , carbonic acid is described as volatile acid or respiratory acid , because it is the only acid excreted as a gas by the lungs . It plays an important role in the bicarbonate buffer system to maintain acid -- base homeostasis .   Carbonic acid , which is a weak acid , forms two kinds of salts , the carbonates and the bicarbonates . In geology , carbonic acid causes limestone to dissolve producing calcium bicarbonate which leads to many limestone features such as stalactites and stalagmites .   It was long believed that carbonic acid could not exist as a pure compound . However , in 1991 it was reported that NASA scientists had succeeded in making solid H2CO3 samples ."}
{"_id": "Cardiovascular_disease", "title": "Cardiovascular disease", "headings": "", "text": "Cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels . Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases ( CAD ) such as angina and myocardial infarction ( commonly known as a heart attack ) . Other CVDs include stroke , heart failure , hypertensive heart disease , rheumatic heart disease , cardiomyopathy , heart arrhythmia , congenital heart disease , valvular heart disease , carditis , aortic aneurysms , peripheral artery disease , thromboembolic disease , and venous thrombosis .   The underlying mechanisms vary depending on the disease in question . Coronary artery disease , stroke , and peripheral artery disease involve atherosclerosis . This may be caused by high blood pressure , smoking , diabetes , lack of exercise , obesity , high blood cholesterol , poor diet , and excessive alcohol consumption , among others . High blood pressure results in 13 % of CVD deaths , while tobacco results in 9 % , diabetes 6 % , lack of exercise 6 % and obesity 5 % . Rheumatic heart disease may follow untreated strep throat .   It is estimated that 90 % of CVD is preventable . Prevention of atherosclerosis involves improving risk factors through : healthy eating , exercise , avoidance of tobacco smoke and limiting alcohol intake . Treating risk factors , such as high blood pressure , blood lipids and diabetes is also beneficial . Treating people who have strep throat with antibiotics can decrease the risk of rheumatic heart disease . The effect of the use of aspirin in people who are otherwise healthy is of unclear benefit .   Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death globally . This is true in all areas of the world except Africa . Together they resulted in 17.9 million deaths ( 32.1 % ) in 2015 up from 12.3 million ( 25.8 % ) in 1990 . Deaths , at a given age , from CVD are more common and have been increasing in much of the developing world , while rates have declined in most of the developed world since the 1970s . Coronary artery disease and stroke account for 80 % of CVD deaths in males and 75 % of CVD deaths in females . Most cardiovascular disease affects older adults . In the United States 11 % of people between 20 and 40 have CVD , while 37 % between 40 and 60 , 71 % of people between 60 and 80 , and 85 % of people over 80 have CVD . The average age of death from coronary artery disease in the developed world is around 80 while it is around 68 in the developing world . Disease onset is typically seven to ten years earlier in men as compared to women ."}
{"_id": "Carl_Sagan", "title": "Carl Sagan", "headings": "", "text": "Carl Edward Sagan ( -LSB- ˈseɪɡən -RSB- November 9 , 1934 -- December 20 , 1996 ) was an American astronomer , cosmologist , astrophysicist , astrobiologist , author , science popularizer , and science communicator in astronomy and other natural sciences . He is best known for his work as a science popularizer and communicator . His best known scientific contribution is research on extraterrestrial life , including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation . Sagan assembled the first physical messages sent into space : the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record , universal messages that could potentially be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find them . Sagan argued the now accepted hypothesis that the high surface temperatures of Venus can be attributed to and calculated using the greenhouse effect .   Sagan published more than 600 scientific papers and articles and was author , co-author or editor of more than 20 books . He wrote many popular science books , such as The Dragons of Eden , Broca 's Brain and Pale Blue Dot , and narrated and co-wrote the award-winning 1980 television series Cosmos : A Personal Voyage . The most widely watched series in the history of American public television , Cosmos has been seen by at least 500 million people across 60 different countries . The book Cosmos was published to accompany the series . He also wrote the science fiction novel Contact , the basis for a 1997 film of the same name . His papers , containing 595,000 items , are archived at The Library of Congress .   Sagan advocated scientific skeptical inquiry and the scientific method , pioneered exobiology and promoted the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence ( SETI ) . He spent most of his career as a professor of astronomy at Cornell University , where he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies . Sagan and his works received numerous awards and honors , including the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal , the National Academy of Sciences Public Welfare Medal , the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for his book The Dragons of Eden , and , regarding Cosmos : A Personal Voyage , two Emmy Awards , the Peabody Award and the Hugo Award . He married three times and had five children . After suffering from myelodysplasia , Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62 , on December 20 , 1996 ."}
{"_id": "Carlos_Curbelo", "title": "Carlos Curbelo", "headings": "", "text": "Carlos Curbelo may refer to :   Carlos Curbelo ( politician ) ( born 1980 ) , American politician  Carlos Curbelo ( footballer ) ( born 1954 ) , former naturalized French footballer"}
{"_id": "Carnivorous_plant", "title": "Carnivorous plant", "headings": "", "text": "Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients ( but not energy ) from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans , typically insects and other arthropods . Carnivorous plants have adapted to grow in places where the soil is thin or poor in nutrients , especially nitrogen , such as acidic bogs and rock outcroppings . Charles Darwin wrote Insectivorous Plants , the first well-known treatise on carnivorous plants , in 1875 .   True carnivory is thought to have evolved independently nine times in five different orders of flowering plants , and is represented by more than a dozen genera . This classification includes at least 583 species that attract , trap and kill prey , absorbing the resulting available nutrients . Additionally , over 300 protocarnivorous plant species in several genera show some but not all of these characteristics ."}
{"_id": "Cassini–Huygens", "title": "Cassini–Huygens", "headings": "", "text": "Cassini -- Huygens is an unmanned spacecraft sent to the planet Saturn . It is a Flagship-class NASA -- ESA -- ASI robotic spacecraft . Cassini is the fourth space probe to visit Saturn and the first to enter orbit . It has studied the planet and its many natural satellites since arriving there in 2004 .   Development of Cassini began in the 1980s . Its design includes a Saturn orbiter ( Cassini ) and a lander ( Huygens ) for the moon Titan . The two spacecraft are named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens . The spacecraft was launched on October 15 , 1997 , aboard a Titan IVB/Centaur and entered orbit around Saturn on July 1 , 2004 , after an interplanetary voyage that included flybys of Earth , Venus , and Jupiter . On December 25 , 2004 , Huygens separated from the orbiter , and it landed on Saturn 's moon Titan on January 14 , 2005 . It successfully returned data to Earth , using the orbiter as a relay . This was the first landing ever accomplished in the outer Solar System .   Cassini continued to study the Saturn system in the following years , and continues to operate . Due to a dwindling fuel supply , however , the spacecraft has entered the Grand Finale phase of its mission . A number of risky passes through the gap between Saturn and its inner ring are planned in order to maximize Cassini science returns before the orbiter is intentionally destroyed by diving into Saturn 's atmosphere on September 15 , 2017 . This planned deorbit is necessary to mitigate the risk of the spacecraft eventually colliding with and contaminating one of Saturn 's moons ."}
{"_id": "Catalan_pseudoprime", "title": "Catalan pseudoprime", "headings": "", "text": "In mathematics , a Catalan pseudoprime is an odd composite number n satisfying the congruence   where Cm denotes the m-th Catalan number . The congruence also holds for every odd prime number n that justifies the name pseudoprimes for composite numbers n satisfying it ."}
{"_id": "Cellulosic_ethanol", "title": "Cellulosic ethanol", "headings": "", "text": "Cellulosic ethanol is ethanol ( ethyl alcohol ) produced from cellulose ( the stringy fiber of a plant ) rather than from the plant 's seeds or fruit . It is a biofuel produced from grasses , wood , algae , or other plants . The fibrous parts of the plants are mostly inedible to animals , including humans , except for ruminants ( grazing , cud-chewing animals such as cows or sheep ) .   Considerable interest in cellulosic ethanol exists because it has the potential for strong economic importance . Growth of cellulose by plants is a mechanism that captures and stores solar energy chemically in nontoxic ways with resultant supplies that are easy to transport and store . Additionally , transport may be unneeded anyway , because grasses or trees can grow almost anywhere temperate . This is why commercially practical cellulosic ethanol is widely viewed as a next level of development for the biofuel industry that could reduce demand for oil and gas drilling and even nuclear power in ways that grain-based ethanol fuel alone can not . Potential exists for the many benefits of carbonaceous liquid fuels and petrochemicals ( which today 's standard of living depends on ) but in a carbon cycle -- balanced and renewable way ( recycling surface and atmosphere carbon instead of pumping underground carbon up into it and thus adding to it ) . Commercially practical cellulosic alcohol could also avoid one of the problems with today 's conventional ( grain-based ) biofuels , which is that they set up competition for grain with food purposes , potentially driving up the price of food . To date , what stands in the way of these goals is that production of cellulosic alcohol is not yet sufficiently practical on a commercial scale ."}
{"_id": "Celsius", "title": "Celsius", "headings": "", "text": "Celsius , also known as centigrade , is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature . As an SI derived unit , it is used by most countries in the world . It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius ( 1701 -- 1744 ) , who developed a similar temperature scale . The degree Celsius ( ° C ) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval , a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty . Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948 , the unit was called centigrade , from the Latin centum , which means 100 , and gradus , which means steps .   The current scale is based on 0 ° for the freezing point of water and 100 ° for the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure following a change introduced by Jean-Pierre Christin to reverse the Celsius thermometer scale ( from water boiling at 0 degrees and ice melting at 100 degrees ) . This scale is widely taught in schools today . By international agreement the unit `` degree Celsius '' and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures : absolute zero , and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ( VSMOW ) , a specially purified water . This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale , which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero , the lowest temperature possible , is defined as being precisely 0 K and − 273.15 ° C . The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as exactly 273.16 K at 611.657 Pa pressure .   Thus , the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin are exactly the same and the difference between the two scales ' null points is precisely 273.15 degrees ( and ) ."}
{"_id": "Chaos_theory", "title": "Chaos theory", "headings": "", "text": "Chaos theory is a branch of mathematics focused on the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions . ` Chaos ' is an interdisciplinary theory stating that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems , there are underlying patterns , constant feedback loops , repetition , self-similarity , fractals , self-organization , and reliance on programming at the initial point known as sensitive dependence on initial conditions . The butterfly effect describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state , e.g. a butterfly flapping its wings in Brazil can cause a tornado in Texas .   Small differences in initial conditions ( such as those due to rounding errors in numerical computation ) yield widely diverging outcomes for such dynamical systems -- a response popularly referred to as the butterfly effect - rendering long-term prediction of their behavior impossible in general . This happens even though these systems are deterministic , meaning that their future behavior is fully determined by their initial conditions , with no random elements involved . In other words , the deterministic nature of these systems does not make them predictable . This behavior is known as deterministic chaos , or simply chaos . The theory was summarized by Edward Lorenz as :   Chaotic behavior exists in many natural systems , such as weather and climate . It also occurs spontaneously in some systems with artificial components , such as road traffic . This behavior can be studied through analysis of a chaotic mathematical model , or through analytical techniques such as recurrence plots and Poincaré maps . Chaos theory has applications in several disciplines , including meteorology , sociology , physics , environmental science , computer science , engineering , economics , biology , ecology , and philosophy .  The theory formed the basis for such fields of study as complex dynamical systems , edge of chaos theory , self-assembly process ."}
{"_id": "Chemistry", "title": "Chemistry", "headings": "", "text": "Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition , structure , properties and change of matter . Chemistry includes topics such as the properties of individual atoms , how atoms form chemical bonds to create chemical compounds , the interactions of substances through intermolecular forces that give matter its general properties , and the interactions between substances through chemical reactions to form different substances .   Chemistry is sometimes called the central science because it bridges other natural sciences , including physics , geology and biology . For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics .   The history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy , which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world ."}
{"_id": "Chernobyl_disaster", "title": "Chernobyl disaster", "headings": "", "text": "The Chernobyl disaster , also referred to as the Chernobyl accident , was a catastrophic nuclear accident . It occurred on 26 April 1986 in the No. 4 light water graphite moderated reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat , in what was then part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union ( USSR ) .   During a late night safety test which simulated a station blackout power-failure and in which safety systems were deliberately turned off , a combination of inherent reactor design flaws , together with the reactor operators arranging the core in a manner contrary to the checklist for the test , eventually resulted in uncontrolled reaction conditions that flashed water into steam generating a destructive steam explosion and a subsequent open-air graphite fire.Although most reports on the Chernobyl accident refer to a number of graphite fires , it is highly unlikely that the graphite itself burned . According to the General Atomics website < http://gt-mhr.ga.com/safety.php > : `` It is often incorrectly assumed that the combustion behavior of graphite is similar to that of charcoal and coal . Numerous tests and calculations have shown that it is virtually impossible to burn high-purity , nuclear-grade graphites . '' On Chernobyl , the same source states : `` Graphite played little or no role in the progression or consequences of the accident . The red glow observed during the Chernobyl accident was the expected color of luminescence for graphite at 700 ° C and not a large-scale graphite fire , as some have incorrectly assumed . '' Similarly , nuclear physicist Yevgeny Velikhov , < http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4918742.stm > noted some 2 weeks after the accident that `` Until now the possibility of a catastrophe really did exist : A great quantity of fuel and graphite of the reactor was in an incandescent state '' That is , all the nuclear-decay heat that was generated inside the uranium fuel ( heat which would normally be extracted by back-up coolant pumps , in an undamaged reactor ) was instead responsible for making the fuel itself and any graphite in contact with it , to glow red-hot . This is contrary to the oft cited interpretation , which is that the graphite was red-hot chiefly because it was chemically oxidizing with the air . This fire produced considerable updrafts for about 9 days , that lofted plumes of fission products into the atmosphere , with the estimated radioactive inventory that was released during this very hot fire phase , approximately equal in magnitude to the airborne fission products released in the initial destructive explosion . Practically all of this radioactive material would then go on to fall-out/precipitate onto much of the surface of the western USSR and Europe .   The Chernobyl accident dominates the Energy accidents sub-category , of most disastrous nuclear power plant accident in history , both in terms of cost and casualties . It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents classified as a level 7 event ( the maximum classification ) on the International Nuclear Event Scale , the other being the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan in 2011 . The struggle to safeguard against scenarios which were , at many times falsely , perceived as having the potential for greater catastrophe and the later decontamination efforts of the surroundings , ultimately involved over 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles . During the accident , blast effects caused 2 deaths within the facility and later 29 firemen and employees died in the days-to-months afterward from acute radiation syndrome , with the potential for long-term cancers still being investigated .   The remains of the No. 4 reactor building were enclosed in a large sarcophagus ( radiation shield ) by December 1986 , at a time when what was left of the reactor was entering the cold shut-down phase ; the enclosure was built quickly as occupational safety for the crews of the other undamaged reactors at the power station , with No. 3 continuing to produce electricity into 2000 .   The accident motivated safety upgrades on all remaining Soviet-designed reactors in the RBMK ( Chernobyl No. 4 ) family , of which eleven continued to power electric grids as of 2013 ."}
{"_id": "Cherry_blossom", "title": "Cherry blossom", "headings": "", "text": "A cherry blossom ( or commonly known in Japan as sakura ) is the flower of any of several trees of genus Prunus , particularly the Japanese cherry , Prunus serrulata ( 桜 or 櫻 さくら ) .   Currently it is widely distributed , especially in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere including Japan , China , Korea , West Siberia , Iran , Pakistan , India , Canada , and the United States . Along with the chrysanthemum , the cherry blossom is considered the national flower of Japan .   Many of the varieties that have been cultivated for ornamental use do not produce fruit . Edible cherries generally come from cultivars of the related species Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus . Cherry blossom are also closely related to other Prunus trees such as the almond , peach , plum and apricot , and more distantly to apples , pears and roses ."}
{"_id": "Chevron_Corporation", "title": "Chevron Corporation", "headings": "", "text": "Chevron Corporation is an American multinational energy corporation . One of the successor companies of Standard Oil , it is headquartered in San Ramon , California , and active in more than 180 countries . Chevron is engaged in every aspect of the oil , natural gas , and geothermal energy industries , including hydrocarbon exploration and production ; refining , marketing and transport ; chemicals manufacturing and sales ; and power generation . Chevron is one of the world 's largest oil companies ; , it ranked third in the Fortune 500 list of the top US closely held and public corporations and sixteenth on the Fortune Global 500 list of the top 500 corporations worldwide . It was also one of the Seven Sisters that dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the 1970s .   Chevron 's downstream operations manufacture and sell products such as fuels , lubricants , additives and petrochemicals . The company 's most significant areas of operations are the west coast of North America , the U.S. Gulf Coast , Southeast Asia , South Korea , Australia and South Africa . In 2010 , Chevron sold an average 3.1 million barrels per day ( 490 × 103 m3/d ) of refined products like gasoline , diesel and jet fuel .   Chevron 's alternative energy operations include geothermal , solar , wind power , biofuel , fuel cells , and hydrogen . In 2011 -- 2013 , the company planned to spend at least $ 2 billion on research and acquisition of renewable power ventures . Chevron has claimed to be the world 's largest producer of geothermal energy . In October 2011 , Chevron launched a 29-MW thermal solar-to-steam facility in the Coalinga Field to produce the steam for enhanced oil recovery . The project is the largest of its kind in the world .   Chevron is also one of the first two fuel brands to be Top Tier certified . The other is Tulsa , Oklahoma based QuikTrip ."}
{"_id": "Chicago", "title": "Chicago", "headings": "", "text": "Chicago ( -LSB- ʃᵻˈkɑːɡoʊ -RSB- or -LSB- ʃᵻˈkɔːɡoʊ -RSB- ) , officially the City of Chicago , is the third-most populous city in the United States . With over 2.7 million residents , it is also the most populous city in both the state of Illinois and the Midwestern United States . It is the county seat of Cook County . The Chicago metropolitan area , often referred to as Chicagoland , has nearly 10 million people and is the third-largest in the U.S. Chicago has been called a global architecture capital . In terms of wealth and economy , Chicago is considered one of the most important business centers in the world .   Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837 , near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed , and grew rapidly in the mid-nineteenth century . Positioned along Lake Michigan , the city is an international hub for finance , commerce , industry , technology , telecommunications , and transportation : O'Hare International Airport is the second-busiest airport in the world when measured by aircraft traffic ; the region also has the largest number of U.S. highways and rail road freight . In 2012 , Chicago was listed as an alpha global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , and ranked seventh in the world in the 2016 Global Cities Index . Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States -- about $ 640 billion according to 2015 estimates . The city has one of the world 's largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14 % of the workforce .   In 2016 , Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors , a new record making it one of the top visited cities in the nation . Landmarks in the city include Millennium Park , Navy Pier , the Magnificent Mile , Art Institute of Chicago , Museum Campus , the Willis ( Sears ) Tower , Museum of Science and Industry , and Lincoln Park Zoo . Chicago 's culture includes the visual arts , novels , film , theater , especially improvisational comedy , and music , particularly jazz , blues , soul , hip hop , gospel and house music . There are many colleges and universities in the Chicago area ; among these , Northwestern University , University of Chicago , and the University of Illinois at Chicago are classified as `` highest research '' doctoral universities . Additionally , Chicago has professional sports teams in each of the major professional leagues . The city has many nicknames , the best-known being the Windy City ."}
{"_id": "China", "title": "China", "headings": "", "text": "China , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the world 's most populous country , with a population of over 1.381 billion . Covering approximately 9.6 e6km2 , China is the world 's second-largest state by land area and third - or fourth-largest by total area . Governed by the Communist Party of China , it exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four direct-controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai and Chongqing ) and the Special Administrative Regions Hong Kong and Macau , also claiming sovereignty over Taiwan . China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia , and has been characterized as a potential superpower .   China emerged as one of the world 's earliest civilizations in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies , or dynasties , beginning with the legendary Xia dynasty . Since 221 , when the Qin dynasty conquered the other largest six states to form the first unified Chinese empire , China has then expanded , fractured and re-unified numerous times in the following millennia . In 1912 , the Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949 , when it was defeated by the communist People 's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War . The Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949 , while the ROC government relocated to Taiwan with its present de facto temporary capital in Taipei . Both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China , though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory .   China has had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two thousand years , during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline . Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978 , China has become one of the world 's fastest-growing major economies . , it is the world 's second-largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . China is also the world 's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods . China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world 's largest standing army and second-largest defense budget . The PRC is a member of the United Nations , as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council in 1971 . China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations , including the WTO , APEC , BRICS , the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , the BCIM and the G-20 ."}
{"_id": "Chinese_remainder_theorem", "title": "Chinese remainder theorem", "headings": "", "text": "The Chinese remainder theorem is a theorem of number theory , which states that , if one knows the remainders of the division of an integer by several integers , then one can determine uniquely the remainder of the division of by the product of these integers , under the condition that the divisors are pairwise coprime .   This theorem has this name because it is a theorem about remainders and was first discovered in the 3rd century AD by the Chinese mathematician Sunzi in Sunzi Suanjing .   The Chinese remainder theorem is widely used for computing with large integers , as it allows replacing a computation for which one knows a bound on the size of the result by several similar computations on small integers .   The Chinese remainder theorem ( expressed in terms of congruences ) is true over every principal ideal domain . It has been generalized to any commutative ring , with a formulation involving ideals ."}
{"_id": "Chlorofluorocarbon", "title": "Chlorofluorocarbon", "headings": "", "text": "A chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) is an organic compound that contains only carbon , chlorine , and fluorine , produced as volatile derivative of methane , ethane , and propane . They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon . The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane ( R-12 or Freon-12 ) . Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants , propellants ( in aerosol applications ) , and solvents . Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere , the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol , and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) ( e.g. , R-410A ) and R-134a ."}
{"_id": "Christopher_Monckton,_3rd_Viscount_Monckton_of_Brenchley", "title": "Christopher Monckton, 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley", "headings": "", "text": "Christopher Walter Monckton , 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley ( born 14 February 1952 ) is a British public speaker and hereditary peer . He is known for his work as a journalist , Conservative political advisor , UKIP political candidate , and for his invention of the mathematical puzzle Eternity .   Early on in his public speaking career topics centred on his mathematical puzzle and conservative politics . In recent years his public speaking has garnered attention due to his advocacy of climate change denial and his views on the European Union and social policy ."}
{"_id": "City", "title": "City", "headings": "", "text": "A city is a large and permanent human settlement . Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town in general English language meanings , many cities have special administrative , legal , or historical status based on local law .   Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation , utilities , land usage , housing , and transportation . The concentration of development greatly facilitates interaction between people and businesses , sometimes benefiting both parties in the process , but it also presents challenges to managing urban growth .   A big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs . Such cities are usually associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas , creating numerous business commuters traveling to urban centers for employment . Once a city expands far enough to reach another city , this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis . Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world . In terms of population , the largest city proper is Shanghai , while the fastest-growing is Dubai ."}
{"_id": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "title": "Clathrate gun hypothesis", "headings": "", "text": "The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun .   In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely .   However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago ."}
{"_id": "Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)", "title": "Clean Air Act (United States)", "headings": "", "text": "The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level . It is one of the United States ' first and most influential modern environmental laws , and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world . As with many other major U.S. federal environmental statutes , it is administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , in coordination with state , local , and tribal governments . Its implementing regulations are codified at 40 C.F.R. Subchapter C , Parts 50-97 .   The 1955 Air Pollution Control Act was the first U.S federal legislation that pertained to air pollution ; it also provided funds for federal government research of air pollution . The first federal legislation to actually pertain to `` controlling '' air pollution was the Clean Air Act of 1963 . The 1963 act accomplished this by establishing a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorizing research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution . In 1967 , the Air Quality Act enabled the federal government to increase its activities to investigate enforcing interstate air pollution transport , and , for the first time , to perform far-reaching ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections . The 1967 act also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories , ambient monitoring techniques , and control techniques .   Major amendments to the law , requiring regulatory controls for air pollution , passed in 1970 , 1977 and 1990 .   The 1970 amendments greatly expanded the federal mandate , requiring comprehensive federal and state regulations for both stationary ( industrial ) pollution sources and mobile sources . It also significantly expanded federal enforcement . Also , the Environmental Protection Agency was established on December 2 , 1970 for the purpose of consolidating pertinent federal research , monitoring , standard-setting and enforcement activities into one agency that ensures environmental protection .   The 1990 amendments addressed acid rain , ozone depletion , and toxic air pollution , established a national permits program for stationary sources , and increased enforcement authority . The amendments also established new auto gasoline reformulation requirements , set Reid vapor pressure ( RVP ) standards to control evaporative emissions from gasoline , and mandated new gasoline formulations sold from May to September in many states .   Reviewing his tenure as EPA Administrator under President George H. Bush , William K. Reilly characterized passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act as his most notable accomplishment .   The Clean Air Act was the first major environmental law in the United States to include a provision for citizen suits . Numerous state and local governments have enacted similar legislation , either implementing federal programs or filling in locally important gaps in federal programs ."}
{"_id": "Clean_Power_Plan", "title": "Clean Power Plan", "headings": "", "text": "The Clean Power Plan is an Obama administration policy aimed at combating anthropogenic climate change ( global warming ) that was first proposed by the Environmental Protection Agency in June 2014 . It is widely expected to be eliminated under President Donald Trump , who signed an executive order on March 28 , 2017 mandating the EPA to review the plan .   The final version of the plan was unveiled by President Obama on August 3 , 2015 . The 460-page rule ( RIN 2060 -- AR33 ) titled `` Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources :  Electric Utility Generating Units '' was published in the Federal Register on October 23 , 2015 . The Obama administration designed the plan to lower the carbon dioxide emitted by power generators ."}
{"_id": "Climate", "title": "Climate", "headings": "", "text": "Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region .   A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere .   The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region .   Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' ."}
{"_id": "Climate_Change_Act_2008", "title": "Climate Change Act 2008", "headings": "", "text": "The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change,_industry_and_society", "title": "Climate change, industry and society", "headings": "", "text": "This article is about climate change , industry and society ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "title": "Climate change (general concept)", "headings": "", "text": "Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_adaptation", "title": "Climate change adaptation", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change .   Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "title": "Climate change and agriculture", "headings": "", "text": "-RSB-   Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level .   Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor .   Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 .   There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_and_ecosystems", "title": "Climate change and ecosystems", "headings": "", "text": "This article is about climate change and ecosystems ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_and_gender", "title": "Climate change and gender", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men .   Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts .   Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_denial", "title": "Climate change denial", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism .   Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming .   Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none .   Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks .  The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation .   Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_feedback", "title": "Climate change feedback", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it .   The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere .   Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''"}
{"_id": "Climate_change_in_Australia", "title": "Climate change in Australia", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change .   Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer .   A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 .   The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia .  The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq .   The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_in_Canada", "title": "Climate change in Canada", "headings": "", "text": "In Canada mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is being addressed more seriously by the provinces than by the federal government . The 2015 election signals greater federal leadership as noted in Canada 's National Statement at COP21 , making climate change a top priority , and pledging actions based on the best scientific evidence and advice ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "title": "Climate change in Tuvalu", "headings": "", "text": "Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_in_Washington", "title": "Climate change in Washington", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change in the US state of Washington is a subject of study and projection today ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "title": "Climate change in the Arctic", "headings": "", "text": "The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "title": "Climate change in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita .   In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 .   From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers .   Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example .   President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production .   Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States .   In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years .   2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_mitigation", "title": "Climate change mitigation", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming .   According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . ''   Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering .   Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments .   In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit ."}
{"_id": "Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States", "title": "Climate change policy of the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions ."}
{"_id": "Climate_engineering", "title": "Climate engineering", "headings": "", "text": "Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation .   Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility .   Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy .   Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts .  Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) ."}
{"_id": "Climate_model", "title": "Climate model", "headings": "", "text": "Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate .   All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature .   Models vary in complexity :  A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy  This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally  Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange .  Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins .  Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Antarctica", "title": "Climate of Antarctica", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Argentina", "title": "Climate of Argentina", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of Argentina is a complex subject : the vast size of the country and considerable variation in altitude make for a wide range of climate types . Argentina has four seasons : winter ( June -- August ) , spring ( September -- November ) , summer ( December -- February ) and autumn ( March -- May ) , all featuring different weather conditions . Summers are the warmest and wettest season in most of the country except in most of Patagonia where it is the driest season . Winters are normally mild in the north , cool in the center and cold in the southern parts with the latter experiencing frequent frost and snow . Because southern parts of the country are moderated by the surrounding oceans , the cold is less intense and prolonged than areas at comparable latitudes in the northern hemisphere . Spring and autumn are transition seasons that generally feature mild weather .   Many regions have different , often contrasting , microclimates . In general , northern parts of the country are characterized by hot , humid , rainy summers and mild winters with periodic droughts . Mesopotamia , in the northeast is characterized by high temperatures and abundant precipitation throughout the year with droughts being uncommon . West of this lies the Chaco region , which is the warmest region in Argentina . Precipitation in the Chaco region decreases westwards , resulting in the vegetation changing from forests in the east to shrubs in the west . Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry and hot although the rugged topography makes it climatically diverse , ranging from the cold , dry Puna to thick jungles . The center of the country , which includes the Pampas to the east and the drier Cuyo region to the west has hot summers with occasional tornadoes and thunderstorms , and cool , dry winters . Patagonia , in the southern parts of the country has a dry climate with warm summers and cold winters characterized by strong winds throughout the year and one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world . High elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions , and the mountainous zones can see heavy snowfall .   The geographic and geomorphic characteristics of Argentina tend to create extreme weather conditions , often leading to natural disasters that negatively impact the country both economically and socially . The Pampas , where many of the large cities are located , has a flat topography and poor water drainage , making it vulnerable to flooding . Severe storms can lead to tornados , damaging hail , storm surges , and high winds , causing extensive damage to houses and infrastructure , displacing thousands of people and causing significant loss of life . Extreme temperature events such as heat waves and cold waves impact rural and urban areas by negatively impacting agriculture , one of the main economic activities of the country , and by increasing energy demand , which can lead to energy shortages .   Argentina is vulnerable and will likely be significantly impacted by climate change . Temperatures have increased in the last century while the observed changes in precipitation are variable , with some areas receiving more and other areas less . These changes have impacted river flow , increased the frequency of extreme weather events , and led to the retreat of glaciers . Based on the projections for both precipitation and temperatures , these climatic events are likely to increase in severity and create new problems associated with climate change in the country ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Asia", "title": "Climate of Asia", "headings": "", "text": "The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,"}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Australia", "title": "Climate of Australia", "headings": "", "text": "Australia 's climate is governed largely by its size and by the hot , sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt . This moves north and south with the seasons , so that the rainfall pattern over Australia is highly seasonal . Australia 's rainfall is the lowest of all continents except Antarctica . But it is variable , with frequent droughts lasting several seasons -- thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation . The climate varies widely due to its large geographical size , but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid . Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil . The northern part of the country has a tropical climate , varied between tropical rainforests , grasslands and part dessert .   Because Australia is a small continent , separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean , it is not subject to the movements of frigid polar air that sweep over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter . Consequently , its winter is relatively mild , so that there is n't the great contrast between summer and winter temperatures there is in the northern continents . Yet in many parts of the country , seasonal highs and lows can be considerable : temperatures have ranged from above 50 C to well below zero . Nonetheless , minimum temperatures are moderated .   The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world . Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods . Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado . Tropical cyclones , heat waves , bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated with the Southern Oscillation . Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape .   Climate change in Australia is a highly contentious issue . Temperatures in the country have risen following an increasing trend of global warming between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 ° C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures in recent years . The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect . According to the Bureau of Meteorology , 80 % of the land has less than 600 mm of rainfall per year and 50 % has even less than 300 mm . As a whole , Australia has a very low annual average rainfall of 419 mm ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Chicago", "title": "Climate of Chicago", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of Chicago is classified as humid continental ( Köppen Dfa ) , with all four seasons distinctly represented : wet , cool springs ; somewhat hot , and often humid , summers ; pleasantly mild autumns ; and cold winters . Annual precipitation in Chicago is average , and reaches its lowest points in the months of January and February , and peaks in the months of May and June . Chicago 's weather is influenced by the nearby presence of Lake Michigan during all four seasons ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Florida", "title": "Climate of Florida", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of the north and central parts of the US state of Florida is humid subtropical . South Florida has a tropical climate . There is a defined rainy season from May through October , when air mass thundershowers that build in the heat of the day drop heavy but brief summer rainfall . Late summer and early fall bring decaying tropical lows ( and occasionally landfalling tropical cyclones ) that contribute to late summer and early fall rains   In October the dry season sets in across much of Florida ( starting early in the month in northern Florida and near the end of the month in deep southern Florida ) and lasts until late April in most years . Fronts from mid-latitude storms north of Florida occasionally pass through northern and central parts of the state which bring light and brief winter rainfall . Mid and late winter can become severely dry in Florida . In some years the dry season becomes quite severe and water restrictions are imposed to conserve water . While most areas of Florida do not experience any type of frozen precipitation , north Florida can see fleeting snow or sleet a few times each decade .   The Gulf Stream running through the Florida Straits and then north off the Florida East Coast keeps temperatures moderate a few miles inland from around Stuart on the east coast to Ft. Myers on the west side of the state year round , with few extremes in temperature . The tropical ocean current also provides warm sea surface temperatures , giving Florida beaches the warmest ocean surf waters on the United States mainland ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_India", "title": "Climate of India", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography , making generalisations difficult . Based on the Köppen system , India hosts six major climatic subtypes , ranging from arid desert in the west , alpine tundra and glaciers in the north , and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories . Many regions have starkly different microclimates . The nation has four seasons : winter ( December , January and February ) , summer ( March , April and May ) , a monsoon rainy season ( June to September ) , and a post-monsoon period ( October to November ) .   India 's geography and geology are climatically pivotal : the Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to effect a culturally and economically important monsoonal regime . As Earth 's highest and most massive mountain range , the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia . Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter ; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer .   Though the Tropic of Cancer -- the boundary between the tropics and subtropics -- passes through the middle of India , the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical . As in much of the tropics , monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable : epochal droughts , floods , cyclones , and other natural disasters are sporadic , but have displaced or ended millions of human lives . There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability , frequency , and severity . Ongoing and future vegetative changes and current sea level rises and the attendant inundation of India 's low-lying coastal areas are other impacts , current or predicted , that are attributable to global warming ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_Mars", "title": "Climate of Mars", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope .   Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades .   Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena .   The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter .   This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "title": "Climate of the Arctic", "headings": "", "text": "The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer .   The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise ."}
{"_id": "Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom", "title": "Climate of the United Kingdom", "headings": "", "text": "The United Kingdom straddles the higher mid-latitudes between 49 ° and 61 ° N . It is on the western seaboard of Afro-Eurasia , the world 's largest land mass . These conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air . In this area , the large temperature variation creates atmospheric instability , and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather the country experiences : where many types of weather can be experienced in a single day . In general the climate of the UK is cool and often cloudy , and hot temperatures are infrequent .   The climate in the United Kingdom is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of north-west Europe . Regional climates are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude . Northern Ireland , Wales and western parts of England and Scotland , being closest to the Atlantic Ocean , are generally the mildest , wettest and windiest regions of the UK , and temperature ranges here are seldom extreme . Eastern areas are drier , cooler , less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations . Northern areas are generally cooler , wetter and have slightly larger temperature ranges than southern areas .   Though the UK is mostly under the influence of the maritime tropical air mass from the south-west , different regions are more susceptible than others when different air masses affect the country : Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland are the most exposed to the maritime polar air mass which brings cool moist air ; the east of Scotland and north-east England are more exposed to the continental polar air mass which brings cold dry air ; the south and south-east of England are more exposed to the continental tropical air mass which brings warm dry air ( and consequently most of the time the warmest summer temperatures ) ; and Wales and south-west England are the most exposed to the maritime tropical air mass which brings warm moist air .   If the air masses are strong enough in their respective areas during the summer , there can sometimes be a large difference in temperature between the far north of Scotland ( including the Islands ) and south-east of England -- often a difference of 10 -- 15 ° C ( 18-27 ° F ) but sometimes of as much as 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) or more . In the height of summer the Northern Isles could have temperatures around 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and areas around London could reach 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ."}
{"_id": "Climate_sensitivity", "title": "Climate sensitivity", "headings": "", "text": "Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered .   Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so .   The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere .   For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter .   The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ .   It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories ."}
{"_id": "Climate_system", "title": "Climate system", "headings": "", "text": "Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components."}
{"_id": "Climate_variability", "title": "Climate variability", "headings": "", "text": "Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies."}
{"_id": "Climatic_Research_Unit", "title": "Climatic Research Unit", "headings": "", "text": "The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change .   With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models ."}
{"_id": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "title": "Climatic Research Unit documents", "headings": "", "text": "Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations .   The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''"}
{"_id": "Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy", "title": "Climatic Research Unit email controversy", "headings": "", "text": "The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change .   The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas .   The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . ''   Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations ."}
{"_id": "Climatology", "title": "Climatology", "headings": "", "text": "Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time ."}
{"_id": "Cloud", "title": "Cloud", "headings": "", "text": "In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology .   There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties .   Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water .   Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels .   '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size ."}
{"_id": "Cloud_feedback", "title": "Cloud feedback", "headings": "", "text": "Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings .   Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models ."}
{"_id": "Cloud_forest", "title": "Cloud forest", "headings": "", "text": "A cloud forest , also called a fog forest , is a generally tropical or subtropical , evergreen , montane , moist forest characterized by a persistent , frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover , usually at the canopy level , formally described in the International Cloud Atlas ( 2017 ) as silvagenitus . Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of mosses covering the ground and vegetation , in which case they are also referred to as mossy forests . Mossy forests usually develop on the saddles of mountains , where moisture introduced by settling clouds is more effectively retained ."}
{"_id": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System", "title": "Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System", "headings": "", "text": "Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit .  The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System  ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the  Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the  Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) ,  could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change ."}
{"_id": "Coal", "title": "Coal", "headings": "", "text": "Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams . The harder forms , such as anthracite coal , can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure . Coal is composed primarily of carbon , along with variable quantities of other elements , chiefly hydrogen , sulfur , oxygen , and nitrogen . A fossil fuel , coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat , which in turn is converted into lignite , then sub-bituminous coal , after that bituminous coal , and lastly anthracite . This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time .   Throughout human history , coal has been used as an energy resource , primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat , and is also used for industrial purposes , such as refining metals . Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide , as well as one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases . The extraction of coal , its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change .   Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining . Since 1983 , the world 's top coal producer has been China . In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal -- 47.7 % of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production . In 2015 other large producers were United States ( 813 million tonnes ) , India ( 678 ) , European Union ( 539 ) and Australia ( 503 ) . In 2010 the largest exporters were Australia with 328 million tonnes ( 27.1 % of world coal export ) and Indonesia with 316 million tonnes ( 26.1 % ) , while the largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes ( 17.5 % of world coal import ) , China with 195 million tonnes ( 16.6 % ) and South Korea with 126 million tonnes ( 10.7 % ) ."}
{"_id": "Coal_mining", "title": "Coal mining", "headings": "", "text": "Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground . Coal is valued for its energy content , and , since the 1880s , has been widely used to generate electricity . Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production . In the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery ; a coal mine a pit ; the above-ground structures the pit head . In Australia , `` colliery '' generally refers to an underground coal mine . In the United States `` colliery '' has been used to describe a coal mine operation but nowadays the word is not commonly used .   Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years , from the early days of men tunnelling , digging and manually extracting the coal on carts , to large open cut and long wall mines . Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines , trucks , conveyors , hydraulic jacks and shearers ."}
{"_id": "Coal_pollution_mitigation", "title": "Coal pollution mitigation", "headings": "", "text": "Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth .   Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions .   There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States :  carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) ,  flue-gas desulfurization ,  fluidized-bed combustion ,  integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) ,  low nitrogen oxide burners ,  selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and  electrostatic precipitators .  Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses ."}
{"_id": "Coastal_fish", "title": "Coastal fish", "headings": "", "text": "Coastal fish , also called inshore fish or neritic fish , inhabit the sea between the shoreline and the edge of the continental shelf . Since the continental shelf is usually less than 200 metres deep , it follows that pelagic coastal fish are generally epipelagic fish , inhabiting the sunlit epipelagic zone . Coastal fish can be contrasted with oceanic fish or offshore fish , which inhabit the deep seas beyond the continental shelves .   Coastal fish are the most abundant in the world . They can be found in tidal pools , fjords and estuaries , near sandy shores and rocky coastlines , around coral reefs and on or above the continental shelf . Coastal fish include forage fish and the predator fish that feed on them . Forage fish thrive in inshore waters where high productivity results from upwelling and shoreline run off of nutrients . Some are partial residents that spawn in streams , estuaries and bays , but most complete their life cycles in the zone ."}
{"_id": "Cold_War", "title": "Cold War", "headings": "", "text": "The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc ( the Soviet Union and its satellite states ) and powers in the Western Bloc ( the United States , its NATO allies and others ) . Historians do not fully agree on the dates , but a common timeframe is the period between 1947 , the year the Truman Doctrine ( a U.S. foreign policy pledging to aid nations threatened by Soviet expansionism ) was announced , and 1991 , the year the Soviet Union collapsed .   The term `` cold '' is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides involved in the conflict , although there were major regional wars , known as proxy wars , supported by the two sides . The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany , leaving the Soviet Union and the United States as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences . The USSR was a Marxist -- Leninist state led by its Communist Party of the Soviet Union , who in turn were led by a leader , with different titles over time , and a small committee called the Politburo . The Party controlled the press , the military , the economy and many organization . It also controlled the other states in the Eastern Bloc , and funded Communist parties around the world , sometimes in competition with Communist China , particularly following the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s . In opposition stood the West , staunchly democratic and capitalist with a free press and independent organizations . A small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement ; it sought good relations with both sides . The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat , but they were heavily armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war . Each side had a nuclear strategy that discouraged an attack by the other side , on the basis that such an attack would lead to the total destruction of the attacker : the doctrine of mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) . Aside from the development of the two sides ' nuclear arsenals , and their deployment of conventional military forces , the struggle for dominance was expressed via proxy wars around the globe , psychological warfare , massive propaganda campaigns and espionage , rivalry at sports events , and technological competitions such as the Space Race .   The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945 . The USSR consolidated its control over the states of the Eastern Bloc , while the United States began a strategy of global containment to challenge Soviet power , extending military and financial aid to the countries of Western Europe ( for example , supporting the anti-communist side in the Greek Civil War ) and creating the NATO alliance . The Berlin Blockade ( 1948 -- 49 ) was the first major crisis of the Cold War . With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War ( 1950 -- 53 ) , the conflict expanded . The USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America , and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia . Meanwhile , the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets . The expansion and escalation sparked more crises , such as the Suez Crisis ( 1956 ) , the Berlin Crisis of 1961 , and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 . Following the Cuban Missile Crisis , a new phase began that saw the Sino-Soviet split complicate relations within the communist sphere , while US allies , particularly France , demonstrated greater independence of action . The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia , and the Vietnam War ( 1955 -- 75 ) ended with the defeat of the US-backed Republic of Vietnam , prompting further adjustments .   By the 1970s , both sides had become interested in making accommodations in order to create a more stable and predictable international system , inaugurating a period of détente that saw Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and the US opening relations with the People 's Republic of China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union . Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet -- Afghan War in 1979 . The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension , with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 ( 1983 ) , and the `` Able Archer '' NATO military exercises ( 1983 ) . The United States increased diplomatic , military , and economic pressures on the Soviet Union , at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation . In the mid-1980s , the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of perestroika ( `` reorganization '' , 1987 ) and glasnost ( `` openness '' , c. 1985 ) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan . Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe , especially Poland . Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past . The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully ( with the exception of the Romanian Revolution ) overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central and Eastern Europe . The Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991 . This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse of communist regimes in other countries such as Mongolia , Cambodia and South Yemen . The United States remained as the world 's only superpower .   The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy . It is often referred to in popular culture , especially in media featuring themes of espionage ( e.g. the internationally successful James Bond movie franchise ) and the threat of nuclear warfare ."}
{"_id": "Cold_wave", "title": "Cold wave", "headings": "", "text": "A cold wave ( known in some regions as a cold snap ) is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air . Specifically , as used by the U.S. National Weather Service , a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture , industry , commerce , and social activities . The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls , and the minimum to which it falls . This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year .   In the United States , a cold spell is defined as the national average high temperature dropping below 20 F."}
{"_id": "Colonization_of_Mars", "title": "Colonization of Mars", "headings": "", "text": "Mars is the focus of much scientific study about possible human colonization . Its surface conditions and the presence of water on Mars make it arguably the most hospitable of the planets in the Solar System , other than Earth . Mars requires less energy per unit mass ( delta-v ) to reach from Earth than any planet except Venus .   Permanent human habitation on a planetary body other than the Earth is one of science fiction 's most prevalent themes . As technology has advanced , and concerns about the future of humanity on Earth have increased , the argument that space colonization is an achievable and worthwhile goal has gained momentum . Other reasons for colonizing space include economic interests , long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes , and sheer curiosity .   One of Elon Musk 's stated goals through his company SpaceX is to make such colonization possible by providing transport , and to `` help humanity establish a permanent , self-sustaining colony on -LSB- Mars -RSB- within the next 50 to 100 years '' ."}
{"_id": "Colonization_of_the_Moon", "title": "Colonization of the Moon", "headings": "", "text": "The colonization of the Moon is a proposed establishment of permanent human communities or robotic industries on the Moon .   Discovery of lunar water at the lunar poles by Chandrayaan-1 has renewed interest in the Moon . Polar colonies could also avoid the problem of long lunar nights -- about 354 hours , a little more than two weeks -- and take advantage of the Sun continuously , at least during the local summer ( there is no data for the winter yet ) .   Permanent human habitation on a planetary body other than the Earth is one of science fiction 's most prevalent themes . As technology has advanced , and concerns about the future of humanity on Earth have increased , the argument that space colonization is an achievable and worthwhile goal has gained momentum . Because of its proximity to Earth , the Moon has been seen as the most obvious natural expansion after Earth . There are also various projects in near future by space tourism startup companies for tourism on the Moon ."}
{"_id": "Colorado_River", "title": "Colorado River", "headings": "", "text": "The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico ( the other being the Rio Grande ) . The 1450 mi river drains an expansive , arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states . Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S. , the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona -- Nevada border , where it turns south toward the international border . After entering Mexico , the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora .   Known for its dramatic canyons , whitewater rapids , and eleven U.S. National Parks , the Colorado River system is a vital source of water for 40 million people in southwestern North America . The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams , reservoirs , and aqueducts , which in most years divert its entire flow for agricultural irrigation and domestic water supply . Its large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power , and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West . Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 mi of the river , which has rarely reached the sea since the 1960s .   Beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers , Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years . Between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago , the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations -- some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America -- which eventually faded due to a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices . Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago . Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century , when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area , which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821 . Early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river .   After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846 , the bulk of the river 's course was still the subject of myths and speculation . Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century -- one of which , led by John Wesley Powell , was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon . American explorers collected valuable information that was later used to develop the river for navigation and water supply . Large-scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid - to late-19th century , with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the river that linked to wagon roads to the interior . Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin , which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s .   Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century , with major guidelines established in a series of international and U.S. interstate treaties known as the `` Law of the River '' . The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts , although many state and local water agencies were also involved . Most of the major dams were built between 1910 and 1970 ; the system keystone , Hoover Dam , was completed in 1935 . The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world , with every drop of its water fully allocated .   The environmental movement in the American Southwest has opposed the damming and diversion of the Colorado River system because of detrimental effects on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries . During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam , environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river , and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition . As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise , the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy ."}
{"_id": "Comet", "title": "Comet", "headings": "", "text": "A comet is an icy small Solar System body that , when passing close to the Sun , warms and begins to release gasses , a process called outgassing . This produces a visible atmosphere or coma , and sometimes also a tail . These phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind acting upon the nucleus of the comet . Comet nuclei range from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometres across and are composed of loose collections of ice , dust , and small rocky particles . The coma may be up to 15 times the Earth 's diameter , while the tail may stretch one astronomical unit . If sufficiently bright , a comet may be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope and may subtend an arc of 30 ° ( 60 Moons ) across the sky . Comets have been observed and recorded since ancient times by many cultures .   Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits , and they have a wide range of orbital periods , ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years . Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper belt or its associated scattered disc , which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune . Long-period comets are thought to originate in the Oort cloud , a spherical cloud of icy bodies extending from outside the Kuiper belt to halfway to the nearest star . Long-period comets are set in motion towards the Sun from the Oort cloud by gravitational perturbations caused by passing stars and the galactic tide . Hyperbolic comets may pass once through the inner Solar System before being flung to interstellar space . The appearance of a comet is called an apparition .   Comets are distinguished from asteroids by the presence of an extended , gravitationally unbound atmosphere surrounding their central nucleus . This atmosphere has parts termed the coma ( the central part immediately surrounding the nucleus ) and the tail ( a typically linear section consisting of dust or gas blown out from the coma by the Sun 's light pressure or outstreaming solar wind plasma ) . However , extinct comets that have passed close to the Sun many times have lost nearly all of their volatile ices and dust and may come to resemble small asteroids . Asteroids are thought to have a different origin from comets , having formed inside the orbit of Jupiter rather than in the outer Solar System . The discovery of main-belt comets and active centaur minor planets has blurred the distinction between asteroids and comets .   there are 5,253 known comets , a number that is steadily increasing as they are discovered . However , this represents only a tiny fraction of the total potential comet population , as the reservoir of comet-like bodies in the outer Solar System ( in the Oort cloud ) is estimated to be one trillion . Roughly one comet per year is visible to the naked eye , though many of those are faint and unspectacular . Particularly bright examples are called `` Great Comets '' . Comets have been visited by unmanned probes such as the European Space Agency 's Rosetta , which became the first ever to land a robotic spacecraft on a comet , and NASA 's Deep Impact , which blasted a crater on Comet Tempel 1 to study its interior ."}
{"_id": "Common_octopus", "title": "Common octopus", "headings": "", "text": "The common octopus ( Octopus vulgaris ) is a mollusc belonging to the class Cephalopoda . Octopus vulgaris is the most studied of all octopus species ."}
{"_id": "Communications_satellite", "title": "Communications satellite", "headings": "", "text": "A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunications signals via a transponder ; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth . Communications satellites are used for television , telephone , radio , internet , and military applications . There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earth 's orbit , used by both private and government organizations .   Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals . These waves require line-of-sight , and are thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth . The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated points .  Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies . To avoid signal interference , international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or `` bands '' certain organizations are allowed to use . This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference ."}
{"_id": "Complex_system", "title": "Complex system", "headings": "", "text": "A complex system is a system composed of many components which may interact with each other . In many cases it is useful to represent such a system as a network where the nodes represent the components and the links their interactions . Examples of complex systems are Earth 's global climate , organisms , the human brain , social and economic organizations ( like cities ) , an ecosystem , a living cell , and ultimately the entire universe ."}
{"_id": "Computer", "title": "Computer", "headings": "", "text": "A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically . The ability of computers to follow generalized sequences of operations , called programs , enable them to perform a wide range of tasks .   Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices . This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls , factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design , but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones . The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers .   Since ancient times , simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations . Early in the Industrial Revolution , some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks , such as guiding patterns for looms . More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century . The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II . The speed , power , and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then .   Conventionally , a modern computer consists of at least one processing element , typically a central processing unit ( CPU ) , and some form of memory . The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations , and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information . Peripheral devices include input devices ( keyboards , mice , joystick , etc. ) , output devices ( monitor screens , printers , etc. ) , and input/output devices that perform both functions ( e.g. , the 2000s-era touchscreen ) . Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved ."}
{"_id": "Computer_science", "title": "Computer science", "headings": "", "text": "Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of information and computation , together with practical techniques for the implementation and application of these foundations .   Computer science is the study of the theory , experimentation , and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers . It is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications and the systematic study of the feasibility , structure , expression , and mechanization of the methodical procedures ( or algorithms ) that underlie the acquisition , representation , processing , storage , communication of , and access to information . An alternate , more succinct definition of computer science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale . A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems .   Its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines . Some fields , such as computational complexity theory ( which explores the fundamental properties of computational and intractable problems ) , are highly abstract , while fields such as computer graphics emphasize real-world visual applications . Other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation . For example , programming language theory considers various approaches to the description of computation , while the study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use of programming language and complex systems . Human -- computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful , usable , and universally accessible to humans ."}
{"_id": "Concentrated_solar_power", "title": "Concentrated solar power", "headings": "", "text": "Concentrated solar power ( also called concentrating solar power , concentrated solar thermal , and CSP ) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight , or solar thermal energy , onto a small area . Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat , which drives a heat engine ( usually a steam turbine ) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction ( experimental ) . Heat storage in molten salts allows some solar thermal plants to continue to generate after sunset and adds value to such systems when compared to photovoltaic panels .   CSP is being commercialized and the CSP market saw about 740 megawatt ( MW ) of generating capacity added between 2007 and the end of 2010 . More than half of this ( about 478 MW ) was installed during 2010 , bringing the global total to 1095 MW . Spain added 400 MW in 2010 , taking the global lead with a total of 632 MW , while the US ended the year with 509 MW after adding 78 MW , including two fossil -- CSP hybrid plants . The Middle East is also ramping up their plans to install CSP based projects . Shams-I has been installed in Abu Dhabi , by Masdar . The largest CSP projects in the world is Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the United States ( which uses solar power tower technology ) and Mojave Solar Project ( which uses parabolic troughs ) .   As of January 2014 , Spain had a total capacity of 2,300 MW making this country the world leader in CSP . United States follows with 1,740 MW . Interest is also notable in North Africa and the Middle East , as well as India and China . In Italy , a handful of companies are trying to get authorization for 14 plants , totalling 392 MW , despite a strong local and political opposition . The global market has been dominated by parabolic-trough plants , which account for 90 % of CSP plants .   In most cases , CSP technologies currently can not compete on price with photovoltaics ( solar panels ) , which have experienced huge growth in recent years due to falling prices of the panels and much smaller operating costs . However , the Chile Copiapó reached cents 6.3 / kWh . In 2015 , CSP represented less than 2 % of worldwide installed capacity of solar electricity plants .   CSP is not to be confused with concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ) . In CPV , the concentrated sunlight is converted directly to electricity via the photovoltaic effect ."}
{"_id": "Confirmation_bias", "title": "Confirmation bias", "headings": "", "text": "Confirmation bias , also called confirmatory bias or myside bias , David Perkins , a geneticist , coined the term `` myside bias '' referring to a preference for `` my '' side of an issue . is the tendency to search for , interpret , favor , and recall information in a way that confirms one 's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses . It is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning . People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively , or when they interpret it in a biased way . The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs . People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position . Biased search , interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization ( when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence ) , belief perseverance ( when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false ) , the irrational primacy effect ( a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series ) and illusory correlation ( when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations ) .   A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs . Later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way , focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives . In certain situations , this tendency can bias people 's conclusions . Explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information . Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong , rather than investigating in a neutral , scientific way .   Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence . Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts.Tuchman ( 1984 ) described a form of confirmation bias at work in the process of justifying policies to which a government has committed itself : `` Once a policy has been adopted and implemented , all subsequent activity becomes an effort to justify it '' ( p. 245 ) .   In the context of a discussion of the policy that drew the United States into war in Vietnam and kept the U.S. military engaged for 16 years despite countless evidences that it was a lost cause from the beginning , Tuchman argued :   Wooden-headedness , the source of self-deception is a factor that plays a remarkably large role in government . It consists in assessing a situation in terms of preconceived fixed notions while ignoring or rejecting any contrary signs . It is acting according to wish while not allowing oneself to be deflected by the facts . It is epitomized in a historian 's statement about Philip II of Spain , the surpassing wooden head of all sovereigns : `` no experience of the failure of his policy could shake his belief in essential excellence . '' ( p. 7 )  Folly , she argued , is a form of self-deception characterized by `` insistence on a rooted notion regardless of contrary evidence '' ( p. 209 )"}
{"_id": "Consciousness", "title": "Consciousness", "headings": "", "text": "Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness , or , of being aware of an external object or something within oneself . It has been defined variously in terms of sentience , awareness , subjectivity , the ability to experience or to feel , wakefulness , having a sense of selfhood or soul , the fact that there is something `` that it is like '' to `` have '' or `` be '' it , and the executive control system of the mind , or the state or quality of awareness , or , of being aware of an external object or something within oneself . In contemporary philosophy its definition is often hinted at via the logical possibility of its absence , the philosophical zombie , which is defined as a being whose behavior and function are identical to one 's own yet there is `` no-one in there '' experiencing it .   Despite the difficulty in definition , many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is . As Max Velmans and Susan Schneider wrote in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness : `` Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness , making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives . ''   Western philosophers , since the time of Descartes and Locke , have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and identify its essential properties . Issues of concern in the philosophy of consciousness include whether the concept is fundamentally coherent ; whether consciousness can ever be explained mechanistically ; whether non-human consciousness exists and if so how can it be recognized ; how consciousness relates to language ; whether consciousness can be understood in a way that does not require a dualistic distinction between mental and physical states or properties ; and whether it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to be conscious , a topic studied in the field of artificial intelligence .   Thanks to developments in technology over the past few decades , consciousness has become a significant topic of interdisciplinary research in cognitive science , with significant contributions from fields such as psychology , neuropsychology and neuroscience . The primary focus is on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in consciousness -- that is , on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness . The majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences ( e.g. , `` tell me if you notice anything when I do this '' ) . Issues of interest include phenomena such as subliminal perception , blindsight , denial of impairment , and altered states of consciousness produced by alcohol and other drugs , or spiritual or meditative techniques .   In medicine , consciousness is assessed by observing a patient 's arousal and responsiveness , and can be seen as a continuum of states ranging from full alertness and comprehension , through disorientation , delirium , loss of meaningful communication , and finally loss of movement in response to painful stimuli . Issues of practical concern include how the presence of consciousness can be assessed in severely ill , comatose , or anesthetized people , and how to treat conditions in which consciousness is impaired or disrupted ."}
{"_id": "Conservation_biology", "title": "Conservation biology", "headings": "", "text": "Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth 's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species , their habitats , and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions . It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences , and the practice of natural resource management .   The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology ."}
{"_id": "Conservatism_in_the_United_States", "title": "Conservatism in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "American Conservatism is a broad system of political beliefs in the United States that is characterized by respect for American traditions , support for Judeo-Christian values , economic liberalism , anti-communism , advocacy of American exceptionalism , and a defense of Western culture from threats posed by `` creeping socialism '' , moral relativism , multiculturalism and liberal internationalism . Liberty is a core value , with a particular emphasis on strengthening the free market , limiting the size and scope of government , and opposition to high taxes and government or labor union encroachment on the entrepreneur . American conservatives consider individual liberty , within the bounds of conformity to American values , as the fundamental trait of democracy , which contrasts with modern American liberals , who generally place a greater value on equality and social justice .   American conservatism originated from classical liberalism of 18th and 19th centuries , which advocates civil liberties and political freedom with representative democracy under the rule of law and emphasizes economic freedom .   Historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role in American politics and culture since the 1790s . However they have stressed that an organized conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s . The recent movement is based in the Republican Party , though some Democrats were also important figures early in the movement 's history .   The history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies . Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor small government involvement in the economy , a flat tax , limited regulation , and free enterprise . Social conservatives see traditional social values as threatened by secularism ; they tend to support voluntary school prayer and oppose abortion and same sex marriage . Some also want the teaching of intelligent design or creationism allowed , as the topics are currently judicially prohibited in public schools . The 21st century has seen an increasingly fervent conservative support for Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms . Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world . Paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration , non-interventionist foreign policy , and stand in opposition to multiculturalism . Nationwide most factions , except some libertarians , support a unilateral foreign policy , and a strong military . The conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands , stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of `` godless communism . ''   William F. Buckley Jr. , in the first issue of his magazine National Review in 1955 , explained the standards of his magazine and helped make explicit the beliefs of American conservatives :"}
{"_id": "Conservative_Judaism", "title": "Conservative Judaism", "headings": "", "text": "Conservative Judaism ( known as Masorti Judaism outside North America ) is a major Jewish denomination , which views Jewish Law , or Halakha , as both binding and subject to historical development . The Conservative rabbinate therefore employs modern historical-critical research , rather than only traditional methods and sources , and lends great weight to its constituency when determining its stance on matters of Law . The movement considers its approach as the authentic and most appropriate continuation of halakhic discourse , maintaining both fealty to received forms and flexibility in their interpretation . It also eschews strict theological definitions , lacking a consensus in matters of faith and allowing great pluralism .   While regarding itself as the heir of Rabbi Zecharias Frankel 's 19th-century Positive-Historical School in Europe , Conservative Judaism fully institutionalized as a denomination only in the United States during the mid-20th century . Its largest center today is in North America , where its main congregational arm is the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism and the New York-based Jewish Theological Seminary of America operates as rabbinic seminary . Worldwide , affiliated communities are united within the umbrella organization Masorti Olami . Conservative Judaism is estimated to represent close to 1,100,000 people , both more than 600,000 registered congregants and many non-member identifiers .   The term `` conservative '' was meant to signify that Jews should attempt to conserve Jewish tradition , rather than reform or abandon it , and does not imply the movement 's adherents are politically conservative ."}
{"_id": "Conservative_Party_(UK)", "title": "Conservative Party (UK)", "headings": "", "text": "The Conservative Party , officially the Conservative and Unionist Party , is a centre-right political party in the United Kingdom . It is currently the governing party , having won a majority of seats in the House of Commons at the 2015 general election . The party 's leader , Theresa May , is currently serving as Prime Minister . It is the largest party in local government with 9,237 councillors . The Conservative Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United Kingdom , the other being its modern rival , the Labour Party . The Conservative Party 's platform involves support for free market capitalism , free enterprise , fiscal conservatism , a strong national defence , deregulation , and restrictions on trade unions .   The Conservative Party was founded in 1834 from the Tory Party -- giving rise to the Conservatives ' colloquial name of Tories -- and was one of two dominant political parties in the nineteenth century , along with the Liberal Party . During the 1890s , it formed a coalition government with the Liberal Unionist Party , a break-away faction of the Liberal Party . In 1912 , the two parties merged to form the current Conservative and Unionist Party . In the 1920s , the Liberal vote greatly diminished and the Labour Party became the Conservatives ' main rivals . Conservative Prime Ministers led governments for 57 years of the twentieth century , including Winston Churchill ( 1940 -- 45 , 1951 -- 55 ) and Margaret Thatcher ( 1979 -- 90 ) . Thatcher 's tenure led to wide-ranging economic liberalisation . The Conservative Party 's domination of British politics throughout the twentieth century has led to them being referred to as one of the most successful political parties in the Western world .   The Conservatives are the joint-second largest British party in the European Parliament , with twenty MEPs , and sit with the European Conservatives and Reformists ( ECR ) parliamentary group . The party is a member of the Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe ( ACRE ) Europarty and the International Democrat Union ( IDU ) .   The party is the second-largest in the Scottish Parliament and the second-largest in the Welsh Assembly . The Conservatives were formerly allied to the Ulster Unionist Party ( UUP ) in Northern Ireland but there is now a separate Northern Ireland Conservative party similar to the Welsh and Scottish Conservative parties . The party is also organised in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar ."}
{"_id": "Conspiracy_theory", "title": "Conspiracy theory", "headings": "", "text": "A conspiracy theory is an explanation of an event or situation that invokes a conspiracy without warrant , generally one involving an illegal or harmful act carried out by government or other powerful actors . Conspiracy theories often produce hypotheses that contradict the prevailing understanding of history or simple facts . The term is a derogatory one .   According to the political scientist Michael Barkun , conspiracy theories rely on the view that the universe is governed by design , and embody three principles : nothing happens by accident , nothing is as it seems , and everything is connected . Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them , so that they become , as Barkun writes , a closed system that is unfalsifiable , and therefore `` a matter of faith rather than proof '' ."}
{"_id": "Constanța", "title": "Constanța", "headings": "", "text": "Constanța ( -LSB- konˈstant͡sa -RSB- ) , historically known as Tomis ( Κωνστάντζα or Κωνστάντια , Konstantia , Кюстенджа or Констанца , Köstence ) , is the oldest continuously inhabited city in Romania . It was founded around 600 BC . The city is located in the Dobruja region of Romania , on the Black Sea coast . It is the capital of Constanța County and the largest city in the region .   As of the 2011 census , Constanța has a population of 283,872 , making it the fifth most populous city in Romania . The Constanța metropolitan area includes 14 localities within 30 km of the city , and , with 425,916 inhabitants , it is the second largest metropolitan area in Romania .   The Port of Constanța has an area of 39.26 km2 and a length of about 30 km . It is the largest port on the Black Sea , and one of the largest ports in Europe ."}
{"_id": "Convection", "title": "Convection", "headings": "", "text": "Convection is the movement of groups of molecules within fluids such as gases and liquids , including molten rock ( rheid ) . Convection takes place through advection , diffusion or both .   Convection can not take place in most solids because neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion of matter can take place . Diffusion of heat can take place in rigid solids , but that is called heat conduction . However , can take place in soft solids or mixtures where solid particles can move past each other .   Thermal convection can be demonstrated by placing a heat source ( e.g. a Bunsen burner ) at the side of a glass full of a liquid , and observing the changes in temperature in the glass caused by the warmer ghost fluid circulating into cooler areas .   Convective heat transfer is one of the major types of heat transfer , and convection is also a major mode of mass transfer in fluids . Convective heat and mass transfer take place both by diffusion -- the random Brownian motion of individual particles in the fluid -- and by advection , in which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale motion of currents in the fluid . In the context of heat and mass transfer , the term `` convection '' is used to refer to the sum of advective and diffusive transfer . In common use the term `` convection '' may refer loosely to heat transfer by convection , as opposed to mass transfer by convection , or the convection process in general . Sometimes `` convection '' is even used to refer specifically to `` free heat convection '' ( natural heat convection ) as opposed to forced heat convection . However , in mechanics the correct use of the word is the general sense , and different types of convection should be qualified for clarity .   Convection can be qualified in terms of being natural , forced , gravitational , granular , or thermomagnetic . It may also be said to be due to combustion , capillary action , or Marangoni and Weissenberg effects . Heat transfer by natural convection plays a role in the structure of Earth 's atmosphere , its oceans , and its mantle . Discrete convective cells in the atmosphere can be seen as clouds , with stronger convection resulting in thunderstorms . Natural convection also plays a role in stellar physics ."}
{"_id": "Cooling_tower", "title": "Cooling tower", "headings": "", "text": "A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature . Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or , in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers , rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature .   Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries , petrochemical and other chemical plants , thermal power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings . The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower : the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers .   Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures ( as in the adjacent image ) that can be up to 200 m tall and 100 m in diameter , or rectangular structures that can be over 40 m tall and 80 m long . The hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants , although they are also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants . Although these large towers are very prominent , the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller , including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning ."}
{"_id": "Copenhagen_Airport", "title": "Copenhagen Airport", "headings": "", "text": "Copenhagen Airport , Kastrup ( Københavns Lufthavn , Kastrup ) is the main international airport serving Copenhagen , Denmark , the entire Zealand , the Øresund Region , and a large part of southern Sweden ( not only Scania ) . It is the largest airport in the Nordic countries with 29 million passengers in 2016 and one of the oldest international airports in Europe . It is the third-busiest airport in Northern Europe , and by far the busiest for international travel in Scandinavia .   The airport is located on the island of Amager , just 8 km south of Copenhagen city centre , and 24 km west of Malmö city centre via the Øresund Bridge . The airport covers an area of 11.8 square kilometres . Most of the airport is situated in the municipality of Tårnby , with a small portion in the city of Dragør .   The airport is the main hub out of three used by Scandinavian Airlines and is also an operating base for Thomas Cook Airlines Scandinavia and Norwegian Air Shuttle . Copenhagen Airport handles around 60 scheduled airlines , and has a maximum operation capability of 83 operations/hour , and a total of 108 jet bridge and remote parking stands . Unlike other Scandinavian airports , most of the airport 's passengers are international . In 2015 , 6.1 % of passengers travelled to and from other Danish airports , 83.5 % to/from other European airports , and 10.4 % were intercontinental passengers . The airport is owned by Københavns Lufthavne , which also operates Roskilde Airport . The airport employs 1700 staff ( excluding shops , restaurants etc. ) .   Copenhagen Airport was originally called Kastrup Airport , since it is located in the small town of Kastrup , now a part of the Tårnby municipality . The formal name of the airport is still Copenhagen Airport , Kastrup , to distinguish it from Roskilde Airport , whose formal name is Copenhagen Airport , Roskilde ."}
{"_id": "Coral", "title": "Coral", "headings": "", "text": "Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton .   A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon .   Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia .   Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands ."}
{"_id": "Coral_bleaching", "title": "Coral bleaching", "headings": "", "text": "Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives inside their tissues . Normally , coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole reef . Bleached corals continue to live . But as the algae provide the coral with 90 % of its energy , after expelling the algae the coral begins to starve . Above-average sea water temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide . Between 2014 and 2016 , the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded . According to the United Nations Environment Programme , these bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale . In 2016 , bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier Reef and killed 29 percent of the reef 's coral . In 2017 , the bleaching further expanded to areas of the park that were previously spared , such as the central one .   __ TOC __"}
{"_id": "Coral_in_non-tropical_regions", "title": "Coral in non-tropical regions", "headings": "", "text": "The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world."}
{"_id": "Coral_reef", "title": "Coral reef", "headings": "", "text": "Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures secreted by corals . Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups . The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria , which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones , corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps . Most reefs grow best in warm , shallow , clear , sunny and agitated waters .   Often called `` rainforests of the sea '' , shallow coral reefs form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth . They occupy less than 0.1 % of the world 's ocean surface , about half the area of France , yet they provide a home for at least 25 % of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Paradoxically , coral reefs flourish even though they are surrounded by ocean waters that provide few nutrients . They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters , but deep water and cold water corals also exist on smaller scales in other areas .   Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services to tourism , fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs is estimated between US$ 29.8-375 billion . However , coral reefs are fragile ecosystems , partly because they are very sensitive to water temperature . They are under threat from climate change , oceanic acidification , blast fishing , cyanide fishing for aquarium fish , sunscreen use , overuse of reef resources , and harmful land-use practices , including urban and agricultural runoff and water pollution , which can harm reefs by encouraging excess algal growth ."}
{"_id": "Coriolis_force", "title": "Coriolis force", "headings": "", "text": "In physics , the Coriolis force is an inertial force that acts on objects that are in motion relative to a rotating reference frame . In a reference frame with clockwise rotation , the force acts to the left of the motion of the object . In one with anticlockwise rotation , the force acts to the right . Deflection of an object due to the Coriolis force is called the Coriolis effect . Though recognized previously by others , the mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by French scientist Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis , in connection with the theory of water wheels . Early in the 20th century , the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology .   Newton 's laws of motion describe the motion of an object in an inertial ( non-accelerating ) frame of reference . When Newton 's laws are transformed to a rotating frame of reference , the Coriolis force and centrifugal force appear . Both forces are proportional to the mass of the object . The Coriolis force is proportional to the rotation rate and the centrifugal force is proportional to its square . The Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and to the velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to the object 's speed in the rotating frame ( more precisely , to the component of its velocity that is perpendicular to the axis of rotation ) . The centrifugal force acts outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of the body from the axis of the rotating frame . These additional forces are termed inertial forces , fictitious forces or pseudo forces . They allow the application of Newton 's laws to a rotating system . They are correction factors that do not exist in a non-accelerating or inertial reference frame .   In popular ( non-technical ) usage of the term `` Coriolis effect '' , the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth . Because the Earth spins , Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects . The Earth completes only one rotation per day , so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces ; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time , such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean . Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth , so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important . This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right ( with respect to the direction of travel ) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere . The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles , since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there , and decreases to zero at the equator . Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure , as they would in a non-rotating system , winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it . This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones ( see Coriolis effects in meteorology ) .   For an intuitive explanation of the origin of the Coriolis force , consider an object moving northward in the northern hemisphere . Viewed from outer space , the object does not appear to go due north , but has an eastward motion ( it rotates around toward the right along with the surface of the Earth ) . The further north you go , the smaller the `` horizontal diameter '' of the Earth , and so the slower the eastward motion of its surface . As the object moves north , to higher latitudes , it has a tendency to maintain the eastward speed it started with ( rather than slowing down to match the reduced eastward speed of local objects on the Earth 's surface ) , so it veers east ( i.e. to the right of its initial motion ) . Though not obvious from this example , which considers northward motion , the horizontal deflection occurs equally for objects moving east or west ( or any other direction ) ."}
{"_id": "Coronal_cloud", "title": "Coronal cloud", "headings": "", "text": "A coronal cloud is the cloud of hot plasma gas surrounding a coronal mass ejection . It is usually made up of protons and electrons . When a coronal mass ejection occurs , it is the coronal cloud that usually reaches Earth and causes damage to electrical equipment and space satellites , not the ejection or flare itself . The damage is mostly the result of the high amount of electricity moving through the atmosphere .   A coronal cloud is released when a solar flare becomes a coronal mass ejection ; the coronal cloud often contains more radioactive particles than the mass ejection itself . A coronal mass ejection occurs when a solar flare becomes so hot that it snaps and breaks in two , becoming a `` rope '' of heat and magnetism that stretches between two sunspots . The resulting coronal mass ejection can be compared to a horseshoe magnet , the sunspots being the poles and the oscillating magnetic connector the handle . Coronal mass ejections typically do not last very long , because they cool down as the coronal cloud of gas is released and begins to hurtle away from the sun ."}
{"_id": "Correlation_does_not_imply_causation", "title": "Correlation does not imply causation", "headings": "", "text": "In statistics , many statistical tests calculate correlations between variables and when two variables are found to be correlated , it is tempting to assume that this shows that one variable causes the other . That `` correlation proves causation , '' is considered a questionable cause logical fallacy when two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause-and-effect relationship . This fallacy is also known as cum hoc ergo propter hoc , Latin for `` with this , therefore because of this , '' and `` false cause . '' A similar fallacy , that an event that followed another was necessarily a consequence of the first event , is the post hoc ergo propter hoc ( Latin for `` after this , therefore because of this . '' ) fallacy .   For example , in a widely studied case , numerous epidemiological studies showed that women taking combined hormone replacement therapy ( HRT ) also had a lower-than-average incidence of coronary heart disease ( CHD ) , leading doctors to propose that HRT was protective against CHD . But randomized controlled trials showed that HRT caused a small but statistically significant increase in risk of CHD . Re-analysis of the data from the epidemiological studies showed that women undertaking HRT were more likely to be from higher socio-economic groups ( ABC1 ) , with better-than-average diet and exercise regimens . The use of HRT and decreased incidence of coronary heart disease were coincident effects of a common cause ( i.e. the benefits associated with a higher socioeconomic status ) , rather than a direct cause and effect , as had been supposed .   As with any logical fallacy , identifying that the reasoning behind an argument is flawed does not imply that the resulting conclusion is false . In the instance above , if the trials had found that hormone replacement therapy does in fact have a negative incidence on the likelihood of coronary heart disease the assumption of causality would have been correct , although the logic behind the assumption would still have been flawed . Indeed , a few go further , using correlation as a basis for testing a hypothesis to try to establish a true causal relationship ; examples are the Granger causality test and convergent cross mapping ."}
{"_id": "Cosmic_ray", "title": "Cosmic ray", "headings": "", "text": "Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation , mainly originating outside the Solar System . Upon impact with the Earth 's atmosphere , cosmic rays can produce showers of secondary particles that sometimes reach the surface . Composed primarily of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei , they are of mysterious origin . Data from the Fermi Space Telescope ( 2013 ) have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of primary cosmic rays originate from the supernovae explosions of stars . Active galactic nuclei probably also produce cosmic rays ."}
{"_id": "Creationism", "title": "Creationism", "headings": "", "text": "Creationism is the religious belief that the universe and life originated `` from specific acts of divine creation , '' as opposed to the scientific conclusion that they came about through natural processes . The first use of the term `` creationist '' to describe a proponent of creationism is found in an 1856 letter of Charles Darwin describing those who objected on religious grounds to the emerging science of evolution .   Creationists base their beliefs on a fundamentalist reading of religious texts , including the creation myths found in Genesis and the Quran . For young Earth creationists , these beliefs are based on a literalist interpretation of the Genesis creation narrative and rejection of the scientific theory of evolution . Literalist creationists believe that evolution can not adequately account for the history , diversity , and complexity of life on Earth . Pseudoscientific branches of creationism include creation science , flood geology , and intelligent design , as well as subsets of pseudoarchaeology , pseudohistory , and pseudolinguistics ."}
{"_id": "Creation–evolution_controversy", "title": "Creation–evolution controversy", "headings": "", "text": "The creation -- evolution controversy ( also termed the creation vs. evolution debate or the origins debate ) involves an ongoing , recurring cultural , political , and theological dispute about the origins of the Earth , of humanity , and of other life . Within the Christian world creationism was once widely believed to be true , but since the mid-19th century evolution by natural selection has been established as an empirical scientific fact . Efforts to sustain the traditional view are widely regarded in the scientific community as pseudoscience . While the controversy has a long history , today it has retreated to be mainly over what constitutes good science education , with the politics of creationism primarily focusing on the teaching of creation and evolution in public education . Among majority-Christian countries , the debate is most prominent in the United States , and to a lesser extent in Europe and elsewhere , and is often portrayed as part of a culture war . Parallel controversies also exist in some other religious communities , such as the more fundamentalist branches of Judaism and Islam .   Christian fundamentalists dispute the evidence of common descent of humans and other animals as demonstrated in modern paleontology , genetics , histology and cladistics and those other sub-disciplines which are based upon the conclusions of modern evolutionary biology , geology , cosmology , and other related fields . They argue for the Abrahamic accounts of creation , framing them as reputable science ( `` creation science '' ) .   The Catholic Church now recognizes the existence of evolution ( see Catholic Church and evolution ) . Pope Francis has stated : `` God is not a divine being or a magician , but the Creator who brought everything to life ... Evolution in nature is not inconsistent with the notion of creation , because evolution requires the creation of beings that evolve . '' The rules of genetic evolutionary inheritance were first discovered by a Catholic priest , the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel , who is known today as the founder of modern genetics .   According to a 2014 Gallup survey , `` More than four in 10 Americans continue to believe that God created humans in their present form 10,000 years ago , a view that has changed little over the past three decades . Half of Americans believe humans evolved , with the majority of these saying God guided the evolutionary process . However , the percentage who say God was not involved is rising . ''   The debate is sometimes portrayed as being between science and religion , and the United States National Academy of Sciences states :"}
{"_id": "Creep_(deformation)", "title": "Creep (deformation)", "headings": "", "text": "In materials science , creep ( sometimes called cold flow ) is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses . It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield strength of the material . Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat for long periods , and generally increases as they near their melting point .   The rate of deformation is a function of the material properties , exposure time , exposure temperature and the applied structural load . Depending on the magnitude of the applied stress and its duration , the deformation may become so large that a component can no longer perform its function -- for example creep of a turbine blade will cause the blade to contact the casing , resulting in the failure of the blade . Creep is usually of concern to engineers and metallurgists when evaluating components that operate under high stresses or high temperatures . Creep is a deformation mechanism that may or may not constitute a failure mode . For example , moderate creep in concrete is sometimes welcomed because it relieves tensile stresses that might otherwise lead to cracking .   Unlike brittle fracture , creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application of stress . Instead , strain accumulates as a result of long-term stress . Therefore , creep is a `` time-dependent '' deformation ."}
{"_id": "Cretaceous", "title": "Cretaceous", "headings": "", "text": "The Cretaceous ( -LSB- pronkrᵻˈteɪʃəs -RSB- , ) is a geologic period and system that spans 79 million years from the end of the Jurassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Paleogene Period Mya . It is the last period of the Mesozoic Era . The Cretaceous Period is usually abbreviated K , for its German translation Kreide ( chalk ) .   The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate , resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas . These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles , ammonites and rudists , while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land . During this time , new groups of mammals and birds , as well as flowering plants , appeared . The Cretaceous ended with a large mass extinction , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , in which many groups , including non-avian dinosaurs , pterosaurs and large marine reptiles died out . The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous -- Paleogene boundary ( K -- Pg boundary ) , a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction which lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras ."}
{"_id": "Cretaceous–Paleogene_extinction_event", "title": "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event", "headings": "", "text": "The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today .   In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids .   As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together .   A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated ."}
{"_id": "Criticism_of_NASCAR", "title": "Criticism of NASCAR", "headings": "", "text": "The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing ( NASCAR ) is the sanctioning body for the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series , the Xfinity Series and the Camping World Truck Series . NASCAR also oversees a number of regional racing series , including the Whelen Modified Tour , and the Whelen All-American Series . In its role , NASCAR sanctions over 1,500 races at over 100 tracks in 39 states , Canada , Mexico , and Europe .   Similar to other professional leagues and sanctioning bodies , NASCAR has been the target of criticism on various topics , from various sources . Some critics note the significant differences between today 's NASCAR vehicles and true `` stock cars '' . As NASCAR has made moves to improve its national appeal , it has begun racing at new tracks , and ceased racing at some traditional ones , a sore spot for the traditional fan base .   Others frequently cite the dominance of the France family in NASCAR 's business structure , policies , and decision making . Recently , the increased number of Cup drivers competing consistently in the Xfinity Series races has been hotly debated . Most recently , NASCAR has been challenged on the types and frequency of caution flags , with some critics suggesting the outcome of races is being manipulated , and that the intention is not safety , as NASCAR claims , but closer racing .   Another general area of criticism , not only of NASCAR but other motorsports as well , includes questions about fuel consumption , emissions and pollution , and the use of lead additives in the gasoline ."}
{"_id": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "title": "Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report", "headings": "", "text": "The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities ."}
{"_id": "Cross-correlation", "title": "Cross-correlation", "headings": "", "text": "In signal processing , cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two series as a function of the displacement of one relative to the other . This is also known as a sliding dot product or sliding inner-product . It is commonly used for searching a long signal for a shorter , known feature . It has applications in pattern recognition , single particle analysis , electron tomography , averaging , cryptanalysis , and neurophysiology .   For continuous functions f and g , the cross-correlation is defined as :     where denotes the complex conjugate of , and is the displacement , also known as lag , although a positive value of actually means that leads .   Similarly , for discrete functions , the cross-correlation is defined as :   The cross-correlation is similar in nature to the convolution of two functions .   In an autocorrelation , which is the cross-correlation of a signal with itself , there will always be a peak at a lag of zero , and its size will be the signal energy .   In probability and statistics , the term cross-correlations is used for referring to the correlations between the entries of two random vectors X and Y , while the correlations of a random vector X are considered to be the correlations between the entries of X itself , those forming the correlation matrix ( matrix of correlations ) of X . If each of X and Y is a scalar random variable which is realized repeatedly in temporal sequence ( a time series ) , then the correlations of the various temporal instances of X are known as autocorrelations of X , and the cross-correlations of X with Y across time are temporal cross-correlations .   Furthermore , in probability and statistics the definition of correlation always includes a standardising factor in such a way that correlations have values between − 1 and +1 .   If and are two independent random variables with probability density functions f and g , respectively , then the probability density of the difference is formally given by the cross-correlation ( in the signal-processing sense ) ; however this terminology is not used in probability and statistics . In contrast , the convolution ( equivalent to the cross-correlation of f ( t ) and g ( − t ) ) gives the probability density function of the sum ."}
{"_id": "Cross-validation_(statistics)", "title": "Cross-validation (statistics)", "headings": "", "text": "Cross-validation , sometimes called rotation estimation , is a model validation technique for assessing how the results of a statistical analysis will generalize to an independent data set . It is mainly used in settings where the goal is prediction , and one wants to estimate how accurately a predictive model will perform in practice . In a prediction problem , a model is usually given a dataset of known data on which training is run ( training dataset ) , and a dataset of unknown data ( or first seen data ) against which the model is tested ( testing dataset ) . The goal of cross validation is to define a dataset to `` test '' the model in the training phase ( i.e. , the validation dataset ) , in order to limit problems like overfitting , give an insight on how the model will generalize to an independent dataset ( i.e. , an unknown dataset , for instance from a real problem ) , etc. .   One round of cross-validation involves partitioning a sample of data into complementary subsets , performing the analysis on one subset ( called the training set ) , and validating the analysis on the other subset ( called the validation set or testing set ) . To reduce variability , multiple rounds of cross-validation are performed using different partitions , and the validation results are averaged over the rounds .   One of the main reasons for using cross-validation instead of using the conventional validation ( e.g. partitioning the data set into two sets of 70 % for training and 30 % for test ) is that there is not enough data available to partition it into separate training and test sets without losing significant modelling or testing capability . In these cases , a fair way to properly estimate model prediction performance is to use cross-validation as a powerful general technique .   In summary , cross-validation combines ( averages ) measures of fit ( prediction error ) to derive a more accurate estimate of model prediction performance ."}
{"_id": "Crown-of-thorns_starfish", "title": "Crown-of-thorns starfish", "headings": "", "text": "The crown-of-thorns starfish , Acanthaster planci , is a large , multiple-armed starfish that usually preys upon hard , or stony , coral polyps ( Scleractinia ) . The crown-of-thorns starfish receives its name from venomous thorn-like spines that cover its upper surface , resembling the biblical crown of thorns . It is one of the largest starfish in the world .   A. planci has a very wide Indo-Pacific distribution . It is perhaps most common in Australia , but can occur at tropical and subtropical latitudes from the Red Sea and the east African coast across the Indian Ocean , and across the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of Central America . It occurs where coral reefs or hard coral communities occur in this region ."}
{"_id": "Cryosphere", "title": "Cryosphere", "headings": "", "text": "The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres ."}
{"_id": "Cyanobacteria", "title": "Cyanobacteria", "headings": "", "text": "Cyanobacteria -LSB- saɪˌænoʊbækˈtɪəriə -RSB- , also known as Cyanophyta , is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis , and are the only photosynthetic prokaryotes able to produce oxygen . The name `` cyanobacteria '' comes from the color of the bacteria ( κυανός ( kyanós ) = blue ) . Cyanobacteria used to be incorrectly called blue-green algae , but being prokaryotes , the term `` algae '' in modern usage refers to eukaryotes .   Like other prokaryotes , cyanobacteria have no membrane-sheathed organelles . Photosynthesis is performed in distinctive folds in the outer membrane of the cell ( unlike green plants which use chloroplasts for this purpose ) . Biologists commonly agree that chloroplasts found in eukaryotes have their ancestry in cyanobacteria , via a process called endosymbiosis .   By producing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis , cyanobacteria are thought to have converted the early oxygen-poor , reducing atmosphere , into an oxidizing one , causing the `` rusting of the Earth '' and the Great Oxygenation Event , that dramatically changed the composition of life forms and led to the near-extinction of anaerobic organisms .   Cyanobacteria are thought to eventually have evolved into plastids found in eukaryotic plants , which later differentiated into specialized organelles like the etioplast , leucoplast and the chloroplast ."}
{"_id": "Cyclone", "title": "Cyclone", "headings": "", "text": "In meteorology , a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure . Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure . The largest low-pressure systems are polar vortices and extratropical cyclones of the largest scale ( the synoptic scale ) . Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale .  Mesocyclones , tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale . Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low , and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere . Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets , such as Mars and Neptune .  Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensification . Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones . These zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies . Later in their life cycle , extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air and become cold core systems . A cyclone 's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the subtropical jet stream .   Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature , humidity , and densities , and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena . Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east ; warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path . Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center .   Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core . Cyclones can transition between extratropical , subtropical , and tropical phases . Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear . In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans , a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane ( from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind , Huracan ) , in the Indian and south Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone , and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon ."}
{"_id": "Córdoba,_Argentina", "title": "Córdoba, Argentina", "headings": "", "text": "Córdoba ( -LSB- ˈkorðoβa -RSB- ) is a city in the geographical center of Argentina , in the foothills of the Sierras Chicas on the Suquía River , about 700 km northwest of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires . It is the capital of Córdoba Province and the second most populous city in Argentina after Buenos Aires , with about 1,330,023 inhabitants according to the 2010 census . It was founded on 6 July 1573 by Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera , who named it after Córdoba , Spain . It was one of the first Spanish colonial capitals of the region that is now Argentina ( the oldest city is Santiago del Estero , founded in 1553 ) . The National University of Córdoba is the oldest university of the country and the second to be inaugurated in Latin America . It was founded in 1613 by the Jesuit Order . Because of this , Córdoba earned the nickname La Docta ( roughly translated , `` the learned one '' ) .   Córdoba has many historical monuments preserved from Spanish colonial rule , especially buildings of the Roman Catholic Church . The most recognizable is perhaps the Jesuit Block ( Spanish : Manzana Jesuítica ) , declared in 2000 as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO which consists of a group of buildings dating from the 17th century , including the Colegio Nacional de Monserrat and the colonial university campus . The campus belongs today to the historical museum of the National University of Córdoba , which has been the second-largest university in the country since the early 20th century ( after the University of Buenos Aires ) , in terms of the number of students , faculty , and academic programs . Córdoba is also known for its historical movements , such as Cordobazo and La Reforma del '18 ( known as University Revolution in English ) ."}
{"_id": "D._B._Cooper", "title": "D. B. Cooper", "headings": "", "text": "D. B. Cooper is a media epithet popularly used to refer to an unidentified man who hijacked a Boeing 727 aircraft in the airspace between Portland , Oregon , and Seattle , Washington , on November 24 , 1971 . He extorted $ 200,000 in ransom and parachuted to an uncertain fate . Despite an extensive manhunt and protracted FBI investigation , the perpetrator has never been located or identified . The case remains the only unsolved air piracy in commercial aviation history .   While available evidence and a preponderance of expert opinion suggested from the beginning that Cooper probably did not survive his high-risk jump , the FBI nevertheless maintained an active investigation for 45 years following the hijacking . Despite a case file that grew to over 60 volumes over that time period , no definitive conclusions have been reached regarding Cooper 's true identity or whereabouts . The suspect purchased his airline ticket using the alias Dan Cooper , but because of a news media miscommunication he became known in popular lore as `` D. B. Cooper '' .   Numerous theories of widely varying plausibility have been proposed over the years by investigators , reporters , and amateur enthusiasts . The discovery of a small cache of ransom bills along the banks of the Columbia River in February 1980 triggered renewed interest , but ultimately only deepened the mystery , and the great majority of the ransom remains unrecovered .   The FBI officially suspended active investigation of the case in July 2016 , but continues to request that any physical evidence that might emerge related to the parachutes or the ransom money be submitted for analysis ."}
{"_id": "Daniel_Bryan", "title": "Daniel Bryan", "headings": "", "text": "Bryan Lloyd Danielson ( born May 22 , 1981 ) is an American retired professional wrestler currently signed to WWE under the ring name Daniel Bryan , where he is the on-screen general manager of SmackDown .   In WWE , Bryan held the WWE ChampionshipDanielson 's first two reigns were as WWE Champion . His final reign was as WWE World Heavyweight Champion . three times and WWE 's World Heavyweight Championship once , in addition to being a one-time United States Champion , a one-time Intercontinental Champion , and a one time WWE Tag Team Champion as part of Team Hell No ( with Kane ) . He was also the 2011 SmackDown Money in the Bank winner and the 2013 Superstar of the Year Slammy Award winner . He is the 26th Triple Crown Champion and the 6th Grand Slam Champion in WWE history and headlined several major pay-per-view events , including SummerSlam in 2013 and WrestleMania XXX .   Danielson was previously signed to the WWE , then known as the WWF , for an 18-month period from 2000 -- 2001 . Prior to joining WWE for his second stint in 2009 , Danielson wrestled for various companies internationally using both his real name and the ring name ( and later nickname ) `` American Dragon '' . He wrestled for Ring of Honor ( ROH ) from 2002 to 2009 , being recognized as a `` Founding Father '' of the promotion , where he was a one-time ROH World Champion , as well the final Pure Wrestling Champion ( unifying the Pure title with the World title ) . He was the first winner of ROH 's annual Survival of the Fittest tournament in 2004 . Danielson also wrestled extensively in Japan , winning the GHC Junior Heavyweight Championship in Pro Wrestling Noah and the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship ( with Curry Man ) in New Japan Pro-Wrestling ( NJPW ) . Between WWE , ROH , and Japanese promotions , he held eleven total championships . Danielson also won numerous titles on the independent circuit , including two PWG World Championships , the FIP Heavyweight Championship , and the wXw World Heavyweight Championship .   In 2016 , at age 34 , Danielson retired from professional wrestling due to medical issues ( including seizures ) arising from multiple concussions and a brain lesion . Later that year in July , he was named the General Manager of SmackDown following the return of the WWE brand extension ."}
{"_id": "Data_mining", "title": "Data mining", "headings": "", "text": "Data mining is the computing process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving methods at the intersection of artificial intelligence , machine learning , statistics , and database systems . It is an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science . The overall goal of the data mining process is to extract information from a data set and transform it into an understandable structure for further use . Aside from the raw analysis step , it involves database and data management aspects , data pre-processing , model and inference considerations , interestingness metrics , complexity considerations , post-processing of discovered structures , visualization , and online updating . Data mining is the analysis step of the `` knowledge discovery in databases '' process , or KDD .   The term is a misnomer , because the goal is the extraction of patterns and knowledge from large amounts of data , not the extraction ( mining ) of data itself .  It also is a buzzword and is frequently applied to any form of large-scale data or information processing ( collection , extraction , warehousing , analysis , and statistics ) as well as any application of computer decision support system , including artificial intelligence , machine learning , and business intelligence . The book Data mining : Practical machine learning tools and techniques with Java ( which covers mostly machine learning material ) was originally to be named just Practical machine learning , and the term data mining was only added for marketing reasons . Often the more general terms ( large scale ) data analysis and analytics -- or , when referring to actual methods , artificial intelligence and machine learning -- are more appropriate .   The actual data mining task is the automatic or semi-automatic analysis of large quantities of data to extract previously unknown , interesting patterns such as groups of data records ( cluster analysis ) , unusual records ( anomaly detection ) , and dependencies ( association rule mining , sequential pattern mining ) . This usually involves using database techniques such as spatial indices . These patterns can then be seen as a kind of summary of the input data , and may be used in further analysis or , for example , in machine learning and predictive analytics . For example , the data mining step might identify multiple groups in the data , which can then be used to obtain more accurate prediction results by a decision support system . Neither the data collection , data preparation , nor result interpretation and reporting is part of the data mining step , but do belong to the overall KDD process as additional steps .   The related terms data dredging , data fishing , and data snooping refer to the use of data mining methods to sample parts of a larger population data set that are ( or may be ) too small for reliable statistical inferences to be made about the validity of any patterns discovered . These methods can , however , be used in creating new hypotheses to test against the larger data populations ."}
{"_id": "Data_visualization", "title": "Data visualization", "headings": "", "text": "Data visualization or data visualisation is viewed by many disciplines as a modern equivalent of visual communication . It involves the creation and study of the visual representation of data , meaning `` information that has been abstracted in some schematic form , including attributes or variables for the units of information '' .   A primary goal of data visualization is to communicate information clearly and efficiently via statistical graphics , plots and information graphics . Numerical data may be encoded using dots , lines , or bars , to visually communicate a quantitative message . Effective visualization helps users analyze and reason about data and evidence . It makes complex data more accessible , understandable and usable . Users may have particular analytical tasks , such as making comparisons or understanding causality , and the design principle of the graphic ( i.e. , showing comparisons or showing causality ) follows the task . Tables are generally used where users will look up a specific measurement , while charts of various types are used to show patterns or relationships in the data for one or more variables .   Data visualization is both an art and a science . It is viewed as a branch of descriptive statistics by some , but also as a grounded theory development tool by others . Increased amounts of data created by Internet activity and an expanding number of sensors in the environment are referred to as `` big data '' or Internet of things . Processing , analyzing and communicating this data present ethical and analytical challenges for data visualization . The field of data science and practitioners called data scientists help address this challenge ."}
{"_id": "Daylight_saving_time", "title": "Daylight saving time", "headings": "", "text": "Daylight saving time ( abbreviated DST ) , also sometimes erroneously referred to as daylight savings time , is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer , while sacrificing normal sunrise times . Typically , regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time .   American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784 . He wrote an essay `` An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light '' to the editor of The Journal of Paris , suggesting , somewhat jokingly , that Parisians could economize candle usage by getting people out of bed earlier in the morning , making use of the natural morning light instead . New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895 . The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation , starting on April 30 , 1916 . Many countries have used it at various times since then , particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s .   The practice has both advocates and critics . Some early proponents of DST aimed to reduce evening use of incandescent lighting -- once a primary use of electricity -- today 's heating and cooling usage patterns differ greatly , and research about how DST affects energy use is limited and contradictory .   DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel , billing , record keeping , medical devices , heavy equipment , and sleep patterns . Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically , but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing ."}
{"_id": "Daylight_saving_time_in_the_United_States", "title": "Daylight saving time in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Daylight saving time in the United States is the practice of setting the clock forward by one hour during the warmer part of the year , so that evenings have more daylight and mornings have less . Most areas of the United States observe daylight saving time ( DST ) , the exceptions being Arizona ( except for the Navajo , who do observe daylight saving time on tribal lands ) , Hawaii , and the overseas territories of American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , Puerto Rico , and the United States Virgin Islands . In general , daylight time is not observed in lower-latitude regions , as summer days are not much longer than winter ones as in higher latitudes , so the advantage of the change is smaller .   Daylight saving time starts on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November , with the time changes taking place at 2:00 a.m. local time . With a mnemonic word play referring to seasons , clocks `` spring forward and fall back '' -- that is , in springtime the clocks are moved forward from 2:00 a.m. to 3:00 a.m. , and in fall they are moved back from 2:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. Daylight saving time lasts for a total of 34 weeks ( 238 days ) every year , about 65 % of the entire year ( including leap years ) .   The following table lists recent past and near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the United States :"}
{"_id": "Dead_zone_(ecology)", "title": "Dead zone (ecology)", "headings": "", "text": "Dead zones are hypoxic ( low-oxygen ) areas in the world 's oceans and large lakes , caused by `` excessive nutrient pollution from human activities coupled with other factors that deplete the oxygen required to support most marine life in bottom and near-bottom water . ( NOAA ) . '' In the 1970s oceanographers began noting increased instances of dead zones . These occur near inhabited coastlines , where aquatic life is most concentrated . ( The vast middle portions of the oceans , which naturally have little life , are not considered `` dead zones '' . )   In March 2004 , when the recently established UN Environment Programme published its first Global Environment Outlook Year Book ( GEO Year Book 2003 ) , it reported 146 dead zones in the world 's oceans where marine life could not be supported due to depleted oxygen levels . Some of these were as small as a square kilometre ( 0.4 mi ² ) , but the largest dead zone covered 70,000 square kilometres ( 27,000 mi ² ) . A 2008 study counted 405 dead zones worldwide ."}
{"_id": "Debbie_Stabenow", "title": "Debbie Stabenow", "headings": "", "text": "Deborah Ann Greer Stabenow -LSB- ˈstæbəˌnaʊ -RSB- ( born April 29 , 1950 ) is the senior United States Senator from Michigan and a member of the Democratic Party . Before her election to the U.S. Senate , she was a member of the United States House of Representatives , representing Michigan 's 8th congressional district from 1997 to 2001 . She previously served as a member of the Ingham County Board of Commissioners , Michigan House of Representatives , and Michigan Senate .   Stabenow served as Chairwoman of the Senate Agriculture Committee from 2011 to 2015 . She was re-elected to the Senate for a third term in November 2012 . She became the state 's senior senator upon the retirement of Carl Levin on January 3 , 2015 . She served as Vice Chair of the Senate Democratic Policy Committee from 2011 to 2017 and became its Chair in 2017 ."}
{"_id": "Deccan_Traps", "title": "Deccan Traps", "headings": "", "text": "The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau of west-central India ( 17 ° -- 24 ° N , 73 ° -- 74 ° E ) and one of the largest volcanic features on Earth . They consist of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than 2000 m thick , cover an area of 500000 km2 , and have a volume of 1000000 km3 . Originally , the Deccan Traps may have covered 1500000 km2 , with a correspondingly larger original volume ."}
{"_id": "December", "title": "December", "headings": "", "text": "December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars . It is the seventh and last month to have the length of 31 days .   December got its name from the Latin word decem ( meaning ten ) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the Roman calendar , which began in March . The winter days following December were not included as part of any month . Later , the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar , but December retained its name .   In Ancient Rome , one of the four Agonalia , this day in honor of Sol Indiges was held on December 11 , as was Septimontium . Dies Natalis was held on of the temple of Tellus on December 13 , Consualia was held on December 15 , Saturnalia was held December 17 -- 23 , Opiconsivia held on December 19 , Divalia on December 21 , Larentalia on December 23 , and the Dies Natalis of Sol Invictus was held on December 25 . These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar .   The Anglo-Saxons referred to December/January as Ġēolamonaþ ( modern English : `` Yule month '' ) . The French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse ."}
{"_id": "Deep_hypothermic_circulatory_arrest", "title": "Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest", "headings": "", "text": "Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest ( DHCA ) is a surgical technique that involves cooling the body to temperatures below 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and stopping blood circulation and brain function for up to one hour . It is used when blood circulation to the brain must be stopped because of delicate surgery within the brain , or because of surgery on large blood vessels that lead to or from the brain . DHCA is a form of carefully managed clinical death in which heartbeat and all brain activity cease .   At normal body temperature of 37 ° C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored . Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived . At a brain temperature of 14 ° C , blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes . There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes , but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it . Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults .   Applications of DHCA include repairs of the aortic arch , repairs to head and neck great vessels , repair of large cerebral aneurysms , repair of cerebral arteriovenous malformations , pulmonary thromboendarterectomy , and resection of tumors that have invaded the vena cava ."}
{"_id": "Deep_sea_fish", "title": "Deep sea fish", "headings": "", "text": "Deep-sea fish are fish that live in the darkness below the sunlit surface waters , that is below the epipelagic or photic zone of the sea . The lanternfish is , by far , the most common deep-sea fish . Other deep sea fishes include the flashlight fish , cookiecutter shark , bristlemouths , anglerfish , viperfish , and some species of eelpout .   Only about 2 % of known marine species inhabit the pelagic environment . This means that they live in the water column as opposed to the benthic organisms that live in or on the sea floor . Deep-sea organisms generally inhabit bathypelagic ( 1000 -- 4000m deep ) and abyssopelagic ( 4000 -- 6000m deep ) zones . However , characteristics of deep-sea organisms , such as bioluminescence can be seen in the mesopelagic ( 200 -- 1000m deep ) zone as well . The mesopelagic zone is the disphotic zone , meaning light there is minimal but still measurable . The oxygen minimum layer exists somewhere between a depth of 700m and 1000m deep depending on the place in the ocean . This area is also where nutrients are most abundant . The bathypelagic and abyssopelagic zones are aphotic , meaning that no light penetrates this area of the ocean . These zones make up about 75 % of the inhabitable ocean space .   The epipelagic zone ( 0 -- 200m ) is the area where light penetrates the water and photosynthesis occurs . This is also known as the photic zone . Because this typically extends only a few hundred meters below the water , the deep sea , about 90 % of the ocean volume , is in darkness . The deep sea is also an extremely hostile environment , with temperatures that rarely exceed 3 ° C ( 37.4 ° F ) and fall as low as − 1.8 ° C ( 28.76 ° F ) ( with the exception of hydrothermal vent ecosystems that can exceed 350 ° C , or 662 ° F ) , low oxygen levels , and pressures between 20 and 1,000 atmospheres ( between 2 and 100 megapascals ) ."}
{"_id": "Deforestation", "title": "Deforestation", "headings": "", "text": "Deforestation , clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use . Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms , ranches , or urban use . The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests . About 30 % of Earth 's land surface is covered by forests .   Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons : trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel , ( sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber ) , while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation . The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat , biodiversity loss and aridity . It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive the enemy of vital resources and cover for its forces . Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency and the United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War . As of 2005 , net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$ 4,600 . Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland .   Disregard of ascribed value , lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale . In many countries , deforestation , both naturally occurring and human-induced , is an ongoing issue . Deforestation causes extinction , changes to climatic conditions , desertification , and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record . More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests .   Between 2000 and 2012 , 2.3 e6sqkm of forests around the world were cut down . As a result of deforestation , only 6.2 e6km2 remain of the original 16 e6km2 of forest that formerly covered the Earth ."}
{"_id": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "title": "Deforestation and climate change", "headings": "", "text": "Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use .   Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years ."}
{"_id": "Deforestation_in_Indonesia", "title": "Deforestation in Indonesia", "headings": "", "text": "Deforestation in Indonesia involves the long-term loss of forests and foliage across much of the country ; it has had massive environmental and social impacts . Indonesia is home to some of the most biologically diverse forests in the world and ranks third in number of species behind Brazil and the Democratic Republic of Congo .   As late as 1900 , Indonesia was still a densely forested country : forests represented 84 percent of the total land area . Deforestation intensified in the 1970s and has accelerated further since then . The estimated forest cover of 170 million hectares around 1900 decreased to less than 100 million hectares by the end of the 20th century . In 2008 , it was estimated that tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in a decade . Of the total logging in Indonesia , up to 80 % is reported to be performed illegally .   Large areas of forest in Indonesia have been cleared by large multinational pulp companies , such as Asia Pulp and Paper , and replaced by plantations . Forests are often burned by farmers and plantation owners . Another major source of deforestation is the logging industry , driven by demand from China and Japan . Agricultural development and transmigration programs moved large populations into rainforest areas , further increasing deforestation rates .   Logging and the burning of forests to clear land for cultivation has made Indonesia the world 's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases , behind China and the United States . Forest fires often destroy high capacity carbon sinks , including old-growth rainforest and peatlands . In May 2011 , Indonesia declared a moratorium on new logging contracts to help combat this . This appeared to be ineffective in the short-term , as the rate of deforestation continued to increase . By 2012 Indonesia had surpassed the rate of deforestation in Brazil , and become the fastest forest clearing nation in the world ."}
{"_id": "Deglaciation", "title": "Deglaciation", "headings": "", "text": "Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene .   The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time ."}
{"_id": "Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)", "title": "Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)", "headings": "", "text": "In physics , a degree of freedom is an independent physical parameter in the formal description of the state of a physical system . The set of all dimensions of a system is known as a phase space , and degrees of freedom are sometimes referred to as its dimensions ."}
{"_id": "Democratic_Party_(United_States)", "title": "Democratic Party (United States)", "headings": "", "text": "The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States , along with the Republican Party . Tracing its heritage back to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison 's Democratic-Republican Party , the modern-day Democratic Party was founded around 1828 by Andrew Jackson , making it the world 's oldest active party .   The Democrats ' dominant worldview was once social conservativism and economic liberalism , while , especially in the rural South , populism was its leading characteristic . In 1912 , Theodore Roosevelt ran as a third-party candidate in the Progressive ( `` Bull Moose '' ) Party , leading to a switch of political platforms between the Democratic and Republican Party and Woodrow Wilson being elected as the first fiscally progressive Democrat . Since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s , the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform , supporting social justice .   Today , the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists , with a smaller minority of conservative Democrats . The party 's philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality , along with the welfare state . It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy . These interventions , such as the introduction of social programs , support for labor unions , affordable college tuitions , moves toward universal health care and equal opportunity , consumer protection , and environmental protection form the core of the party 's economic policy . The party has united with smaller liberal regional parties throughout the country , such as the Farmer -- Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota .   Well into the 20th century , the party had conservative pro-business and southern conservative-populist anti-business wings . The New Deal Coalition of 1932 -- 1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction -- many of whom were Catholics based in the cities . After Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal of the 1930s , the pro-business wing withered outside the South . After the racial turmoil of the 1960s , most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level . The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s . White Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s . Racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. such as ( but not limited to ) Jewish Americans , Hispanic Americans , Arabic Americans , and African Americans , tend to support the Democratic Party in proportions higher than their overall representation in American society . Overall , the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party ( GOP ) .   15 Democrats have served as president under 16 administrations : the first was seventh president Andrew Jackson , who served from 1829 to 1837 ; Grover Cleveland served two nonconsecutive terms from 1885 to 1889 and 1893 to 1897 , and is thus counted twice ( as the 22nd and 24th president ) . The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama , who held the office from 2009 to 2017 .   In the 115th Congress , following the 2016 elections , Democrats are the opposition party , holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate . The party also holds a minority of governorships ( 16/50 ) , and state legislatures ( full control of 12/50 , split control of six others ) , though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City , Los Angeles , Chicago , Houston , and Washington , D.C."}
{"_id": "Dengue_fever", "title": "Dengue fever", "headings": "", "text": "Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus . Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection . This may include a high fever , headache , vomiting , muscle and joint pains , and a characteristic skin rash . Recovery generally takes two to seven days . In a small proportion of cases , the disease develops into the life-threatening dengue hemorrhagic fever , resulting in bleeding , low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma leakage , or into dengue shock syndrome , where dangerously low blood pressure occurs .   Dengue is spread by several species of mosquito of the Aedes type , principally A. aegypti . The virus has five different types ; infection with one type usually gives lifelong immunity to that type , but only short-term immunity to the others . Subsequent infection with a different type increases the risk of severe complications . A number of tests are available to confirm the diagnosis including detecting antibodies to the virus or its RNA .   A novel vaccine for dengue fever has been approved and is commercially available in a number of countries . Other methods of prevention are by reducing mosquito habitat and limiting exposure to bites . This may be done by getting rid of or covering standing water and wearing clothing that covers much of the body . Treatment of acute dengue is supportive and includes giving fluid either by mouth or intravenously for mild or moderate disease . For more severe cases blood transfusion may be required . About half a million people require admission to hospital a year . Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) such as ibuprofen should not be used .   Dengue has become a global problem since the Second World War and is common in more than 110 countries . Each year between 50 and 528 million people are infected and approximately 10,000 to 20,000 die . The earliest descriptions of an outbreak date from 1779 . Its viral cause and spread were understood by the early 20th century . Apart from eliminating the mosquitoes , work is ongoing for medication targeted directly at the virus . It is classified as a neglected tropical disease ."}
{"_id": "Density", "title": "Density", "headings": "", "text": "The density , or more precisely , the volumetric mass density , of a substance is its mass per unit volume . The symbol most often used for density is ρ ( the lower case Greek letter rho ) , although the Latin letter D can also be used . Mathematically , density is defined as mass divided by volume :   where ρ is the density , m is the mass , and V is the volume . In some cases ( for instance , in the United States oil and gas industry ) , density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume , although this is scientifically inaccurate -- this quantity is more specifically called specific weight .   For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration .  Different materials usually have different densities , and density may be relevant to buoyancy , purity and packaging . Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser .   To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units , it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity `` relative density '' or `` specific gravity '' , i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material , usually water . Thus a relative density less than one means that the substance floats in water .   The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure . This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases . Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density . Increasing the temperature of a substance ( with a few exceptions ) decreases its density by increasing its volume . In most materials , heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top , due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid . This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material .   The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume , a term sometimes used in thermodynamics . Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density ; rather it increases its mass ."}
{"_id": "Desert", "title": "Desert", "headings": "", "text": "A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life . The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation . About one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi-arid . This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or `` cold deserts '' . Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls , by the temperature that prevails , by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location .   Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces . Although rain seldom occurs in deserts , there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods . Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the desert floor is further eroded by the wind . This picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms . Wind-blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface . Rocks are smoothed down , and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits . The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes . Other deserts are flat , stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones . These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place . Other desert features include rock outcrops , exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water . Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate . There may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers . Where these are found , oases can occur .   Plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment . Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves , water-resistant cuticles and often spines to deter herbivory . Some annual plants germinate , bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long-lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture . Animals need to keep cool and find enough food and water to survive . Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day . They tend to be efficient at conserving water , extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine . Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods , ready to become active again when the rare rains fall . They then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy .   People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding semi-arid lands for millennia . Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available and oases have provided opportunities for a more settled way of life . The cultivation of semi-arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification . Desert farming is possible with the aid of irrigation and the Imperial Valley in California provides an example of how previously barren land can be made productive by the import of water from an outside source . Many trade routes have been forged across deserts , especially across the Sahara Desert , and traditionally were used by caravans of camels carrying salt , gold , ivory and other goods . Large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara . Some mineral extraction also takes place in deserts and the uninterrupted sunlight gives potential for the capture of large quantities of solar energy ."}
{"_id": "Developing_country", "title": "Developing country", "headings": "", "text": "A developing country , also called a less developed country or an underdeveloped country , is a nation or a sovereign state with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index ( HDI ) relative to other countries . There are no universally agreed-upon criteria for what makes a country developing versus developed and which countries fit these two categories , although there are general reference points such as a nation 's GDP per capita compared with other nations . Also , the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country . The term `` developing '' describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress . Since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones .   There is criticism for using the term developing country . The term implies inferiority of a developing country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country , which many countries dislike . It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries , such as Cuba and Bhutan , choose not to follow . An alternative measurement that has been suggested is that of gross national happiness . Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the term newly industrialized countries .   According to authors such as Walt Whitman Rostow , developing countries are in transition from traditional lifestyles towards the modern lifestyle which began in the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries .   In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators , the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between `` developed '' and `` developing '' countries in the presentation of its data . Nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place ."}
{"_id": "Development_communication", "title": "Development communication", "headings": "", "text": "See also Communication for social change   Development communication refers to the use of communication to facilitate social development . Development communication engages stakeholders and policy makers , establishes conducive environments , assesses risks and opportunities and promotes information exchanges to bring about positive social change via sustainable development . Development communication techniques include information dissemination and education , behavior change , social marketing , social mobilization , media advocacy , communication for social change and community participation .   Development communication has been labeled the `` Fifth Theory of the Press , '' with `` social transformation and development , '' and `` the fulfillment of basic needs '' as its primary purposes . Jamias articulated the philosophy of development communication which is anchored on three main ideas , namely : purposive , value-laden and pragmatic . Nora C. Quebral expanded the definition , calling it `` the art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfilment of the human potential . '' Melcote and Steeves saw it as `` emancipation communication '' , aimed at combating injustice and oppression . The term `` development communication '' is sometimes used to refer to a type of marketing and public opinion research , but that is not the topic of this article ."}
{"_id": "Devonian", "title": "Devonian", "headings": "", "text": "The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic , spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian , million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Carboniferous , Mya . It is named after Devon , England , where rocks from this period were first studied .  The first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian . Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land , forming extensive forests which covered the continents . By the middle of the Devonian , several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots , and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared . Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established . Fish reached substantial diversity during this time , leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the `` Age of Fish '' . The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared , while the placodermi began dominating almost every known aquatic environment .   The ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates ( tetrapods ) began adapting to walking on land , as their strong pectoral and pelvic fins gradually evolved into legs . In the oceans , primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician . The first ammonites , species of molluscs , appeared . Trilobites , the mollusk-like brachiopods and the great coral reefs , were still common . The Late Devonian extinction which started about 375 million years ago severely affected marine life , killing off all placodermi , and all trilobites , save for a few species of the order Proetida .   The palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south , the continent of Siberia to the north , and the early formation of the small continent of Euramerica in between ."}
{"_id": "Dew_point", "title": "Dew point", "headings": "", "text": "Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor . When further cooled , the airborne water vapor will condense to form liquid dew . When air with a high dew point contacts surfaces at colder temperatures , then liquid dew will form on the surfaces as condensation . Dew point is sometimes called frost point when the temperature is below freezing . The measurement of dew point is related to humidity . A higher dew point means there will be more moisture in the air ."}
{"_id": "Dielectric_heating", "title": "Dielectric heating", "headings": "", "text": "Dielectric heating , also known as electronic heating , RF ( radio frequency ) heating , and high-frequency heating , is the process in which a high-frequency alternating electric field , or radio wave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material . At higher frequencies , this heating is caused by molecular dipole rotation within the dielectric .   RF dielectric heating at intermediate frequencies , due to its greater penetration over microwave heating , shows greater promise than microwave systems as a method of very rapidly heating and uniformly preparing certain food items , and also killing parasites and pests in certain harvested crops ."}
{"_id": "Diesel_exhaust", "title": "Diesel exhaust", "headings": "", "text": "Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a diesel type of internal combustion engine , plus any contained particulates . Its composition may vary with the fuel type or rate of consumption , or speed of engine operation ( e.g. , idling or at speed or under load ) , and whether the engine is in an on-road vehicle , farm vehicle , locomotive , marine vessel , or stationary generator or other application .   Diesel exhaust is a Group 1 carcinogen , which causes lung cancer and has a positive association with bladder cancer . It contains several substances that are also listed individually as human carcinogens by the IARC .   Methods exist to reduce nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) and particulate matter ( PM ) in the exhaust ."}
{"_id": "Diesel_particulate_filter", "title": "Diesel particulate filter", "headings": "", "text": "A diesel particulate filter ( or DPF ) is a device designed to remove diesel particulate matter or soot from the exhaust gas of a diesel engine ."}
{"_id": "Digital_radio", "title": "Digital radio", "headings": "", "text": "Digital radio is the use of digital technology to transmit and/or receive across the radio spectrum . They may refer to digital transmission by radio waves , including digital broadcasting , and especially to Digital audio radio services .   The term is also applied to radio equipment using digital electronics to process analog radio signals ."}
{"_id": "Dimensional_analysis", "title": "Dimensional analysis", "headings": "", "text": "In engineering and science , dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions ( such as length , mass , time , and electric charge ) and units of measure ( such as miles vs. kilometers , or pounds vs. kilograms vs. grams ) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed . Converting from one dimensional unit to another is often somewhat complex . Dimensional analysis , or more specifically the factor-label method , also known as the unit-factor method , is a widely used technique for such conversions using the rules of algebra .   The concept of physical dimension was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822 . Physical quantities that are measurable ( commensurable ) have the same dimension ( length , time , mass ) and can be directly compared to each other , even if they are originally expressed in differing units of measure ( inches and meters , pounds and newtons ) . If physical quantities have different dimensions ( length verses mass ) , they can not be compared by similar units ( are incommensurable ) and can not be compared in quantity . Hence , it is meaningless to ask whether a kilogram is greater than , equal to , or less than an hour .   Any physically meaningful equation ( and likewise any inequality and inequation ) will have the same dimensions on their left and right sides , a property known as `` dimensional homogeneity '' . Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis . Dimensional analysis is also routinely used as a check of the plausibility of derived equations and computations . It is generally used to categorize types of physical quantities and units based on their relationship to or dependence on other units ."}
{"_id": "Disaster_risk_reduction", "title": "Disaster risk reduction", "headings": "", "text": "Disaster risk reduction ( DRR ) is a systematic approach to identifying , assessing and reducing the risks of disaster . It aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as dealing with the environmental and other hazards that trigger them . Here it has been strongly influenced by the mass of research on vulnerability that has appeared in print since the mid-1970s . It is the responsibility of development and relief agencies alike . It should be an integral part of the way such organizations do their work , not an add-on or one-off action . DRR is very wide-ranging : Its scope is much broader and deeper than conventional emergency management . There is potential for DRR initiatives in just about every sector of development and humanitarian work .   The most commonly cited definition of DRR is one used by UN agencies such as UNISDR , also known as the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction , and UNDP : `` The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society , to avoid ( prevention ) or to limit ( mitigation and preparedness ) the adverse impacts of hazards , within the broad context of sustainable development . ''"}
{"_id": "Divergence_problem", "title": "Divergence problem", "headings": "", "text": "The divergence problem is an anomaly from the field of dendroclimatology , the study of past climate through observations of old trees , primarily the properties of their annual growth rings . It is the disagreement between the temperatures measured by the thermometers ( instrumental temperatures ) and the temperatures reconstructed from the latewood densities or , in some cases , widths of tree rings in the far northern forests .   While the thermometer records indicate a substantial late 20th century warming trend , many tree rings from such sites do not display a corresponding change in their maximum latewood density . In some studies this issue has also been found with tree ring width . A temperature trend extracted from tree rings alone would not show any substantial warming since the 1950s . The temperature graphs calculated in these two ways thus `` diverge '' from one another , which is the origin of the term ."}
{"_id": "Diversity_of_fish", "title": "Diversity of fish", "headings": "", "text": "Fish are very diverse animals and can be categorised in many ways . This article is an overview of some of ways in which fish are categorised . Although most fish species have probably been discovered and described , about 250 new ones are still discovered every year . According to FishBase , 33,100 species of fish had been described by April 2015 . That is more than the combined total of all other vertebrate species : mammals , amphibians , reptiles and birds .   Fish species diversity is roughly divided equally between marine ( oceanic ) and freshwater ecosystems . Coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific constitute the centre of diversity for marine fishes , whereas continental freshwater fishes are most diverse in large river basins of tropical rainforests , especially the Amazon , Congo , and Mekong basins . More than 5,600 fish species inhabit Neotropical freshwaters alone , such that Neotropical fishes represent about 10 % of all vertebrate species on the Earth . Exceptionally rich sites in the Amazon basin , such as Cantão State Park , can contain more freshwater fish species than occur in all of Europe ."}
{"_id": "Doctor_of_Philosophy", "title": "Doctor of Philosophy", "headings": "", "text": "A Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD , Ph.D. , or DPhil ; Latin Philosophiae Doctor ) is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries . Ph.D. s are awarded for a wide range of programs in the sciences ( e.g. , biology , chemistry , physics , mathematics , etc. ) , engineering , and humanities ( e.g. , history , geography , literature , musicology , etc. ) , among others . The Ph.D. is a terminal degree in many fields . The completion of a Ph.D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor , researcher , or scientist in many fields . A clear distinction is made between an `` earned doctorate '' , which is awarded for completion of a course of study and a thesis or dissertation , and an `` honorary doctorate '' , a title granted by a university to a successful or notable person who has not completed doctoral academic work or completed a dissertation at the university . Individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of `` Doctor '' with their name and use the post-nominal letters `` Ph.D. '' , `` PhD '' or `` DPhil '' .   The requirements to earn a Ph.D. degree vary considerably according to the country , institution , and time period , from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates . A person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor . During the studies that lead to the degree , the student is called doctoral student or Ph.D. student , but also doctoral candidate or Ph.D. candidate once the student has completed all of the coursework and comprehensive examinations and is working on their thesis/dissertation ( all but dissertation ) . A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions .   A Ph.D. candidate must submit a project , thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research , which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal . In many countries , a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university . Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph.D. , such as the Doctor of Musical Arts ( D.M.A. ) , a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education ( Ed.D. ) , a degree for professional educators . In 2016 , ELIA ( European League of the Institutes of the Arts ) launched The ` Florence Principles ' on the Doctorate in the Arts . The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations of EUA ( European University Association ) name seven points of attention to specify the Doctorate / Ph.D. in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / Ph.D. . The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC , CILECT , CUMULUS and SAR .   In the context of academic degrees , the term `` philosophy '' does not refer solely to the field or academic discipline of philosophy , but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning , which is `` love of wisdom '' . In most of Europe , all fields ( history , philosophy , social sciences , mathematics , and natural philosophy/natural sciences ) other than theology , law , and medicine ( the so-called professional , vocational , or technical curriculum ) were traditionally known as philosophy , and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the `` faculty of philosophy '' ."}
{"_id": "Don't_ask,_don't_tell", "title": "Don't ask, don't tell", "headings": "", "text": "`` Do n't ask , do n't tell '' ( DADT ) was the official United States policy on military service by gays , bisexuals , and lesbians , instituted by the Clinton Administration on February 28 , 1994 , when Department of Defense Directive 1304.26 issued on December 21 , 1993 , took effect , lasting until September 20 , 2011 . The policy prohibited military personnel from discriminating against or harassing closeted homosexual or bisexual service members or applicants , while barring openly gay , lesbian , or bisexual persons from military service . This relaxation of legal restrictions on service by gays and lesbians in the armed forces was mandated by United States federal law , which was signed November 30 , 1993 . The policy prohibited people who `` demonstrate a propensity or intent to engage in homosexual acts '' from serving in the armed forces of the United States , because their presence `` would create an unacceptable risk to the high standards of morale , good order and discipline , and unit cohesion that are the essence of military capability '' .   The act prohibited any homosexual or bisexual person from disclosing his or her sexual orientation or from speaking about any homosexual relationships , including marriages or other familial attributes , while serving in the United States armed forces . The act specified that service members who disclose that they are homosexual or engage in homosexual conduct should be separated ( discharged ) except when a service member 's conduct was `` for the purpose of avoiding or terminating military service '' or when it `` would not be in the best interest of the armed forces '' . Since DADT ended in 2011 , persons who are openly homosexual and bisexual have been able to serve .   The `` do n't ask '' part of the DADT policy specified that superiors should not initiate investigation of a service member 's orientation without witnessing disallowed behaviors , though credible evidence of homosexual behavior could be used to initiate an investigation . Unauthorized investigations and harassment of suspected servicemen and women led to an expansion of the policy to `` do n't ask , do n't tell , do n't pursue , do n't harass '' .   Legislation to repeal DADT was enacted in December 2010 , specifying that the policy would remain in place until the President , the Secretary of Defense , and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff certified that repeal would not harm military readiness , followed by a 60-day waiting period . A July 6 , 2011 , ruling from a federal appeals court barred further enforcement of the U.S. military 's ban on openly gay service members . President Barack Obama , Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta , and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral Mike Mullen sent that certification to Congress on July 22 , 2011 , which set the end of DADT to September 20 , 2011 ."}
{"_id": "Donald_Trump", "title": "Donald Trump", "headings": "", "text": "Donald John Trump ( born June 14 , 1946 ) is the 45th and current President of the United States . Before entering politics , he was a businessman and television personality .   Trump was born and raised in Queens , New York City , and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School . He then took charge of The Trump Organization , the real estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother , which he ran for 45 years until 2016 . During his real estate career , Trump built , renovated , and managed numerous office towers , hotels , casinos , and golf courses . Besides real estate , he started several side ventures and has licensed the use of his name for the branding of various products and properties , including Trump Entertainment Resorts , Trump Steaks , and Trump Vodka . He was the founder of Trump University . He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015 , and he produced and hosted The Apprentice , a reality television series on NBC , from 2004 to 2015 . His net worth was estimated to be $ 3.5 billion , making him the 544th richest person in the world .   Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for political office in 1987 . He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000 , but withdrew his candidacy early on . In June 2015 , he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among seventeen candidates in the Republican primaries . His remaining opponents all suspended their campaigns by the end of May 2016 , and in July he was formally nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate . Many of his campaign statements were controversial or false , generating much free media coverage .   Trump won the general election on November 8 , 2016 , in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton and commenced his presidency on January 20 , 2017 . He became the oldest and wealthiest person ever to assume the presidency , the first without prior military or government service , and the fifth to have won the election while losing the popular vote . His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist , protectionist , and nationalist ."}
{"_id": "Donald_Trump_2016_presidential_campaign", "title": "Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign", "headings": "", "text": "The 2016 presidential campaign of Donald Trump was formally launched on June 16, 2015, at Trump Tower in New York City. Trump was the Republican nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election, having won the most state primaries, caucuses, and delegates at the 2016 Republican National Convention. He chose Mike Pence, the sitting Governor of Indiana, as his vice presidential running mate. On November 8, 2016, Trump and Pence were elected president and vice president of the United States. Trump's populist positions in opposition to illegal immigration and various trade agreements, such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership, earned him support especially among voters who were male, white, blue-collar, working class, and those without college degrees.Many of Trump's remarks were controversial and helped his campaign garner extensive coverage by the mainstream media, trending topics, and social media. Trump's campaign rallies attracted large crowds as well as public controversy. Some of the events were marked by incidents of violence between Trump supporters and protesters, mistreatment of some journalists, and disruption by a large group of protesters who effectively shut down a major rally in Chicago. Trump himself was accused of inciting violence at his rallies.Trump's disdain for political correctness was a staple theme of his campaign and proved popular among his supporters. Many, including some mainstream commentators and some prominent Republicans, viewed him as appealing to racism, a charge that Trump has repeatedly denied. Trump's most polarizing and widely reported proposals were about issues of immigration and border security, especially his proposed deportation of all illegal immigrants, the proposed construction of a substantial wall on the Mexico–United States border at Mexican expense, his characterizations of many illegal Mexican immigrants as \"criminals, drug dealers, rapists, etc\", and a temporary ban on foreign Muslims entering the U.S. (which he later modified to apply to people originating from countries which he described as having a history of terrorism against the United States or its allies).Opposition to Trump grew during his campaign among both Republicans (who viewed Trump as irrevocably damaging to the party and its chances of winning elections during and after 2016, leading to the coalescence of the Stop Trump movement) and Democrats (who decried Trump's anti-immigrant and anti-Muslim policies, his behavior toward critics, his treatment of the media, and his support from the ethno-nationalist alt-right). Although some prominent Republican leaders declined to endorse Trump after he won the Republican nomination, many Republican congress-members showed support for Trump and his policy positions despite major personal or political conflicts with him. Some such supporters of Trump's campaign were accused, by both conservatives and liberals, of prioritizing party loyalty and avoiding alienation of Trump supporters to ensure re-election, thereby refraining from condemning Trump's actions.On January 6, 2017, the United States government's intelligence agencies concluded that the Russian government interfered in the 2016 United States elections against the campaign of Hillary Clinton and in support of Trump. As president, Trump has repeatedly rejected the conclusions of the U.S. intelligence agencies."}
{"_id": "Drought", "title": "Drought", "headings": "", "text": "A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region , resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply , whether atmospheric , surface water or ground water . A drought can last for months or years , or may be declared after as few as 15 days . It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local economy . Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and subsequent bush fires . Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour .   Many plant species , such as those in the family Cactaceae ( or cacti ) , have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought . Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds . Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands . Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crises . Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity . The most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama Desert in Chile ( 400 Years ) ."}
{"_id": "Drought_in_the_United_Kingdom", "title": "Drought in the United Kingdom", "headings": "", "text": "Droughts are a relatively common feature of the weather in the United Kingdom , with one around every 5 -- 10 years on average . These droughts are usually during the summer , when a blocking high causes hot , dry weather for an extended period . However droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east of the country usually suffers most , as it has the highest population ( and therefore demand ) and the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . Even in these areas in severe droughts , the definition , impacts , effects and management are all minimal in comparison to drought prone areas such as Australia and parts of the United States . In recent years however , the summers of 2007 , 2008 , 2009 and August 2010 were wetter than normal , 2007 being wettest on record ."}
{"_id": "Droughts_in_the_United_States", "title": "Droughts in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Drought in the United States is similar to that of other portions of the globe . Below normal precipitation leads to drought , which is caused by an above average persistence of high pressure over the drought area . Changes in the track of extratropical cyclones , which can occur during climate cycles such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , or ENSO , as well as the North Atlantic Oscillation , Pacific Decadal Oscillation , and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation , modulates which areas would be more prone to drought and when drought develops . Increased drought frequency is expected to be one of the effects of global warming . In dry areas , removing grass cover and going with a more natural vegetation for the area can reduce the impact of drought , since a significant amount of fresh water is used to keep lawns green . Droughts are periodic , alternating with floods over a series of years .   The worst droughts in the history of the United States occurred during the 1930s and 1950s , periods of time known as ` Dust Bowl ' years in which droughts lead to significant economic damages and social changes . In particular , relief and health agencies became overburdened and many local community banks had to close ."}
{"_id": "Drowning", "title": "Drowning", "headings": "", "text": "Drowning is defined as respiratory impairment from being in or under a liquid . It is further classified by outcome into : death , ongoing health problems , and no ongoing health problems . Drowning itself is quick and silent , although it may be preceded by distress which is more visible .   Generally , in the early stages of drowning , very little water enters the lungs : a small amount of water entering the trachea causes a muscular spasm that seals the airway and prevents the passage of both air and water until unconsciousness occurs . This means a person drowning is unable to shout or call for help , or seek attention , as they can not obtain enough air . The instinctive drowning response is the final set of autonomic reactions in the 20 -- 60 seconds before sinking underwater , and to the untrained eye can look similar to calm safe behavior . Lifeguards and other persons trained in rescue learn to recognize drowning people by watching for these movements . If the process is not interrupted , loss of consciousness due to hypoxia is followed rapidly by cardiac arrest . At this stage , the process is still usually reversible by prompt and effective rescue and first aid . Survival rates depend strongly on the duration of immersion .   In 2013 , there were about 1.7 million cases of drowning . Unintentional drowning is the third leading cause of unintentional injury resulting in death worldwide . In 2013 , it was estimated to have resulted in 368,000 deaths , down from 545,000 deaths in 1990 . Of these deaths , 82,000 occurred in children less than five years old . It accounts for 7 % of all injury related deaths ( excluding those due to natural disasters ) , with 91 % of these deaths occurring in low-income and middle-income countries . Drowning occurs more frequently in males and the young . The rate of drowning in populations around the world varies widely according to their access to water , the climate and the national swimming culture .  Most drownings are preventable ."}
{"_id": "Durban", "title": "Durban", "headings": "", "text": "Durban ( eThekwini , from itheku meaning `` bay/lagoon '' ) is the largest city in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal . Durban 's metropolitan municipality ranks third among the most populous urban areas in South Africa after Johannesburg and Cape Town . It is also the second most important manufacturing hub in South Africa after Johannesburg . It forms part of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality . Durban is famous for being the busiest port in South Africa . It is also seen as one of the major centres of tourism because of the city 's warm subtropical climate and extensive beaches . The municipality , which includes neighbouring towns , has a population of almost 3.5 million , making the combined municipality one of the biggest cities on the Indian Ocean coast of the African continent . It is the largest city in KwaZulu-Natal which is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa . It has the highest number of dollar millionaires added per year of any South African city with the number rising 200 per cent between 2000 and 2014 . In May 2015 , Durban was officially recognised as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan , Doha , La Paz , Havana , Beirut , and Kuala Lumpur ."}
{"_id": "Dwarf_forest", "title": "Dwarf forest", "headings": "", "text": "Dwarf forest , elfin forest , or pygmy forest is a rare ecosystem featuring miniature trees , inhabited by small species of fauna such as rodents and lizards . They are usually located at high elevations , under conditions of sufficient air humidity but poor soil . There are two main dwarf forest ecosystem types , involving different species and environmental characteristics : coastal temperate and montane tropical regions . Temperate coastal dwarf forest is common for parts of Southern California . Montane tropical forests are found across tropical highlands of Central America , northern South America and Southeast Asia . There are also other isolated examples of dwarf forests scattered across the world ."}
{"_id": "Dysentery", "title": "Dysentery", "headings": "", "text": "Dysentery is a type of gastroenteritis that results in diarrhea with blood . Other symptoms may include fever , abdominal pain , and a feeling of incomplete defecation .   It is caused by several types of infections such as bacteria , viruses , parasitic worms , or protozoa . The mechanism is an inflammatory disorder of the intestine , especially of the colon ."}
{"_id": "Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave", "title": "Early 2014 North American cold wave", "headings": "", "text": "The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March .   On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States ."}
{"_id": "Earth", "title": "Earth", "headings": "", "text": "Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets .   According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation .   Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics .   Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states ."}
{"_id": "Earth's_energy_budget", "title": "Earth's energy budget", "headings": "", "text": "Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things .   Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate .   Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable .   Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response ."}
{"_id": "Earth_Summit_2002", "title": "Earth Summit 2002", "headings": "", "text": "The World Summit on Sustainable Development , WSSD or ONG Earth Summit 2002 took place in Johannesburg , South Africa , from 26 August to 4 September 2002 . It was convened to discuss sustainable development by the United Nations . WSSD gathered a number of leaders from business and non-governmental organizations , 10 years after the first Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro . ( It was therefore also informally nicknamed `` Rio +10 '' . )"}
{"_id": "Earth_in_science_fiction", "title": "Earth in science fiction", "headings": "", "text": "An overwhelming majority of fiction is set on or features the Earth . However , authors of speculative fiction novels and writers and directors of science fiction film deal with Earth quite differently from authors of conventional fiction . Unbound from the same ties that bind authors of traditional fiction to the Earth , they can either completely ignore the Earth or use it as but one of many settings in a more complicated universe , exploring a number of common themes through examining outsiders perceptions of and interactions with Earth ."}
{"_id": "Earth_in_the_Balance", "title": "Earth in the Balance", "headings": "", "text": "Earth in the Balance : Ecology and the Human Spirit ( ISBN 0-452-26935-0 , paperback ISBN 1-85383-743-1 ) is a 1992 book written by Al Gore , published in June 1992 , shortly before he was elected Vice President in the 1992 presidential election . Known by the short title Earth in the Balance , the book explains the world 's ecological predicament and describes a range of policies to deal with the most pressing problems . It includes a proposed `` Global Marshall Plan '' to address current ecological issues .   Written while his son was recovering from a serious accident , Earth in the Balance became the first book written by a sitting U.S. Senator to make the New York Times bestseller list since John F. Kennedy 's Profiles in Courage .   In 1993 , Earth in the Balance was released in paperback and audiobook format on audio cassette tape .   It received the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights 1993 Book award given annually to a book that `` most faithfully and forcefully reflects Robert Kennedy 's purposes - his concern for the poor and the powerless , his struggle for honest and even-handed justice , his conviction that a decent society must assure all young people a fair chance , and his faith that a free democracy can act to remedy disparities of power and opportunity . ''   The book was followed by An Inconvenient Truth , a book that was the companion for a movie  narrated by Al Gore , shown at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and released on 24 May 2006 .   In the Futurama episode `` Crimes of the Hot , '' Al Gore himself references the book and its `` far more popular '' fictional future sequel , Harry Potter and the Balance of Earth ."}
{"_id": "Earth_shelter", "title": "Earth shelter", "headings": "", "text": "An earth shelter is a structure (usually a house) with earth (soil) against the walls, on the roof, or that is entirely buried underground. Earth acts as thermal mass, making it easier to maintain a steady indoor air temperature and therefore reduces energy costs for heating or cooling. Earth sheltering became relatively popular after the mid 1970s, especially among environmentalists. However, the practice has been around for nearly as long as humans have been constructing their own shelters."}
{"_id": "East_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "title": "East Antarctic Ice Sheet", "headings": "", "text": "The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally .   The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station ."}
{"_id": "East_Antarctica", "title": "East Antarctica", "headings": "", "text": "East Antarctica , also called Greater Antarctica , constitutes the majority ( two-thirds ) of the Antarctic continent , lying on the Indian Ocean side of the continent , separated from West Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains . It lies almost entirely within the Eastern Hemisphere and its name has been accepted for more than a century . It is generally higher than West Antarctica and includes the Gamburtsev Mountain Range in the centre .   Apart from small areas of the coast , East Antarctica is permanently covered by ice . The only terrestrial plant life is lichens , mosses and algae clinging to rocks , and there are a limited range of invertebrates including nematodes , springtails , mites and midges . The coasts are the breeding ground for various seabirds and penguins , and the leopard seal , Weddell seal , elephant seal , crabeater seal and Ross seal breed on the surrounding pack ice in summer ."}
{"_id": "East_Coast_of_the_United_States", "title": "East Coast of the United States", "headings": "", "text": "The East Coast of the United States is the coastline along which the Eastern United States meets the North Atlantic Ocean . This area is also known as the Eastern Seaboard , the Atlantic Coast , and the Atlantic Seaboard . The coastal states that have shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean are , from north to south , Maine , New Hampshire , Massachusetts , Rhode Island , Connecticut , Pennsylvania , New York , New Jersey , Delaware , Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , South Carolina , Georgia , and Florida ."}
{"_id": "Eastern_Time_Zone", "title": "Eastern Time Zone", "headings": "", "text": "The Eastern Time Zone ( ET ) is a time zone encompassing 17 U.S. states in the eastern part of the contiguous United States , parts of eastern Canada , the state of Quintana Roo in Mexico , Panama in Central America , and the Caribbean Islands .   Places that use Eastern Standard Time ( EST ) when observing standard time ( autumn/winter ) are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 05:00 ) .   Eastern Daylight Time ( EDT ) , when observing daylight saving time DST ( spring/summer ) is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 04:00 ) .   In the northern parts of the time zone , on the second Sunday in March , at 2:00 a.m. EST , clocks are advanced to 3:00 a.m. EDT leaving a one-hour `` gap '' . On the first Sunday in November , at 2:00 a.m. EDT , clocks are moved back to 1:00 a.m. EST , thus `` duplicating '' one hour . Southern parts of the zone ( Panama and the Caribbean ) do not observe daylight saving time ."}
{"_id": "Ecology", "title": "Ecology", "headings": "", "text": "Ecology ( from οἶκος , `` house '' , or `` environment '' ; - λογία , `` study of '' ) is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment . It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology , geography , and Earth science . Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with each other , other organisms , and with abiotic components of their environment . Topics of interest to ecologists include the diversity , distribution , amount ( biomass ) , and number ( population ) of particular organisms , as well as cooperation and competition between organisms , both within and among ecosystems . Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms , the communities they make up , and the non-living components of their environment . Ecosystem processes , such as primary production , pedogenesis , nutrient cycling , and various niche construction activities , regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment . These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits , and the variety of organisms is called biodiversity . Biodiversity , which refers to the varieties of species , genes , and ecosystems , enhances certain ecosystem services .   Ecology is not synonymous with environment , environmentalism , natural history , or environmental science . It is closely related to evolutionary biology , genetics , and ethology . An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function . Ecologists seek to explain :   Life processes , interactions , and adaptations  The movement of materials and energy through living communities  The successional development of ecosystems  The abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity in the context of the environment .   There are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology , wetland management , natural resource management ( agroecology , agriculture , forestry , agroforestry , fisheries ) , city planning ( urban ecology ) , community health , economics , basic and applied science , and human social interaction ( human ecology ) . For example , the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment ` out there ' . It is not treated as separate from humans . Organisms ( including humans ) and resources compose ecosystems which , in turn , maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living ( biotic ) and non-living ( abiotic ) components of the planet . Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and produce natural capital like biomass production ( food , fuel , fiber , and medicine ) , the regulation of climate , global biogeochemical cycles , water filtration , soil formation , erosion control , flood protection , and many other natural features of scientific , historical , economic , or intrinsic value .   The word `` ecology '' ( '' Ökologie '' ) was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel ( 1834 -- 1919 ) . Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy , particularly from ethics and politics . Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history . Modern ecology became a much more rigorous science in the late 19th century . Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory ."}
{"_id": "Econometrics", "title": "Econometrics", "headings": "", "text": "Econometrics is the application of statistical methods to economic data and is described as the branch of economics that aims to give empirical content to economic relations . More precisely , it is `` the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation , related by appropriate methods of inference . '' An introductory economics textbook describes econometrics as allowing economists `` to sift through mountains of data to extract simple relationships . '' The first known use of the term `` econometrics '' ( in cognate form ) was by Polish economist Paweł Ciompa in 1910 . Ragnar Frisch is credited with coining the term in the sense in which it is used today .   The basic tool for econometrics is the multiple linear regression model . Econometric theory uses statistical theory and mathematical statistics to evaluate and develop econometric methods . Econometricians try to find estimators that have desirable statistical properties including unbiasedness , efficiency , and consistency . Applied econometrics uses theoretical econometrics and real-world data for assessing economic theories , developing econometric models , analyzing economic history , and forecasting ."}
{"_id": "Economic_growth", "title": "Economic growth", "headings": "", "text": "Economic growth is the increase in the inflation-adjusted market value of the goods and services produced by an economy over time . It is conventionally measured as the percent rate of increase in real gross domestic product , or real GDP , usually in per capita terms .   Growth is usually calculated in real terms -- i.e. , inflation-adjusted terms -- to eliminate the distorting effect of inflation on the price of goods produced . Measurement of economic growth uses national income accounting . Since economic growth is measured as the annual percent change of gross domestic product ( GDP ) , it has all the advantages and drawbacks of that measure .   The `` rate of economic growth '' refers to the geometric annual rate of growth in GDP between the first and the last year over a period of time . Implicitly , this growth rate is the trend in the average level of GDP over the period , which implicitly ignores the fluctuations in the GDP around this trend .   An increase in economic growth caused by more efficient use of inputs ( such as labor productivity , physical capital , energy or materials ) is referred to as intensive growth . GDP growth caused only by increases in the amount of inputs available for use ( increased population , new territory ) is called extensive growth ."}
{"_id": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "title": "Economic impacts of climate change", "headings": "", "text": "This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated ."}
{"_id": "Economics", "title": "Economics", "headings": "", "text": "Economics ( UK English : -LSB- iːkəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- , -LSB- ɛkəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- US English : -LSB- ɛkəˈnɑːmɪks -RSB- , -LSB- ikəˈnɑːmɪks -RSB- ) is `` a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production , distribution , and consumption of goods and services '' .   Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work . Consistent with this focus , textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics . Microeconomics examines the behaviour of basic elements in the economy , including individual agents and markets , their interactions , and the outcomes of interactions . Individual agents may include , for example , households , firms , buyers , and sellers . Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy ( meaning aggregated production , consumption , savings , and investment ) and issues affecting it , including unemployment of resources ( labour , capital , and land ) , inflation , economic growth , and the public policies that address these issues ( monetary , fiscal , and other policies ) .   Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics , describing `` what is '' , and normative economics , advocating `` what ought to be '' ; between economic theory and applied economics ; between rational and behavioural economics ; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics .   Economic analysis can be applied throughout society , in business , finance , health care , and government . Economic analyses is sometimes also applied to such diverse subjects as crime , education , the family , law , politics , religion , social institutions , war , science , and the environment ."}
{"_id": "Economics_of_global_warming", "title": "Economics of global warming", "headings": "", "text": "The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge .   One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions .   The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial .   The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) .   One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples .   Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) ."}
{"_id": "Economy_of_Venezuela", "title": "Economy of Venezuela", "headings": "", "text": "The economy of Venezuela is largely based on the petroleum sector and manufacturing . Revenue from petroleum exports accounts for more than 50 % of the country 's GDP and roughly 95 % of total exports . Venezuela is the sixth largest member of OPEC by oil production . From the 1950s to the early 1980s the Venezuelan economy experienced a steady growth that attracted many immigrants , with the nation enjoying the highest standard of living in Latin America . During the collapse of oil prices in the 1980s the economy contracted , the monetary sign commenced a progressive devaluation , and inflation skyrocketed to reach peaks of 84 % in 1989 and 99 % in 1996 , three years prior to Hugo Chávez taking office .   Venezuela manufactures and exports heavy industry products such as steel , aluminium and cement , with production concentrated around Ciudad Guayana , near the Guri Dam , one of the largest in the world and the provider of about three-quarters of Venezuela 's electricity . Other notable manufacturing includes electronics and automobiles , as well as beverages , and foodstuffs . Agriculture in Venezuela accounts for approximately 3 % of GDP , 10 % of the labor force , and at least one-fourth of Venezuela 's land area . Venezuela exports rice , corn , fish , tropical fruit , coffee , pork , and beef . The country is not self-sufficient in most areas of agriculture .   In spite of strained relations between the two countries , the United States has been Venezuela 's most important trading partner . U.S. exports to Venezuela have included machinery , agricultural products , medical instruments , and cars . Venezuela is one of the top four suppliers of foreign oil to the United States . About 500 U.S. companies are represented in Venezuela . According to Central Bank of Venezuela , the government received from 1998 to 2008 around 325 billion USD through oil production and export in general , and according to the International Energy Agency , to August 2015 has production of 2.4 million barrels per day , 500,000 of which go to the United States of America .   Since Hugo Chávez 's `` socialist revolution '' half-dismantled its PDVSA oil giant corporation in 2002 by firing most of its 20,000-strong dissident professional human capital , and imposed stringent currency controls in 2003 in an attempt to prevent capital flight , there has been a steady decline in oil production and exports and a series of stern currency devaluations , disrupting the economy . Further yet , price controls , expropriation of numerous farmlands and various industries , among other disputable government policies including a near-total freeze on any access to foreign currency at reasonable `` official '' exchange rates , have resulted in severe shortages in Venezuela and steep price rises of all common goods , including food , water , household products , spare parts , tools and medical supplies ; forcing many manufacturers to either cut production or close down , with many ultimately abandoning the country , as has been the case with several technological firms and most automobile makers . In 2015 , Venezuela had over 100 % inflation -- the highest in the world and the highest in the country 's history at that time . The rate increased to nearly 500 % by the end of 2016 with Venezuela spiraling into hyperinflation while the population poverty rate was between 76 % to 80 % according to independent sources ."}
{"_id": "Economy_of_the_United_Kingdom", "title": "Economy of the United Kingdom", "headings": "", "text": "The United Kingdom is the fifth-largest national economy in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product ( GDP ) , ninth-largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , and nineteenth-largest in the world measured by GDP per capita , comprising 4 % of world GDP . It is the second-largest economy in the European Union by both metrics . In 2016 , the UK was 19/28 for GDP growth in Europe , with the third lowest unemployment rate .   In 2016 , the UK was the tenth-largest goods exporter in the world and the fifth-largest goods importer . In 2015 , the UK had the fourth-largest inward foreign direct investment , and in 2013 the UK had the second-largest outward foreign direct investment . It is one of the most globalised economies , and is composed of ( in descending order of size ) the economies of England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland .   The service sector dominates the UK economy , contributing around 78 % of GDP ; the financial services industry is particularly important , and London is the world 's largest international financial centre . Britain 's aerospace industry is the second - or third-largest national aerospace industry depending on the method of measurement . Its pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the economy and the UK has the third-highest share of global pharmaceutical research and development . Of the world 's 500 largest companies , 26 are headquartered in the UK . The British economy is boosted by North Sea oil and gas production ; its reserves were estimated at 2.9 billion barrels in 2015 , although it has been a net importer of oil since 2005 . There are significant regional variations in prosperity , with South East England and North East Scotland being the richest areas per capita . The size of London 's economy makes it the largest city by GDP in Europe .   In the 18th century the UK was the first country to industrialise , and during the 19th century it had a dominant role in the global economy , accounting for 9.1 % of the world 's GDP in 1870 . From the late 19th century the Second Industrial Revolution was also taking place rapidly in the United States and the German Empire ; this presented an increasing economic challenge for the UK . The costs of fighting World War I and World War II further weakened the UK 's relative position . In the 21st century , however , it remains a great power and has an influential role in the world economy .   Government involvement in the British economy is primarily exercised by Her Majesty 's Treasury , headed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer , and the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy . Since 1979 management of the economy has followed a broadly laissez-faire approach . The Bank of England is the UK 's central bank and its Monetary Policy Committee is responsible for setting interest rates , quantitative easing , and forward guidance .   The currency of the UK is the pound sterling , which is the world 's third-largest reserve currency after the United States dollar and the euro , and is also one of the ten most-valued currencies in the world .   The UK is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , the European Union ( although negotiations to leave the EU are currently taking place ) , the G7 , the G8 , the G20 , the International Monetary Fund , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe , the World Bank , the World Trade Organisation , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and the United Nations ."}
{"_id": "Economy_of_the_United_States", "title": "Economy of the United States", "headings": "", "text": "The United States is the world 's largest national economy in nominal terms and second largest according to purchasing power parity ( PPP ) , representing 22 % of nominal global GDP and 17 % of gross world product ( GWP ) . The United States ' GDP was estimated to be $ 18.56 trillion in 2016 . The U.S. dollar is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world 's foremost reserve currency , backed by its science and technology , its military , the full faith of the US government to reimburse its debts , its central role in a range of international institutions since World War II and the petrodollar system . Several countries use it as their official currency , and in many others it is the de facto currency . The United States has a mixed economy and has maintained a stable overall GDP growth rate , a moderate unemployment rate , and high levels of research and capital investment . Its seven largest trading partners are Canada , China , Mexico , Japan , Germany , South Korea , and the United Kingdom .   The US has abundant natural resources , a well-developed infrastructure , and high productivity . It has the world 's ninth-highest per capita GDP ( nominal ) and tenth-highest per capita GDP ( PPP ) as of 2013 . Americans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD nations , and in 2010 had the fourth highest median household income , down from second highest in 2007 . It has been the world 's largest national economy ( not including colonial empires ) since at least the 1890s .   The U.S. is the world 's third largest producer of oil and natural gas . It is one of the largest trading nations in the world as well as the world 's second largest manufacturer , representing a fifth of the global manufacturing output . The US not only has the largest internal market for goods , but also dominates the trade in services . US total trade amounted to $ 4.93 T in 2012 . Of the world 's 500 largest companies , 128 are headquartered in the US .   The United States has one of the world 's largest and most influential financial markets . The New York Stock Exchange is by far the world 's largest stock exchange by market capitalization . Foreign investments made in the US total almost $ 2.4 trillion , while American investments in foreign countries total over $ 3.3 trillion . The economy of the U.S. leads in international ranking on venture capital and Global Research and Development funding . Consumer spending comprises 71 % of the US economy in 2013 . The United States has the largest consumer market in the world , with a household final consumption expenditure five times larger than Japan 's . The labor market has attracted immigrants from all over the world and its net migration rate is among the highest in the world . The U.S. is one of the top-performing economies in studies such as the Ease of Doing Business Index , the Global Competitiveness Report , and others .   The US economy went through an economic downturn following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , with output as late as 2013 still below potential according to the Congressional Budget Office . The economy , however , began to recover in the second half of 2009 , and as of 2016 , unemployment had declined from a high of 10 % to 4.7 % .   In December 2014 , public debt was slightly more than 100 % of GDP . Domestic financial assets totaled $ 131 trillion and domestic financial liabilities totaled $ 106 trillion ."}
{"_id": "Ecosystem_ecology", "title": "Ecosystem ecology", "headings": "", "text": "Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of living ( biotic ) and non-living ( abiotic ) components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework . This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals , bedrock , soil , plants , and animals .   Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structures and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact with each other . Ultimately , this helps us understand how to maintain high quality water and economically viable commodity production . A major focus of ecosystem ecology is on functional processes , ecological mechanisms that maintain the structure and services produced by ecosystems . These include primary productivity ( production of biomass ) , decomposition , and trophic interactions .   Studies of ecosystem function have greatly improved human understanding of sustainable production of forage , fiber , fuel , and provision of water . Functional processes are mediated by regional-to-local level climate , disturbance , and management . Thus ecosystem ecology provides a powerful framework for identifying ecological mechanisms that interact with global environmental problems , especially global warming and degradation of surface water .   This example demonstrates several important aspects of ecosystems :  Ecosystem boundaries are often nebulous and may fluctuate in time  Organisms within ecosystems are dependent on ecosystem level biological and physical processes  Adjacent ecosystems closely interact and often are interdependent for maintenance of community structure and functional processes that maintain productivity and biodiversity   These characteristics also introduce practical problems into natural resource management . Who will manage which ecosystem ? Will timber cutting in the forest degrade recreational fishing in the stream ? These questions are difficult for land managers to address while the boundary between ecosystems remains unclear ; even though decisions in one ecosystem will affect the other . We need better understanding of the interactions and interdependencies of these ecosystems and the processes that maintain them before we can begin to address these questions .   Ecosystem ecology is an inherently interdisciplinary field of study . An individual ecosystem is composed of populations of organisms , interacting within communities , and contributing to the cycling of nutrients and the flow of energy . The ecosystem is the principal unit of study in ecosystem ecology .   Population , community , and physiological ecology provide many of the underlying biological mechanisms influencing ecosystems and the processes they maintain . Flowing of energy and cycling of matter at the ecosystem level are often examined in ecosystem ecology , but , as a whole , this science is defined more by subject matter than by scale . Ecosystem ecology approaches organisms and abiotic pools of energy and nutrients as an integrated system which distinguishes it from associated sciences such as biogeochemistry .   Biogeochemistry and hydrology focus on several fundamental ecosystem processes such as biologically mediated chemical cycling of nutrients and physical-biological cycling of water . Ecosystem ecology forms the mechanistic basis for regional or global processes encompassed by landscape-to-regional hydrology , global biogeochemistry , and earth system science ."}
{"_id": "Eemian", "title": "Eemian", "headings": "", "text": "The Eemian ( also called the last interglacial , Sangamonian , Ipswichian , Mikulin , Kaydaky , Valdivia or Riss-Würm ) was the interglacial period which began about 130,000 years ago and ended about 115,000 years ago . It corresponds to Marine Isotope Stage 5e . Although sometimes referred to as the `` last interglacial '' ( in the `` most recent previous '' sense of `` last '' ) , it was the second-to-latest interglacial period of the current Ice Age , the most recent being the Holocene which extends to the present day ( having followed the last glacial period ) . The prevailing Eemian climate is believed to have been warmer than that of the Holocene .   The Eemian is known as the Ipswichian in the UK , the Mikulin interglacial in Russia , the Valdivia interglacial in Chile and the Riss-Würm interglacial in the Alps . Depending on how a specific publication defines the Sangamonian Stage of North America , the Eemian is equivalent to either all or part of it ."}
{"_id": "Effective_temperature", "title": "Effective temperature", "headings": "", "text": "The effective temperature of a body such as a star or planet is the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation . Effective temperature is often used as an estimate of a body 's surface temperature when the body 's emissivity curve ( as a function of wavelength ) is not known .   When the star 's or planet 's net emissivity in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity ( less than that of a black body ) , the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature . The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties , including greenhouse effect ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_Hurricane_Katrina_in_New_Orleans", "title": "Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans", "headings": "", "text": "As the center of Hurricane Katrina passed southeast of New Orleans on August 29 , 2005 , winds downtown were in the Category 1 range with frequent intense gusts and tidal surge . Hurricane-force winds were experienced throughout the city , although the most severe portion of Katrina missed the city , hitting nearby St. Bernard and Plaquemines parishes . Hurricane Katrina made its final landfall in eastern St. Tammany Parish . The western eye wall passed directly over St. Tammany Parish , Louisiana as a Category 3 hurricane at about 9:45 am CST , August 29 , 2005 . The communities of Slidell , Avery Estates , Lakeshore Estates , Oak Harbor , Eden Isles and Northshore Beach were inundated by the storm surge that extended over six miles inland . The storm surge affected all 57 miles of St. Tammany Parish 's coastline , including Lacombe , Mandeville and Madisonville . The storm surge in the area of the Rigolets Pass was estimated to be 16 feet , not including wave action , declining to 7 ft at Madisonville . The surge had a second peak in eastern St. Tammany as the westerly winds from the southern eye wall pushed the surge to the east , backing up at the bottleneck of the Rigolets Pass .   In the City of New Orleans , the storm surge caused approximately 23 breaches in drainage canal and navigational canal levees and floodwalls . The failures of structures are considered by experts to be the worst engineering disaster in the history of the United States . By August 31 , 2005 , 80 % of New Orleans was flooded , with some parts under 15 ft of water . The famous French Quarter and Garden District escaped flooding because those areas are above sea level . Responsibility for the performance of the city 's levees belongs to the United States Army Corps of Engineers . The major breaches included the 17th Street Canal levee , the Industrial Canal levee , and the London Avenue Canal floodwall . These breaches caused the majority of the flooding , according to a June 2007 report by the American Society of Civil Engineers . The flood disaster halted oil production and refining which increased oil prices worldwide .   Between 80 and 90 percent of the residents of New Orleans were evacuated before the hurricane struck , testifying to some of the success of the evacuation measures . Despite this , many remained in the city , mainly those who did not have access to personal vehicles or who were isolated from the dissemination of news from the local governments . The Louisiana Superdome was used to house and support some of those who were unable to evacuate . Television shots frequently focused on the Superdome as a symbol of the flooding occurring in New Orleans .   The disaster had major implications for a large segment of the population , economy , and politics of the entire United States . It has prompted a Congressional review of the Army Corps of Engineers and the failure of portions of the federally built flood protection system which experts agree should have protected the city 's inhabitants from Katrina 's surge . Katrina has also stimulated significant research in the academic community into urban planning , real estate finance , and economic issues in the wake of a natural disaster ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity", "title": "Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity", "headings": "", "text": "Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and distribution of plants , in combination with other factors . Changes in long term environmental conditions that can be collectively coined climate change are known to have had enormous impacts on current plant diversity patterns ; further impacts are expected in the future . It is predicted that climate change will remain one of the major drivers of biodiversity patterns in the future ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "title": "Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles .   Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) .   Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction .   Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) .   Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) .   One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_global_warming", "title": "Effects of global warming", "headings": "", "text": "The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity .   Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option .   Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health", "title": "Effects of global warming on human health", "headings": "", "text": "The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "title": "Effects of global warming on humans", "headings": "", "text": "Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate .   To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative .   The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries ."}
{"_id": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_oceans", "title": "Effects of global warming on oceans", "headings": "", "text": "Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society ."}
{"_id": "Efficient_energy_use", "title": "Efficient energy use", "headings": "", "text": "Efficient energy use , sometimes simply called energy efficiency , is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services . For example , insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature . Installing fluorescent lights , LED lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared with using traditional incandescent light bulbs . Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process or by application of commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses .   There are many motivations to improve energy efficiency . Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset any additional costs of implementing an energy efficient technology . Reducing energy use is also seen as a solution to the problem of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . According to the International Energy Agency , improved energy efficiency in buildings , industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world 's energy needs in 2050 by one third , and help control global emissions of greenhouse gases .   Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy and are high priorities in the sustainable energy hierarchy . In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted ."}
{"_id": "Effigy_Mounds_National_Monument", "title": "Effigy Mounds National Monument", "headings": "", "text": "Effigy Mounds National Monument preserves more than 200 prehistoric mounds built by Native Americans . Numerous effigy mounds are shaped like animals , including bears and birds . These were built mostly in the first millennium , by peoples of the Woodland Culture . As of 2017 , they have been featured on the US quarter .   The monument is located primarily in Allamakee County , with a small part in Clayton County , Iowa , in the midwestern United States . The park 's visitor center is located in Harpers Ferry , Iowa , just north of Marquette ."}
{"_id": "El_Niño", "title": "El Niño", "headings": "", "text": "El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall .   Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' ."}
{"_id": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "title": "El Niño–Southern Oscillation", "headings": "", "text": "El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity .   The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling .   Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected ."}
{"_id": "El_Salvador", "title": "El Salvador", "headings": "", "text": "El Salvador ( -LSB- ɛl_ˈsælvədɔr -RSB- -LSB- el salβaˈðor -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of El Salvador ( -LSB- República de El Salvador , links = no -RSB- , literally `` Republic of The Savior '' ) , is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America . El Salvador 's capital and largest city is San Salvador . , the country had a population of approximately 6.38 million , consisting largely of Mestizos of European and Indigenous American descent .   El Salvador was for centuries inhabited by several Mesoamerican nations , especially the Cuzcatlecs , as well as the Lenca and Maya . In the early 16th century , the Spanish Empire conquered the territory , incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City . In 1821 , the country achieved independence from Spain as part of the First Mexican Empire , only to further secede as part of the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823 . Upon the republic 's dissolution in 1841 , El Salvador became sovereign until forming a short-lived union with Honduras and Nicaragua called the Greater Republic of Central America , which lasted from 1895 to 1898 .   From the late 19th to the mid-20th century , El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups , revolts , and a succession of authoritarian rulers . Persistent socioeconomic inequality and civil unrest culminated in the devastating Salvadoran Civil War ( 1979 -- 1992 ) , which was fought between the military-led government and a coalition of left-wing guerrilla groups . The conflict ended with a negotiated settlement that established a multiparty constitutional republic , which remains in place to this day .   El Salvador 's economy was historically dominated by agriculture , beginning with the indigo plant ( añil '' in Spanish ) , the most important crop during the colonial period , and followed thereafter by coffee , which by the early 20th century accounted for 90 percent of export earnings . El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying the economy by opening up trade and financial links and expanding the manufacturing sector . The colón , the official currency of El Salvador since 1892 , was replaced by the U.S. dollar in 2001 .   , El Salvador ranks 12th among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index and fourth in Central America ( behind Panama , Costa Rica , and Belize ) due in part to ongoing rapid industrialisation . However , the country continues to struggle with high rates of poverty , inequality , and crime ."}
{"_id": "Electric_vehicle", "title": "Electric vehicle", "headings": "", "text": "An electric vehicle , also called an electric drive vehicle , uses one or more electric motors or traction motors for propulsion . An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system by electricity from off-vehicle sources , or may be self-contained with a battery , solar panels or a generator to convert fuel to electricity . EVs include road and rail vehicles , surface and underwater vessels , electric aircraft and electric spacecraft .   EVs first came into existence in the mid-19th century , when electricity was among the preferred methods for motor vehicle propulsion , providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time . The internal combustion engine has been the dominant propulsion method for motor vehicles for almost 100 years , but electric power has remained commonplace in other vehicle types , such as trains and smaller vehicles of all types .   In the 21st century , EVs saw a resurgence due to technological developments and an increased focus on renewable energy . Government incentives to increase adoptions were introduced , including in the United States and the European Union ."}
{"_id": "Electrical_grid", "title": "Electrical grid", "headings": "", "text": "An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from producers to consumers . It consists of generating stations that produce electrical power , high voltage transmission lines that carry power from distant sources to demand centers , and distribution lines that connect individual customers .   Power stations may be located near a fuel source , at a dam site , or to take advantage of renewable energy sources , and are often located away from heavily populated areas . They are usually quite large to take advantage of the economies of scale . The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a higher voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network .   The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances , sometimes across international boundaries , until it reaches its wholesale customer ( usually the company that owns the local electric power distribution network ) .   On arrival at a substation , the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage . As it exits the substation , it enters the distribution wiring . Finally , upon arrival at the service location , the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage ( s ) .   Electrical grids vary in size from covering a single building through national grids which cover whole countries , to transnational grids which can cross continents ."}
{"_id": "Electricity_generation", "title": "Electricity generation", "headings": "", "text": "Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary energy . For electric utilities , it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers . The other processes as transmission , distribution , energy storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry . Electricity is most often generated at a power station by electromechanical generators , primarily driven by heat engines fuelled by combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind . Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power ."}
{"_id": "Electricity_sector_in_Argentina", "title": "Electricity sector in Argentina", "headings": "", "text": "The electricity sector in Argentina constitutes the third largest power market in Latin America . It relies mostly on thermal generation ( 60 % of installed capacity ) and hydropower generation ( 36 % ) . The country still has a large untapped hydroelectric potential . The prevailing natural gas-fired thermal generation is at risk due to the uncertainty about future gas supply .   Faced with rising electricity demand ( over 6 % annually ) and declining reserve margins , the government of Argentina is in the process of commissioning large projects , both in the generation and transmission sectors . To keep up with rising demand , it is estimated that about 1,000 MW of new generation capacity are needed each year . An important number of these projects are being financed by the government through trust funds , while independent private initiative is still limited as it has not fully recovered yet from the effects of the Argentine economic crisis .   The electricity sector was unbundled in generation , transmission and distribution by the reforms carried out in the early 1990s . Generation occurs in a competitive and mostly liberalized market in which 75 % of the generation capacity is owned by private utilities . In contrast , the transmission and distribution sectors are highly regulated and much less competitive than generation ."}
{"_id": "Electromagnetic_radiation", "title": "Electromagnetic radiation", "headings": "", "text": "In physics , electromagnetic radiation ( EM radiation or EMR ) refers to the waves ( or their quanta , photons ) of the electromagnetic field , propagating ( radiating ) through space carrying electromagnetic radiant energy . It includes radio waves , microwaves , infrared , ( visible ) light , ultraviolet , X - , and gamma radiation .   Classically , electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves , which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum . The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation , forming a transverse wave . The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source ( such as a lightbulb ) is a sphere . The position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum could be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength . The electromagnetic spectrum includes , in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength : radio waves , microwaves , infrared radiation , visible light , ultraviolet radiation , X-rays and gamma rays .   Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated , and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles . EM waves carry energy , momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to matter with which they interact . Quanta of EM waves are called photons , whose rest mass is zero , but whose energy , or equivalent total ( relativistic ) mass , is not zero so they are still affected by gravity . Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ( `` radiate '' ) without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them , because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges . Thus , EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field . In this language , the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them , specifically , electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena .   In the quantum theory of electromagnetism , EMR consists of photons , the elementary particles responsible for all electromagnetic interactions . Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR , such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation . The energy of an individual photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency . This relationship is given by Planck 's equation E = hν , where E is the energy per photon , ν is the frequency of the photon , and h is Planck 's constant . A single gamma ray photon , for example , might carry ~ 100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light .   The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation 's power and its frequency . EMR of visible or lower frequencies ( i.e. , visible light , infrared , microwaves , and radio waves ) is called non-ionizing radiation , because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules . The effects of these radiations on chemical systems and living tissue are caused primarily by heating effects from the combined energy transfer of many photons . In contrast , high ultraviolet , X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation since individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds . These radiations have the ability to cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond that resulting from simple heating , and can be a health hazard ."}
{"_id": "Electronic_keyboard", "title": "Electronic keyboard", "headings": "", "text": "An electronic keyboard or digital keyboard is an electronic musical instrument , an electronic or digital derivative of keyboard instruments .  Broadly speaking , in a popular music context , the term electronic keyboard or just a keyboard mostly refers to any type of digital or electronic keyboard instrument . These include synthesizers , digital pianos , stage pianos , electronic organs and digital audio workstations . However , in true musical terminology , an electronic keyboard is an inexpensive synthesizer equipped with built-in power amplifier and small loudspeakers .   Electronic keyboards are capable of recreating a wide range of instrument sounds ( piano , electric piano , Hammond organ , pipe organ , violin , etc. ) with less complex sound synthesis . Electronic keyboards are usually dedicated for home users , beginners and other non-professional users . They typically have unweighted keys . The least expensive models do not have velocity-sensitive keys ; but mid - to high-priced models do have these feature . Home keyboards typically have little if any sound editing capacity . The user typically selects from a range of preset `` voices '' or sounds , which include imitations of many instruments and some electronic synthesizer sounds . Home keyboards have a much lower cost than professional synthesizers . Casio and Yamaha are among the leading manufacturers of home keyboards ."}
{"_id": "Emergency_management", "title": "Emergency management", "headings": "", "text": "-RCB- -RCB-  Disaster management ( or emergency management ) can be defined as the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies in particular preparedness , response and recovery in order to reduce the impact of disasters ."}
{"_id": "Emissions_trading", "title": "Emissions trading", "headings": "", "text": "Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change .   A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets .   In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth .   There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides ."}
{"_id": "Energy_in_South_Australia", "title": "Energy in South Australia", "headings": "", "text": "South Australia is rich in energy resources . It contains significant reserves of fossil fuels such as natural gas , coal , and oil -- although there are incentives to phase these out in favour of clean energy . The state also contains large amounts of uranium , including the world 's single biggest deposit at Olympic Dam , which represents 30 % of the world 's total resource .   More recently , the State has seen a rapid increase in investment in renewable energy , and is now the leading producer of wind power in Australia . South Australia has been noted for the availability of hot rocks suitable for geothermal electricity generation . The South Australian Government has released plans to make South Australia a green energy hub for Australia 's eastern seaboard ."}
{"_id": "Energy_industry", "title": "Energy industry", "headings": "", "text": "The energy industry is the totality of all of the industries involved in the production and sale of energy , including fuel extraction , manufacturing , refining and distribution . Modern society consumes large amounts of fuel , and the energy industry is a crucial part of the infrastructure and maintenance of society in almost all countries .   In particular , the energy industry comprises :  the petroleum industry , including oil companies , petroleum refiners , fuel transport and end-user sales at gas stations  the gas industry , including natural gas extraction , and coal gas manufacture , as well as distribution and sales  the electrical power industry , including electricity generation , electric power distribution and sales  the coal industry  the nuclear power industry  the renewable energy industry , comprising alternative energy and sustainable energy companies , including those involved in hydroelectric power , wind power , and solar power generation , and the manufacture , distribution and sale of alternative fuels  traditional energy industry based on the collection and distribution of firewood , the use of which , for cooking and heating , is particularly common in poorer countries"}
{"_id": "Energy_policy_of_China", "title": "Energy policy of China", "headings": "", "text": "The energy policy of China is a policy decided on by the Central Government with regard to energy and energy resources . Ensuring adequate energy supply to sustain economic growth has been a core concern of the Chinese government since 1949 . The country is currently the world 's largest emitter of greenhouse gases according to a Dutch research agency . However , China 's per capita emissions are still far behind the developed countries . In addition , China is the world 's leading renewable energy producer .   From 2010 to 2015 China reduced energy consumption per unit of GDP by 18 % , and CO2 emissions per unit of GDP by 20 % .   Primary energy use in China was 26,250 TWh and 20 TWh per million persons in 2009 . According to IEA the primary energy use grew 40 % and electricity use 70 % from 2004 to 2009 . The energy import was three times bigger in 2009 compared to 2004 . The share of energy import of the primary energy use was 12 % in 2009 . The CO2 emissions growth in five years ( 2004-2009 ) was 44 % ."}
{"_id": "Energy_policy_of_India", "title": "Energy policy of India", "headings": "", "text": "The energy policy of India is largely defined by the country 's expanding energy deficit and increased focus on developing alternative sources of energy , particularly nuclear , solar and wind energy . India ranks 81 position in overall energy self sufficiency at 66 % in 2014 .   The primary energy consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.3 % global share in 2015 . The total primary energy consumption from crude oil ( 195.5 Mtoe ; 27.91 % ) , natural gas ( 45.5 Mtoe ; 6.50 % ) , coal ( 407.2 Mtoe ; 58.13 % ) , nuclear energy ( 8.6 Mtoe ; 1.23 % ) , hydro electricity ( 28.1 Mtoe ; 4.01 % ) and renewable power ( 15.5 Mtoe ; 2.21 % ) is 700.5 Mtoe ( excluding traditional biomass use ) in 2015 . In 2013 , India 's net imports are nearly 144.3 million tons of crude oil , 16 Mtoe of LNG and 95 Mtoe coal totalling to 255.3 Mtoe of primary energy which is equal to 42.9 % of total primary energy consumption . About 70 % of India 's electricity generation capacity is from fossil fuels . India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its energy demands -- by 2030 , India 's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53 % of the country 's total energy consumption . In 2009-10 , the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of crude oil which amounts to 80 % of its domestic crude oil consumption and 31 % of the country 's total imports are oil imports . By the end of calendar year 2015 , India has become a power surplus country with huge power generation capacity idling for want of electricity demand . India ranks second after China in renewables production with 208.7 Mtoe in 2014 .   In 2015-16 , the per-capita energy consumption is 22.042 Giga Joules ( 0.527 Mtoe ) excluding traditional biomass use and the energy intensity of the Indian economy is 0.271 Mega Joules per INR ( 65 kcal/INR ) . Due to rapid economic expansion , India has one of the world 's fastest growing energy markets and is expected to be the second-largest contributor to the increase in global energy demand by 2035 , accounting for 18 % of the rise in global energy consumption . Given India 's growing energy demands and limited domestic fossil fuel reserves , the country has ambitious plans to expand its renewable and most worked out nuclear power programme . India has the world 's fifth largest wind power market and also plans to add about 100,000 MW of solar power capacity by 2020 . India also envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 4.2 % to 9 % within 25 years . The country has five nuclear reactors under construction ( third highest in the world ) and plans to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors ( second highest in the world ) by 2025 ."}
{"_id": "Energy_policy_of_the_European_Union", "title": "Energy policy of the European Union", "headings": "", "text": "Although the European Union has legislated in the area of energy policy for many years , the concept of introducing a mandatory and comprehensive European Union energy policy was only approved at the meeting of the informal European Council on 27 October 2005 at Hampton Court . The EU Treaty of Lisbon of 2007 legally includes solidarity in matters of energy supply and changes to the energy policy within the EU . Prior to the Treaty of Lisbon , EU energy legislation has been based on the EU authority in the area of the common market and environment . However , in practice many policy competencies in relation to energy remain at national member state level , and progress in policy at European level requires voluntary cooperation by members states .   In 2007 , the EU was importing 82 % of its oil and 57 % of its gas , which then made it the world 's leading importer of these fuels . Only 3 % of the uranium used in European nuclear reactors was mined in Europe . Russia , Canada , Australia , Niger and Kazakhstan were the five largest suppliers of nuclear materials to the EU , supplying more than 75 % of the total needs in 2009 . In 2015 , the EU imports 53 % of the energy it consumes .  In January 2014 , the EU agreed to a 40 % emissions reduction by 2030 , compared to 1990 levels , and a 27 % renewable energy target . The target is the most ambitious of any region in the world , and is expected to provide 70,000 full-time jobs and cut $ 33bn in fossil fuel imports .   In 2015 , the Framework Strategy for Energy Union is launched as one of the European Commission 's 10 Priorities ."}
{"_id": "Energy_policy_of_the_United_States", "title": "Energy policy of the United States", "headings": "", "text": "The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal , state , and local entities in the United States , which address issues of energy production , distribution , and consumption , such as building codes and gas mileage standards . Energy policy may include legislation , international treaties , subsidies and incentives to investment , guidelines for energy conservation , taxation and other public policy techniques .   Several mandates have been proposed over the years , such as gasoline will never exceed $ 1.00 / gallon ( Nixon ) , and the United States will never again import as much oil as it did in 1977 ( Carter ) , but no comprehensive long-term energy policy has been proposed , although there has been concern over this failure . Three Energy Policy Acts have been passed , in 1992 , 2005 , and 2007 , which include many provisions for conservation , such as the Energy Star program , and energy development , with grants and tax incentives for both renewable energy and non-renewable energy .   There is also criticism that federal energy policies since the 1973 oil crisis have been dominated by crisis-mentality thinking , promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities . Instead of providing stable rules that support basic research while leaving plenty of scope for American entrepreneurship and innovation , congresses and presidents have repeatedly backed policies which promise solutions that are politically expedient , but whose prospects are doubtful , without adequate consideration of the dollar costs , environmental costs , or national security costs of their actions .   State-specific energy-efficiency incentive programs also play a significant role in the overall energy policy of the United States .  The United States refused to endorse the Kyoto Protocol , preferring to let the market drive CO2 reductions to mitigate global warming , which will require CO2 emission taxation . The administration of Barack Obama has proposed an aggressive energy policy reform , including the need for a reduction of CO2 emissions , with a cap and trade program , which could help encourage more clean renewable , sustainable energy development . Thanks to new technologies such as fracking , the United States has in 2014 resumed its former role as the top oil producer in the world ."}
{"_id": "Energy_subsidy", "title": "Energy subsidy", "headings": "", "text": "Energy subsidies are measures that keep prices for consumers below market levels or for producers above market levels, or reduce costs for consumers and producers. Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to producers, consumers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such as tax exemptions and rebates, price controls, trade restrictions, and limits on market access.  Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would greatly reduce global carbon emissions and would reduce the health risks of air pollution."}
{"_id": "Engine", "title": "Engine", "headings": "", "text": "An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy . Heat engines burn a fuel to create heat , which is then used to create a force . Electric motors convert electrical energy into mechanical motion ; pneumatic motors use compressed air and clockwork motors in wind-up toys use elastic energy . In biological systems , molecular motors , like myosins in muscles , use chemical energy to create forces and eventually motion ."}
{"_id": "Ensemble_forecasting", "title": "Ensemble forecasting", "headings": "", "text": "Ensemble forecasting is a method used in numerical weather prediction . Instead of making a single forecast of the most likely weather , a set ( or ensemble ) of forecasts are produced . This set of forecasts aims to give an indication of the range of possible future states of the atmosphere . Ensemble forecasting is a form of Monte Carlo analysis . The multiple simulations are conducted to account for the two usual sources of uncertainty in forecast models : ( 1 ) the errors introduced by the use of imperfect initial conditions , amplified by the chaotic nature of the evolution equations of the atmosphere , this is often referred to as sensitive dependence on the initial conditions ; and ( 2 ) errors introduced because of imperfections in the model formulation , such as the approximate mathematical methods to solve the equations . Ideally , the verified future atmospheric state should fall within the predicted ensemble spread , and the amount of spread should be related to the uncertainty ( error ) of the forecast . In general , this approach can be used to make probabilistic forecasts of any dynamical system , and not just for weather prediction .   Today ensemble predictions are commonly made at most of the major operational weather prediction facilities worldwide , including :  National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP of the US )  European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF )  United Kingdom Met Office  Météo-France  Environment Canada  Japan Meteorological Agency  Bureau of Meteorology ( Australia )  China Meteorological Administration ( CMA )  Korea Meteorological Administration  CPTEC ( Brazil )  Experimental ensemble forecasts are made at a number of universities , such as the University of Washington , and ensemble forecasts in the US are also generated by the US Navy and Air Force . There are various ways of viewing the data such as spaghetti plots , ensemble means or Postage Stamps where a number of different results from the models run can be compared ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_degradation", "title": "Environmental degradation", "headings": "", "text": "Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air , water and soil ; the destruction of ecosystems ; habitat destruction ; the extinction of wildlife ; and pollution . It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable . As indicated by the I = PAT equation , environmental impact ( I ) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and increasing human population ( P ) , continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence ( A ) , and the application of resource depleting and polluting technology ( T ) .   Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the High-level Panel on Threats , Challenges and Change of the United Nations . The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as `` The reduction of the  capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives , and needs '' . Environmental degradation is of many types . When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted , the environment is degraded . Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_economics", "title": "Environmental economics", "headings": "", "text": "Environmental economics is a sub-field of economics that is concerned with environmental issues . Quoting from the National Bureau of Economic Research Environmental Economics program :   -LSB- ... -RSB- Environmental Economics -LSB- ... -RSB- undertakes theoretical or empirical studies of the economic effects of national or local environmental policies around the world -LSB- ... -RSB- . Particular issues include the costs and benefits of alternative environmental policies to deal with air pollution , water quality , toxic substances , solid waste , and global warming .   Environmental economics is distinguished from ecological economics in that ecological economics emphasizes the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem with its focus upon preserving natural capital . One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought , with ecological economists emphasizing `` strong '' sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can be substituted by human-made capital ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "title": "Environmental impact of aviation", "headings": "", "text": "The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere .   Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 .   Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less .   There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation_in_the_United_Kingdom", "title": "Environmental impact of aviation in the United Kingdom", "headings": "", "text": "The environmental impact of aviation in the United Kingdom is increasing due to the increasing demand for air travel in the country . In the past 25 years the UK air transport industry has seen sustained growth , and the demand for passenger air travel in particular is forecast to increase more than twofold , to 465 million passengers , by 2030 . Two airports ; London Heathrow Airport and London Gatwick Airport , are amongst the top ten busiest airports in the world for international passenger traffic . Whilst more than half of all passengers travelling by air in the UK currently travel via the five London area airports , regional airports have experienced the most growth in recent years , due to the success of ` no-frills ' airlines over the last decade .   The ability of the existing airport infrastructure to meet forecast demand is limited , and government policy published in 2003 supports the development of additional airport capacity by 2030 to address this . The strategy is generally based on making the best use of existing facilities , although an additional five new runways nationwide are considered to be necessary , three of them at the London airports of Stansted , Heathrow and , towards the end of the timeframe involved , Gatwick . This policy is designed to be a balanced and measured approach to the future of the air transport industry ; one that recognises both an economic advantage in providing for growth in demand for air travel and also the need to address the consequent environmental impacts . The strategy has been criticised by the House of Commons Environmental Audit Select Committee , by environmentalist and campaign groups , and in research papers , for implementing a predict and provide model that overstates the economic advantages whilst paying insufficient heed to the environmental consequences .   Support for airport expansion is based on an economic case that regards the air transport industry not only as an important industry in its own right , but also as a facilitator of growth for the economy as a whole . One study predicts that the government 's strategy will realise an additional # 13 billion per annum in Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) by 2030 . Another study which is critical of the government approach , and which favours addressing environmental impacts through increased taxation of air transport , indicates a negative economic benefit resulting from airport expansion . In 2006 the industry was responsible for over 6 per cent of all UK carbon emissions , a figure that is set to rise as demand increases . Under current strategies of emissions reduction and growth in air transport , air travel in the UK could account for up to 50 per cent of the UK carbon budget by 2050 . Industry attempts to address this issue are longer term efforts based on technological and operational improvements , whilst government policy is based on the inclusion of air transport within emissions trading schemes . Critics advocate a shift in government policy to address environmental impacts by constraining the growth in demand for air travel , primarily through the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively . Local environmental issues include noise and air quality , and the impact of these , particularly in the case of the former , is subject to debate . Government policy generally is that these are local issues best addressed locally , and has introduced legislation designed to facilitate this ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry", "title": "Environmental impact of the coal industry", "headings": "", "text": "The environmental impact of the coal industry includes issues such as land use , waste management , water and air pollution , caused by the coal mining , processing and the use of its products . In addition to atmospheric pollution , coal burning produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually , including fly ash , bottom ash , and flue-gas desulfurization sludge , that contain mercury , uranium , thorium , arsenic , and other heavy metals .   There are severe health effects caused by burning coal . According to a report by the World Health Organization in 2008 , coal particulates pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide . A 2004 study commissioned by environmental groups , but contested by the US EPA , concluded that coal burning costs 24,000 lives a year in the United States .   Historically , coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the United States , an average of 26 coal miners per year died in the decade 2005-2014 ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_impact_of_wind_power", "title": "Environmental impact of wind power", "headings": "", "text": "The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed .   While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use .   Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible .  From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases .  Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine .   Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts .   There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_issues_in_Thailand", "title": "Environmental issues in Thailand", "headings": "", "text": "Thailand introduced its Seventh Economic and Social Development Plan ( 1992 -- 1996 ) , declaring that protecting the environment was a top priority of the Thai government . The plan sought to achieve sustainable growth and stability , especially in the petrochemical , engineering , electronics , and basic industries .   Thailand 's dramatic economic growth has caused numerous environmental issues . The country faces problems with air and water pollution , declining wildlife populations , deforestation , soil erosion , water scarcity , and waste issues . According to a 2004 indicator , the cost of air and water pollution for the country scales up to approximately 1.6 -- 2.6 percent of GDP per year . As such , Thailand 's economic growth has come at great cost in damage to its people and environment ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_issues_in_the_Philippines", "title": "Environmental issues in the Philippines", "headings": "", "text": "The Environment of Philippines is prone to natural disasters , particularly typhoons , floods , landslides , volcanic eruptions , earthquakes , and tsunamis , lying as it does astride the typhoon belt , in the active volcanic region known as the Pacific Ring of Fire , and in the geologically unstable region between the Pacific and Eurasian tectonic plates .   The Philippines also suffers major human-caused environmental degradation aggravated by a high annual population growth rate , including loss of agricultural lands , deforestation , soil erosion , air and water pollution , improper disposal of solid and toxic wastes , loss of coral reefs , mismanagement and abuse of coastal resources , and overfishing ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_policy_of_the_Donald_Trump_administration", "title": "Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration", "headings": "", "text": "The environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration represents a shift from the policy priorities and goals of his predecessor , Barack Obama . During the campaign Trump often described environmental regulations as an impediment to business . He promised to roll back many regulations and end a moratorium on the leasing of federal coal reserves .   Immediately upon his inauguration , the White House released an `` America First Energy Plan '' , which focused on fossil fuels and did not mention renewable energy . The plan would repeal many Obama policies including the Climate Action Plan and the Waters of the U.S. rule , and limit the Environmental Protection Agency 's mission to protecting air and water quality . Within days of taking office he signed executive orders to approve two controversial pipelines and to require federal review of the Clean Water Rule and the Clean Power Plan . He also invited American manufacturers to suggest what regulations should be eliminated ; industry leaders submitted 168 comments , of which nearly half targeted Environmental Protection Agency rules . In March 2017 he released a proposed 2018 budget which would cut funding for the EPA by 31 % . In May 2017 Congress approved a budget for the balance of the 2017-18 year which cuts the EPA 's funding by 1 % and eliminates no jobs .   Trump 's appointments to key agencies dealing in energy and environmental policy reflected his commitment to deregulation , particularly of the fossil fuel industry . Several of his cabinet picks , such as Rick Perry as Secretary of Energy and Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency , were of people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named to head ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_sociology", "title": "Environmental sociology", "headings": "", "text": "Environmental sociology is typically defined as the sociological study of societal-environmental interactions , although this definition immediately presents the problem of integrating human cultures with the rest of the environment . Although the focus of the field is the relationship between society and environment in general , environmental sociologists typically place special emphasis on studying the social factors that cause environmental problems , the societal impacts of those problems , and efforts to solve the problems . In addition , considerable attention is paid to the social processes by which certain environmental conditions become socially defined as problems .   Although there was sometimes acrimonious debate between the constructivist and realist `` camps '' within environmental sociology in the 1990s , the two sides have found considerable common ground as both increasingly accept that while most environmental problems have a material reality they nonetheless become known only via human processes such as scientific knowledge , activists ' efforts , and media attention . In other words , most environmental problems have a real ontological status despite our knowledge/awareness of them stemming from social processes , processes by which various conditions are constructed as problems by scientists , activists , media and other social actors . Correspondingly , environmental problems must all be understood via social processes , despite any material basis they may have external to humans . This interactiveness is now broadly accepted , but many aspects of the debate continue in contemporary research in the field ."}
{"_id": "Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef", "title": "Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef", "headings": "", "text": "The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park .   According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude .   The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue .   In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation ."}
{"_id": "Eocene", "title": "Eocene", "headings": "", "text": "The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain .   The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch ."}
{"_id": "Equator", "title": "Equator", "headings": "", "text": "An equator is the intersection of the surface of a rotating spheroid ( such as a planet ) with the plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation and midway between its poles .  On Earth , the Equator is an imaginary line on the surface , equidistant from the North and South Poles , dividing the Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres . It is about 40,075 km long , of which 78.7 % lies across water and 21.3 % over land ."}
{"_id": "Ethiopia", "title": "Ethiopia", "headings": "", "text": "Ethiopia ( -LSB- ˌiːθiˈoʊpiə -RSB- ኢትዮጵያ , , ) , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia ( የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ ዲሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ , yeʾĪtiyoṗṗya Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīk ) , is a country located in the Horn of Africa . It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast , Djibouti and Somalia to the east , Sudan and South Sudan to the west , and Kenya to the south . With over 100 million inhabitants , Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world , as well as the second-most populous nation on the African continent after Nigeria . It occupies a total area of 1,100,000 km2 , and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa .   Some of the oldest evidence for anatomically modern humans has been found in Ethiopia . It is widely considered as the region from which modern humans first set out for the Middle East and places beyond . According to linguists , the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era . Tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC , Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history . During the first centuries AD , the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region , followed by the Ethiopian Empire circa 1137 . Ethiopia derived prestige with its uniquely successful military resistance during the late 19th-century Scramble for Africa , becoming the only African country to defeat a European colonial power and retain its sovereignty . Subsequently , many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopia 's flag following their independence . It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations and the United Nations . In 1974 , at the end of Haile Selassie 's reign , power fell to a communist military dictatorship known as the Derg , backed by the Soviet Union , until it was defeated by the Ethiopian People 's Revolutionary Democratic Front , which has ruled since about the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 .   Ethiopia 's ancient Ge'ez script , also known as Ethiopic , is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world . The Ethiopian calendar , which is approximately seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar , co-exists alongside the Borana calendar . A majority of the population adheres to Christianity ( mainly the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and P'ent ` ay ) , while around a third follows Islam ( primarily Sunni Islam ) . The country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash . A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews , known as Bete Israel , resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s , but most of them have since emigrated to Israel . Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups , the four largest of which are the Oromiffa , Amhara , Somali , and Tigrayans . Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches . Additionally , Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions . Nilo-Saharan languages are also spoken by the nation 's Nilotic ethnic minorities .   Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa ( which was one of the 14 provinces in the old Ethiopian administration ) . It is a land of natural contrasts , with its vast fertile West , jungles , and numerous rivers , and the world 's hottest settlement of Dallol in its north . The Ethiopian Highlands are Africa 's largest continuous mountain ranges , and Sof Omar Caves contain Africa 's largest cave . Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa .   Ethiopia is one of the founding members of the UN , the Group of 24 ( G-24 ) , the Non-Aligned Movement , G-77 and the Organisation of African Unity . Ethiopia 's capital city Addis Ababa serves as the headquarters of the African Union , the Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry , the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa , African Aviation Training HQ , the African Standby Force , and many of the global NGOs focused on Africa . In the 1970s and 1980s , Ethiopia suffered from civil wars and communist purges which devastated its economy . The country has begun to recover recently however , and now has the largest economy ( by GDP ) in East Africa and Central Africa . According to Global Fire Power , Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world , and the third most powerful in Africa ."}
{"_id": "Europa_(moon)", "title": "Europa (moon)", "headings": "", "text": "Europa -LSB- jʊˈroʊpə -RSB- ( Jupiter II ) , is the smallest of the four Galilean moons orbiting Jupiter , and the sixth-closest to the planet . It is also the sixth-largest moon in the Solar System . Europa was discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and was named after Europa , the legendary mother of King Minos of Crete and lover of Zeus ( the Greek equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter ) .   Slightly smaller than Earth 's Moon , Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and has a water-ice crust and probably an iron -- nickel core . It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen . Its surface is striated by cracks and streaks , whereas craters are relatively rare . In addition to Earth-bound telescope observations , Europa has been examined by a succession of space probe flybys , the first occurring in the early 1970s .   Europa has the smoothest surface of any known solid object in the Solar System . The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it , which could conceivably harbor extraterrestrial life . The predominant model suggests that heat from tidal flexing causes the ocean to remain liquid and drives ice movement similar to plate tectonics , absorbing chemicals from the surface into the ocean below . Sea salt from a subsurface ocean may be coating some geological features on Europa , suggesting that the ocean is interacting with the seafloor . This may be important in determining if Europa could be habitable . In addition , the Hubble Space Telescope detected water vapor plumes similar to those observed on Saturn 's moon Enceladus , which are thought to be caused by erupting cryogeysers .   The Galileo mission , launched in 1989 , provides the bulk of current data on Europa . No spacecraft has yet landed on Europa , although there have been several proposed exploration missions . The European Space Agency 's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer ( JUICE ) is a mission to Ganymede that is due to launch in 2022 , and will include two flybys of Europa . NASA 's planned Europa Clipper will be launched in the mid-2020s ."}
{"_id": "Europe", "title": "Europe", "headings": "", "text": "Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia . Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north , the Atlantic Ocean to the west , and the Mediterranean Sea to the south . The eastern boundary with Asia is a historical and cultural construct , as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them ; Europe is generally considered as separated from Asia by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains , the Ural River , the Caspian and Black Seas , and the waterways of the Turkish Straits . Yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe -- a concept dating back to classical antiquity -- are arbitrary . The primarily physiographic term `` continent '' as applied to Europe also incorporates cultural and political elements whose discontinuities are not always reflected by the continent 's current overland boundaries .   Europe covers about 10,180,000 km2 , or 2 % of the Earth 's surface ( 6.8 % of land area ) . Politically , Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous , spanning 39 % of the continent and comprising 15 % of its population .  Europe had a total population of about 740 million ( about 11 % of world population ) .   The European climate is largely affected by warm Atlantic currents that temper winters and summers on much of the continent , even at latitudes along which the climate in Asia and North America is severe . Further from the sea , seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast .   Europe , in particular ancient Greece , was the birthplace of Western civilization . The fall of the Western Roman Empire , during the migration period , marked the end of ancient history and the beginning of an era known as the Middle Ages . Renaissance humanism , exploration , art , and science led to the modern era . From the Age of Discovery onwards , Europe played a predominant role in global affairs . Between the 16th and 20th centuries , European powers controlled at various times the Americas , most of Africa , Oceania , and the majority of Asia .   The Industrial Revolution , which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century , gave rise to radical economic , cultural , and social change in Western Europe , and eventually the wider world . Both world wars took place for the most part in Europe , contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence . During the Cold War , Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east , until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall .   In 1955 , the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill , with the idea of unifying Europe to achieve common goals . It includes all states except for Belarus , Kazakhstan and Vatican City . Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union , a separate political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation . The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 . The currency of most countries of the European Union , the euro , is the most commonly used among Europeans ; and the EU 's Schengen Area abolishes border and immigration controls among most of its member states . The European Anthem is `` Ode to Joy '' and states celebrate peace and unity on Europe Day ."}
{"_id": "European_Centre_for_Medium-Range_Weather_Forecasts", "title": "European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts", "headings": "", "text": "The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts , ECMWF , is an independent intergovernmental organisation supported by most of the nations of Europe and is based at Shinfield Park , Reading , United Kingdom .  It operates one of the largest supercomputer complexes in Europe and the world 's largest archive of numerical weather prediction data .  The Centre is considering an offer from the Italian Government to move ECMWF 's data centre to Bologna , Italy . The new site , a former tobacco factory , would be redesigned by the architecture firm gmp ."}
{"_id": "European_Southern_Observatory", "title": "European Southern Observatory", "headings": "", "text": "The European Southern Observatory ( ESO , formally : European Organization for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere ; Organisation Européenne pour des Recherches Astronomiques dans l'Hémisphere Austral ) is a 16-nation intergovernmental research organization for ground-based astronomy . Created in 1962 , ESO has provided astronomers with state-of-the-art research facilities and access to the southern sky . The organisation employs about 730 staff members and receives annual member state contributions of approximately $ 131 million . Its observatories are located in northern Chile .   ESO has built and operated some of the largest and most technologically advanced telescopes . These include the New Technology Telescope , an early pioneer in the use of active optics , and the Very Large Telescope ( VLT ) , which consists of four individual telescopes , each with a primary mirror 8.2 metre across , and four smaller auxiliary telescopes . The Atacama Large Millimeter Array observes the universe in the millimetre and submillimetre wavelength ranges , and is the world 's largest ground-based astronomy project to date . It was completed in March 2013 in an international collaboration by Europe ( represented by ESO ) , North America , East Asia and Chile .   Currently under construction is the European Extremely Large Telescope . It will use a 39.3-metre-diameter segmented mirror , and become the world 's largest optical reflecting telescope when operational in 2024 . Its light-gathering power will allow detailed studies of planets around other stars , the first objects in the universe , supermassive black holes , and the nature and distribution of the dark matter and dark energy which dominate the universe .   ESO 's observing facilities have made astronomical discoveries and produced several astronomical catalogues . Its findings include the discovery of the most distant gamma-ray burst and evidence for a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way . In 2004 , the VLT allowed astronomers to obtain the first picture of an extrasolar planet ( 2M1207b ) orbiting a brown dwarf 173 light-years away . The High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) instrument installed in another ESO telescope led to the discovery of extrasolar planets , including Gliese 581c -- one of the smallest planets seen outside the solar system ."}
{"_id": "Evidence", "title": "Evidence", "headings": "", "text": "Evidence , broadly construed , is anything presented in support of an assertion . This support may be strong or weak . The strongest type of evidence is that which provides direct proof of the truth of an assertion . At the other extreme is evidence that is merely consistent with an assertion but does not rule out other , contradictory assertions , as in circumstantial evidence .   In law , rules of evidence govern the types of evidence that are admissible in a legal proceeding . Types of legal evidence include testimony , documentary evidence , and physical evidence . The parts of a legal case which are not in controversy are known , in general , as the `` facts of the case . '' Beyond any facts that are undisputed , a judge or jury is usually tasked with being a trier of fact for the other issues of a case . Evidence and rules are used to decide questions of fact that are disputed , some of which may be determined by the legal burden of proof relevant to the case . Evidence in certain cases ( e.g. capital crimes ) must be more compelling than in other situations ( e.g. minor civil disputes ) , which drastically affects the quality and quantity of evidence necessary to decide a case .   Scientific evidence consists of observations and experimental results that serve to support , refute , or modify a scientific hypothesis or theory , when collected and interpreted in accordance with the scientific method .   In philosophy , the study of evidence is closely tied to epistemology , which considers the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired ."}
{"_id": "Evidence-based_medicine", "title": "Evidence-based medicine", "headings": "", "text": "Evidence-based medicine ( EBM ) is an approach to medical practice intended to optimize decision-making by emphasizing the use of evidence from well-designed and well-conducted research . Although all medicine based on science has some degree of empirical support , EBM goes further , classifying evidence by its epistemologic strength and requiring that only the strongest types ( coming from meta-analyses , systematic reviews , and randomized controlled trials ) can yield strong recommendations ; weaker types ( such as from case-control studies ) can yield only weak recommendations . The term was originally used to describe an approach to teaching the practice of medicine and improving decisions by individual physicians about individual patients . Use of the term rapidly expanded to include a previously described approach that emphasized the use of evidence in the design of guidelines and policies that apply to groups of patients and populations ( `` evidence-based practice policies '' ) . It has subsequently spread to describe an approach to decision-making that is used at virtually every level of health care as well as other fields ( evidence-based practice ) .   Whether applied to medical education , decisions about individuals , guidelines and policies applied to populations , or administration of health services in general , evidence-based medicine advocates that to the greatest extent possible , decisions and policies should be based on evidence , not just the beliefs of practitioners , experts , or administrators . It thus tries to assure that a clinician 's opinion , which may be limited by knowledge gaps or biases , is supplemented with all available knowledge from the scientific literature so that best practice can be determined and applied . It promotes the use of formal , explicit methods to analyze evidence and makes it available to decision makers . It promotes programs to teach the methods to medical students , practitioners , and policy makers ."}
{"_id": "Evolution", "title": "Evolution", "headings": "", "text": "Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations . Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation , including the levels of species , individual organisms , and molecules .   All life on Earth shares a common ancestor known as the last universal common ancestor ( LUCA ) , which lived approximately 3.5 -- 3.8 billion years ago , although a study in 2015 found `` remains of biotic life '' from 4.1 billion years ago in ancient rocks in Western Australia . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all organisms living on Earth .   Repeated formation of new species ( speciation ) , change within species ( anagenesis ) , and loss of species ( extinction ) throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth are demonstrated by shared sets of morphological and biochemical traits , including shared DNA sequences . These shared traits are more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor , and can be used to reconstruct a biological `` tree of life '' based on evolutionary relationships ( phylogenetics ) , using both existing species and fossils . The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite , to microbial mat fossils , to fossilized multicellular organisms . Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction . More than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates of Earth 's current species range from 10 to 14 million , of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described .   In the mid-19th century , Charles Darwin formulated the scientific theory of evolution by natural selection , published in his book On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) . Evolution by natural selection is a process demonstrated by the observation that more offspring are produced than can possibly survive , along with three facts about populations : 1 ) traits vary among individuals with respect to morphology , physiology , and behaviour ( phenotypic variation ) , 2 ) different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction ( differential fitness ) , and 3 ) traits can be passed from generation to generation ( heritability of fitness ) . Thus , in successive generations members of a population are replaced by progeny of parents better adapted to survive and reproduce in the biophysical environment in which natural selection takes place . This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform . The processes by which the changes occur , from one generation to another , are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms . The four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection ( including sexual selection ) , genetic drift , mutation and gene migration due to genetic admixture . Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation ; mutation and gene migration create variation .   Consequences of selection can include meiotic drive ( unequal transmission of certain alleles ) , nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking .  In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics . The importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology . Moreover , previously held notions about evolution , such as orthogenesis , evolutionism , and other beliefs about innate `` progress '' within the largest-scale trends in evolution , became obsolete . Scientists continue to study various aspects of evolutionary biology by forming and testing hypotheses , constructing mathematical models of theoretical biology and biological theories , using observational data , and performing experiments in both the field and the laboratory .   In terms of practical application , an understanding of evolution has been instrumental to developments in numerous scientific and industrial fields , including agriculture , human and veterinary medicine , and the life sciences in general . Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just in the traditional branches of biology but also in other academic disciplines , including biological anthropology , and evolutionary psychology . Evolutionary computation , a sub-field of artificial intelligence , involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science ."}
{"_id": "Evolution_as_fact_and_theory", "title": "Evolution as fact and theory", "headings": "", "text": "Many scientists and philosophers of science have described evolution as fact and theory , a phrase which was used as the title of an article by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould in 1981 . He describes fact in science as meaning data , not absolute certainty but `` confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent '' . A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of such facts . The facts of evolution come from observational evidence of current processes , from imperfections in organisms recording historical common descent , and from transitions in the fossil record . Theories of evolution provide a provisional explanation for these facts .   Each of the words `` evolution '' , `` fact '' and `` theory '' has several meanings in different contexts . Evolution means change over time , as in stellar evolution . In biology it refers to observed changes in organisms , to their descent from a common ancestor , and at a technical level to a change in gene frequency over time ; it can also refer to explanatory theories ( such as Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection ) which explain the mechanisms of evolution . To a scientist , fact can describe a repeatable observation that all can agree on ; it can refer to something that is so well established that nobody in a community disagrees with it ; and it can also refer to the truth or falsity of a proposition . To the public , theory can mean an opinion or conjecture ( e.g. , `` it 's only a theory '' ) , but among scientists it has a much stronger connotation of `` well-substantiated explanation '' . With this number of choices , people can often talk past each other , and meanings become the subject of linguistic analysis .   Evidence for evolution continues to be accumulated and tested . The scientific literature includes statements by evolutionary biologists and philosophers of science demonstrating some of the different perspectives on evolution as fact and theory ."}
{"_id": "Exhaust_gas", "title": "Exhaust gas", "headings": "", "text": "Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas , gasoline , petrol , biodiesel blends , diesel fuel , fuel oil , or coal . According to the type of engine , it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe , flue gas stack , or propelling nozzle . It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume .   It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions ( and from stationary internal combustion engines ) , which can also include :  Crankcase blow-by  Evaporation of unused gasoline   Motor vehicle emissions contribute to air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities . A 2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions . According to another study from the same university , traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom ."}
{"_id": "Exoplanet", "title": "Exoplanet", "headings": "", "text": "An exoplanet ( -LSB- ˈɛk.səʊˌplæn.ɪt -RSB- , -LSB- ˌɛk.soʊˈplæn.ɪt -RSB- ) or extrasolar planet is a planet outside of our solar system that orbits a star . The first scientific detection of an exoplanet was in 1988 . However , the first confirmed detection came in 1992 ; since then , and as of , there have been exoplanets , in planetary systems and multiple planetary systems , confirmed detections .   HARPS ( since 2004 ) has discovered about a hundred exoplanets while the Kepler space telescope ( since 2009 ) has found more than two thousand . Kepler has also detected a few thousand candidate planets , of which about 11 % may be false positives .  On average , there is at least one planet per star , with a percentage having multiple planets .  About 1 in 5 Sun-like starsFor the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic , `` Sun-like '' means G-type star . Data for Sun-like stars was not available so this statistic is an extrapolation from data about K-type stars have an `` Earth-sized `` For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic , Earth-sized means 1 -- 2 Earth radii planet in the habitable zone.For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic , `` habitable zone '' means the region with 0.25 to 4 times Earth 's stellar flux ( corresponding to 0.5 -- 2 AU for the Sun ) . Assuming there are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way , About 1/4 of stars are GK Sun-like stars . The number of stars in the galaxy is not accurately known , but assuming 200 billion stars in total , the Milky Way would have about 50 billion Sun-like ( GK ) stars , of which about 1 in 5 ( 22 % ) or 11 billion would be Earth-sized in the habitable zone . Including red dwarfs would increase this to 40 billion . one can hypothesize that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way , rising to 40 billion if planets orbiting the numerous red dwarfs are included .   The least massive planet known is Draugr ( also known as PSR B1257 +12 A or PSR B1257 +12 b ) , which is about twice the mass of the Moon . The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b , about 29 times the mass of Jupiter , although according to some definitions of a planet , it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead . There are planets that are so near to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit and there are others so far away that they take thousands of years to orbit . Some are so far out that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star . Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way , but there have also been a few possible detections of extragalactic planets . The nearest exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b , located 4.2 light-years ( 1.3 parsecs ) from Earth and orbiting Proxima Centauri , the closest star to the Sun .   The discovery of exoplanets has intensified interest in the search for extraterrestrial life . There is special interest in planets that orbit in a star 's habitable zone , where it is possible for liquid water , a prerequisite for life on Earth , to exist on the surface . The study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life .   Besides exoplanets , there are also rogue planets , which do not orbit any star and which tend to be considered separately , especially if they are gas giants , in which case they are often counted , like WISE 0855 − 0714 , as sub-brown dwarfs . The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the billions ( or more ) ."}
{"_id": "Explosive", "title": "Explosive", "headings": "", "text": "An explosion is a rapid expansion in volume associated with an extremely vigorous outward release of energy, usually with the generation of high temperatures and release of high-pressure gases.  Supersonic explosions created by high explosives are known as detonations and travel via shock waves.  Subsonic explosions are created by low explosives through a slower combustion process known as deflagration."}
{"_id": "Externality", "title": "Externality", "headings": "", "text": "In economics , an externality is the cost or benefit that affects a party who did not choose to incur that cost or benefit . Economists often urge governments to adopt policies that `` internalize '' an externality , so that costs and benefits will affect mainly parties who choose to incur them .   For example , manufacturing activities that cause air pollution impose health and clean-up costs on the whole society , whereas the neighbors of an individual who chooses to fire-proof his home may benefit from a reduced risk of a fire spreading to their own houses . If external costs exist , such as pollution , the producer may choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the producer were required to pay all associated environmental costs . Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self , an element of externalization is involved . If there are external benefits , such as in public safety , less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others . For the purpose of these statements , overall cost and benefit to society is defined as the sum of the imputed monetary value of benefits and costs to all parties involved . Thus , unregulated markets in goods or services with significant externalities generate prices that do not reflect the full social cost or benefit of their transactions ; such markets are therefore inefficient ."}
{"_id": "Extinction", "title": "Extinction", "headings": "", "text": "In biology and ecology , extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms ( taxon ) , normally a species . The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species , although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point . Because a species ' potential range may be very large , determining this moment is difficult , and is usually done retrospectively . This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa , where a species presumed extinct abruptly `` reappears '' ( typically in the fossil record ) after a period of apparent absence .   More than 99 percent of all species , amounting to over five billion species , that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct . Estimates on the number of Earth 's current species range from 10 million to 14 million , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described .   Through evolution , species arise through the process of speciation -- where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche -- and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition . The relationship between animals and their ecological niches has been firmly established . A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance , although some species , called living fossils , survive with virtually no morphological change for hundreds of millions of years .   Mass extinctions are relatively rare events ; however , isolated extinctions are quite common . Only recently have extinctions been recorded and scientists have become alarmed at the current high rate of extinctions . Most species that become extinct are never scientifically documented . Some scientists estimate that up to half of presently existing plant and animal species may become extinct by 2100 .   A dagger symbol next to a species name is often used to indicate its extinction ."}
{"_id": "Extinction_event", "title": "Extinction event", "headings": "", "text": "An extinction event ( also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis ) is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth . Such an event is identified by a sharp change in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms . It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the rate of speciation . Because the majority of diversity and biomass on Earth is microbial , and thus difficult to measure , recorded extinction events affect the easily observed , biologically complex component of the biosphere rather than the total diversity and abundance of life .   Extinction occurs at an uneven rate . Based on the fossil record , the background rate of extinctions on Earth is about two to five taxonomic families of marine animals every million years . Marine fossils are mostly used to measure extinction rates because of their superior fossil record and stratigraphic range compared to land animals .   The Great Oxygenation Event was probably the first major extinction event . Since the Cambrian explosion five further major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate . The most recent and debatably best-known , the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , which occurred approximately million years ago ( Ma ) , was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time . In addition to the five major mass extinctions , there are numerous minor ones as well , and the ongoing mass extinction caused by human activity is sometimes called the sixth extinction . Mass extinctions seem to be a mainly Phanerozoic phenomenon , with extinction rates low before large complex organisms arose .   Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty . These differences stem from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as `` major '' , and the data chosen to measure past diversity ."}
{"_id": "Extinction_risk_from_global_warming", "title": "Extinction risk from global warming", "headings": "", "text": "The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming ."}
{"_id": "Extraterrestrial_atmosphere", "title": "Extraterrestrial atmosphere", "headings": "", "text": "The study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research , both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth 's atmosphere . In addition to Earth , many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres . These include all the gas giants , as well as Mars , Venus , and Pluto . Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres , as do comets and the Sun . There is evidence that extrasolar planets can have an atmosphere . Comparisons of these atmospheres to one another and to Earth 's atmosphere broaden our basic understanding of atmospheric processes such as the greenhouse effect , aerosol and cloud physics , and atmospheric chemistry and dynamics ."}
{"_id": "Extratropical_cyclone", "title": "Extratropical cyclone", "headings": "", "text": "Extratropical cyclones , sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones , are low-pressure areas which , along with the anticyclones of high-pressure areas , drive the weather over much of the Earth . Extratropical cyclones are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales , thunderstorms , blizzards , and tornadoes . These types of cyclones are defined as large scale ( synoptic ) low pressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth . In contrast with tropical cyclones , extratropical cyclones produce rapid changes in temperature and dew point along broad lines , called weather fronts , about the center of the cyclone ."}
{"_id": "Extreme_weather", "title": "Extreme weather", "headings": "", "text": "Extreme weather includes unexpectable , unusual , unpredictable severe or unseasonal weather ; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution -- the range that has been seen in the past . Often , extreme events are based on a location 's recorded weather history and defined as lying in the most unusual ten percent . In recent years some extreme weather events have been attributed to human-induced global warming , with studies indicating an increasing threat from extreme weather in the future ."}
{"_id": "Fahrenheit", "title": "Fahrenheit", "headings": "", "text": "Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( 1686 -- 1736 ) , after whom the scale is named . It uses the degree Fahrenheit ( symbol ° F ) as the unit . Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist . The lower defining point , 0 ° F , was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt . Further limits were established as the melting point of ice ( 32 ° F ) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature ( 96 ° F , about 2.6 ° F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale ) . The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points : the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 ° F , and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 ° F , a 180 ° F separation , as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure .   By the end of the 20th century , Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States ( including its unincorporated territories ) , its freely associated states in the Western Pacific ( Palau , the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands ) , the Bahamas , Belize , and the Cayman Islands . All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale , defined since 1954 by absolute zero being − 273.15 ° C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 ° C."}
{"_id": "Falsifiability", "title": "Falsifiability", "headings": "", "text": "Falsifiability or refutability of a statement , hypothesis , or theory is the inherent possibility that it can be proven false . A statement is called falsifiable if it is possible to conceive of an observation or an argument which negates the statement in question . In this sense , falsify is synonymous with nullify , meaning to invalidate or `` show to be false '' .   For example , by the problem of induction , no number of confirming observations can verify a universal generalization , such as All swans are white , since it is logically possible to falsify it by observing a single black swan . Thus , the term falsifiability is sometimes synonymous to testability . Some statements , such as It will be raining here in one million years , are falsifiable in principle , but not in practice .   The concern with falsifiability gained attention by way of philosopher of science Karl Popper 's scientific epistemology `` falsificationism '' . Popper stresses the problem of demarcation -- distinguishing the scientific from the unscientific -- and makes falsifiability the demarcation criterion , such that what is unfalsifiable is classified as unscientific , and the practice of declaring an unfalsifiable theory to be scientifically true is pseudoscience ."}
{"_id": "Famine", "title": "Famine", "headings": "", "text": "A famine is a widespread scarcity of food , caused by several factors including crop failure , population imbalance , or government policies . This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition , starvation , epidemic , and increased mortality . Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history . In the 19th and 20th century , it was generally Eastern Europe and Asia that suffered the most deaths from famine . The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 1970s .   Some countries , particularly in sub-Saharan Africa , continue to have extreme cases of famine . Since 2010 , Africa has been the most affected continent in the world . As of 2017 , the United Nations has warned some 20 million are at risk in South Sudan , Somalia , Nigeria and Yemen . Agricultural conditions have been fluctuating more and more due to variations in weather , and the distribution of food has been affected by conflict . Most programmes now direct their aid towards Africa ."}
{"_id": "Farleigh_Hungerford_Castle", "title": "Farleigh Hungerford Castle", "headings": "", "text": "Farleigh Hungerford Castle , sometimes called Farleigh Castle or Farley Castle , is a medieval castle in Farleigh Hungerford , Somerset , England . The castle was built in two phases : the inner court was constructed between 1377 and 1383 by Sir Thomas Hungerford , who made his fortune working as a steward to John of Gaunt . The castle was built to a quadrangular design , already slightly old-fashioned , on the site of an existing manor house overlooking the River Frome . A park was attached to the castle , requiring the destruction of a local village . His son , Sir Walter Hungerford , a successful knight and courtier to Henry V , became rich during the Hundred Years War with France and extended the castle with an additional , outer court , enclosing the parish church in the process . By Walter 's death in 1449 , the substantial castle was richly appointed and its chapel decorated with murals .   The castle largely remained in the hands of the Hungerford family over the next two centuries , despite periods during the War of the Roses in which it was held by the Crown following the attainder and execution of members of the family . At the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 , the castle , modernized to the latest Tudor and Stuart fashions , was held by Sir Edward Hungerford . Edward declared his support for Parliament , becoming a leader of the Roundheads in Wiltshire . Farleigh Hungerford was seized by Royalist forces in 1643 , but recaptured by Parliament without a fight near the end of the conflict in 1645 . As a result , it escaped slighting following the war , unlike many other castles in the south-west of England .   The last member of the Hungerford family to hold the castle , Sir Edward Hungerford , inherited it in 1657 , but his gambling and expensive living forced him to sell the property in 1686 . By the 18th century the castle was no longer lived in by its owners and fell into disrepair ; in 1730 it was bought by the Houlton family , when much of it was broken up for salvage . Antiquarian and tourist interest in the now ruined castle increased through the 18th and 19th centuries . The castle chapel was repaired in 1779 and became a museum of curiosities , complete with the murals rediscovered on its walls in 1844 and a number of rare lead anthropomorphic coffins from the mid-17th century . In the 1915 Farleigh Hungerford Castle was sold to the Office of Works and a controversial restoration programme began . It is now owned by English Heritage , who operate it as a tourist attraction , and the castle is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument ."}
{"_id": "February_8", "title": "February 8", "headings": "", "text": ""}
{"_id": "Fertilizer", "title": "Fertilizer", "headings": "", "text": "A fertilizer ( American English ) or fertiliser ( British English ; see spelling differences ) is any material of natural or synthetic origin ( other than liming materials ) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues ( usually leaves ) to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants ."}
{"_id": "Field_hockey", "title": "Field hockey", "headings": "", "text": "Field hockey is a team sport of the hockey family . The earliest origins of the game date back to the Middle Ages in England , Scotland , France and the Netherlands . The game can be played on a grass field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface . Each team plays with eleven players , including the goalie . Players use sticks made out of wood , carbon fibre , fibre glass or a combination of carbon fibre and fibre glass in different quantities ( with the higher carbon fibre stick being more expensive and less likely to break ) to hit a round , hard , plastic ball . The length of the stick depends on the player 's individual height . Only one end of the stick is allowed to be used . Goalies often have a different kind of stick , however they can also use an ordinary field hockey stick . The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick , this is to give them more surface area to save the ball . The uniform consists of shin guards , shoes , shorts , a mouth guard and a jersey . Today , the game is played globally , with particular popularity throughout Western Europe , the Indian subcontinent , Southern Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Argentina , and parts of the United States ( primarily New England and the Mid-Atlantic states ) . Field Hockey is the national game of Pakistan . The term `` field hockey '' is used primarily in Canada and the United States where ice hockey is more popular . In Sweden the term `` landhockey '' is used and to some degree also in Norway . It is a section of Norway 's Bandy Association . Until recently they called it `` hockey '' , when it was changed to `` landhockey '' .   During play , goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body ( the player 's hand is considered ` part of the stick ' if on the stick ) , while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick . Goal keepers also can not play the ball with the back of their stick . Whoever scores the most goals by the end of the match wins . If the score is tied at the end of the game , either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout , depending on the competition 's format . There are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league and tournament play . In college play , a seven-aside overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team . If a tie still remains , the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses 5 players to dribble from the 25 yard line down to the circle against the opposing goalie . The player has 8 seconds to score on the goalie keeping it in bounds . The play ends after a goal is scored , the ball goes out of bounds , a foul is committed ( ending in either a penalty stroke or flick or the end of the one on one ) or time expires . If the tie still persists extra rounds thereafter until one team has scored .   The governing body of hockey is the International Hockey Federation ( FIH , in French ) , with men and women being represented internationally in competitions including the Olympic Games , World Cup , World League , Champions Trophy and Junior World Cup , with many countries running extensive junior , senior , and masters club competitions . The FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the game .   A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey , which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary principles of hockey . Indoor hockey is a 5-a-side variant , with a field which is reduced to approximately 40 x. With many of the rules remaining the same , including obstruction and feet , there are several key variations : Players may not raise the ball unless shooting on goal , players may not hit the ball ( instead using pushes to transfer the ball ) , and the sidelines are replaced with solid barriers which the ball will rebound off ."}
{"_id": "Figure_of_the_Earth", "title": "Figure of the Earth", "headings": "", "text": "The expression figure of the Earth has various meanings in geodesy according to the way it is used and the precision with which the Earth 's size and shape is to be defined . While the sphere is a close approximation of the true figure of the Earth and satisfactory for many purposes , geodesists have developed several models that more closely approximate the shape of the Earth so that coordinate systems can serve the precise needs of navigation , surveying , cadastre , land use , and diverse other concerns ."}
{"_id": "Financial_crisis_of_2007–08", "title": "Financial crisis of 2007–08", "headings": "", "text": "The financial crisis of 2007–2008, also known as the global financial crisis (GFC), was a severe worldwide financial crisis. Excessive risk-taking by banks combined with the bursting of the United States housing bubble caused the values of securities tied to U.S. real estate to plummet, damaging financial institutions globally, culminating with the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008, and an international banking crisis. The crisis sparked the Great Recession, which, at the time, was the most severe global recession since the Great Depression. It was also followed by the European debt crisis, which began with a deficit in Greece in late 2009, and the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis, which involved the bank failure of all three of the major banks in Iceland and, relative to the size of its economy, was the largest economic collapse suffered by any country in economic history. It was among the five worst financial crises the world had experienced and led to a loss of more than $2 trillion from the global economy.U.S. home mortgage debt relative to GDP increased from an average of 46% during the 1990s to 73% during 2008, reaching $10.5 trillion. The increase in cash out refinancings, as home values rose, fueled an increase in consumption that could no longer be sustained when home prices declined. Many financial institutions owned investments whose value was based on home mortgages such as mortgage-backed securities, or credit derivatives used to insure them against failure, which declined in value significantly. The International Monetary Fund estimated that large U.S. and European banks lost more than $1 trillion on toxic assets and from bad loans from January 2007 to September 2009.Lack of investor confidence in bank solvency and declines in credit availability led to plummeting stock and commodity prices in late 2008 and early 2009. The crisis rapidly spread into a global economic shock, resulting in several bank failures. Economies worldwide slowed during this period since credit tightened and international trade declined. Housing markets suffered and unemployment soared, resulting in evictions and foreclosures. Several businesses failed. From its peak in the second quarter of 2007 at $64.4 trillion, household wealth in the United States fell $14 trillion, to $50.4 trillion by the end of the first quarter of 2009, resulting in a decline in consumption, then a decline in business investment. In the fourth quarter of 2008, the quarter-over-quarter decline in real GDP in the U.S. was 8.4%. The U.S. unemployment rate peaked at 10.0% in October 2009, the highest rate since 1983 and roughly twice the pre-crisis rate. The average hours per work week declined to 33, the lowest level since the government began collecting the data in 1964.The economic crisis started in the U.S. but spread to the rest of the world. U.S. consumption accounted for more than a third of the growth in global consumption between 2000 and 2007 and the rest of the world depended on the U.S. consumer as a source of demand. Toxic securities were owned by corporate and institutional investors globally. Derivatives such as credit default swaps also increased the linkage between large financial institutions. The de-leveraging of financial institutions, as assets were sold to pay back obligations that could not be refinanced in frozen credit markets, further accelerated the solvency crisis and caused a decrease in international trade. Reductions in the growth rates of developing countries were due to falls in trade, commodity prices, investment and remittances sent from migrant workers. This led to a dramatic rise in the number of households living below the poverty line. States with fragile political systems feared that investors from Western states would withdraw their money because of the crisis.As part of national fiscal policy response to the Great Recession, governments and central banks, including the Federal Reserve, the European Central Bank and the Bank of England, provided then-unprecedented trillions of dollars in bailouts and stimulus, including expansive fiscal policy and monetary policy to offset the decline in consumption and lending capacity, avoid a further collapse, encourage lending, restore faith in the integral commercial paper markets, avoid the risk of a deflationary spiral, and provide banks with enough funds to allow customers to make withdrawals. In effect, the central banks went from being the \"lender of last resort\" to the \"lender of only resort\" for a significant portion of the economy. In some cases the Fed was considered the \"buyer of last resort\". During the fourth quarter of 2008, these central banks purchased US$2.5 trillion of government debt and troubled private assets from banks. This was the largest liquidity injection into the credit market, and the largest monetary policy action in world history. Following a model initiated by the 2008 United Kingdom bank rescue package, the governments of European nations and the United States guaranteed the debt issued by their banks and raised the capital of their national banking systems, ultimately purchasing $1.5 trillion newly issued preferred stock in major banks. The Federal Reserve created then-significant amounts of new currency as a method to combat the liquidity trap.Bailouts came in the form of trillions of dollars of loans, asset purchases, guarantees, and direct spending. Significant controversy accompanied the bailouts, such as in the case of the AIG bonus payments controversy, leading to the development of a variety of \"decision making frameworks\", to help balance competing policy interests during times of financial crisis. Alistair Darling, the U.K.'s Chancellor of the Exchequer at the time of the crisis, stated in 2018 that Britain came within hours of \"a breakdown of law and order\" the day that Royal Bank of Scotland was bailed-out.Instead of financing more domestic loans, some banks instead spent some of the stimulus money in more profitable areas such as investing in emerging markets and foreign currencies.In July 2010, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act was enacted in the United States to \"promote the financial stability of the United States\". The Basel III capital and liquidity standards were adopted worldwide. Since the 2008 financial crisis, consumer regulators in America have more closely supervised sellers of credit cards and home mortgages in order to deter anticompetitive practices that led to the crisis. At least two major reports on the causes of the crisis were produced by the U.S. Congress: the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission report, released January 2011, and a report by the United States Senate Homeland Security Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations entitled Wall Street and the Financial Crisis: Anatomy of a Financial Collapse, released April 2011.  In total, 47 bankers served jail time as a result of the crisis, over half of which were from Iceland, where the crisis was the most severe and led to the collapse of all 3 of the major Icelandic banks. In April 2012, Geir Haarde of Iceland became the only politician to be convicted as a result of the crisis. Only one banker in the United States served jail time as a result of the crisis, Kareem Serageldin, a banker at Credit Suisse who was sentenced to 30 months in jail and returned $25.6 million in compensation for manipulating bond prices to hide $1 billion of losses. No individuals in the United Kingdom were convicted as a result of the crisis. Goldman Sachs paid $550 million to settle fraud charges after allegedly anticipating the crisis and selling toxic investments to its clients.With fewer resources to risk in creative destruction, the number of patent applications was flat, compared exponential increases in patent application in prior years.  Typical American families did not fare well, nor did those \"wealthy-but-not-wealthiest\" families just beneath the pyramid's top. However, half of the poorest families did not have wealth declines at all during the crisis because they generally did not own financial investments whose value fluctuates. The Federal Reserve surveyed 4,000 households between 2007 and 2009, and found that the total wealth of 63% of all Americans declined in that period and 77% of the richest families had a decrease in total wealth, while only 50% of those on the bottom of the pyramid suffered a decrease."}
{"_id": "First_100_days_of_Donald_Trump's_presidency", "title": "First 100 days of Donald Trump's presidency", "headings": "", "text": "The first 100 days of Donald Trump 's presidency began with his inauguration as the 45th President of the United States , which occurred at noon on January 20 , 2017 . The 48th Vice President of the United States , Mike Pence , was inaugurated on the same day . The 100th day of Trump 's presidency was April 29 , 2017 . Trump first announced his plan for the first hundred days of his presidency in Gettysburg , Pennsylvania , on October 23 , 2016 , before the election .   One of Trump 's major accomplishments , made as part of a `` 100-day pledge '' , was the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Structurally , President Trump had the advantage of a Republican Party majority in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate , but was unable to fulfill his major pledges in his first 100 days and had an approval rating of between 40 and 42 percent , `` the lowest for any first-term president at this point in his tenure '' . Although he tried to make progress on one of his key economic policies -- the dismantling of the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act -- his failure to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) in the first 100 days was a major setback . He reversed his position on a number of issues including labeling China as a currency manipulator , NATO , launching the 2017 Shayrat missile strike without congressional approval , the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , renomination of Janet Yellen as Chair of the Federal Reserve , and the nomination of Export-Import Bank directors . Supporters claimed that as the first to have been elected President in present times who has held neither military or political office , he therefore faced a steep learning curve . Trump 's approval among his base was high , with 96 % of those who voted for him saying in an April 2017 poll that they would vote for him again .   Near the end of the 100 days , the Trump administration introduced a broad outline of a sweeping tax reform focusing on deep tax cuts . While it is intended to encourage economic growth , there were concerns from some members of the United States Congress about raising the national deficit . In spite of the sharp decline in gross domestic product ( GDP ) in the first quarter of 2017 -- representing the weakest quarterly economic growth in three years -- the S&P 500 was near an all-time high , representing a 12 % rise from the first quarter of 2016 , as investor confidence remained elevated . Although Trump had to concede to delay funding for the U.S. -- Mexico border wall he had promised , narrowly avoiding a government shutdown a few days before the end of the first 100 days , his rhetoric may have contributed to a sharp drop in the number of illegal crossings at the Mexico -- United States border .   Trump signed 24 executive orders in his first 100 days , the most executive orders of any President since World War II . He also signed 22 presidential memoranda , 20 presidential proclamations , and 28 bills . About a dozen of those bills roll-back regulations finalized during the last months of his immediate predecessor Barack Obama 's presidency using the Congressional Review Act . Most of the other bills are `` small-scale measures that appoint personnel , name federal facilities or modify existing programs . '' None of Trump 's bills are considered to be `` major bills '' -- based on a `` longstanding political-science standard for ` major bills ' . '' Presidential historian Michael Beschloss said that `` based on a legislative standard '' -- which is what the first 100 days has been judged on since the tenure of President Franklin Roosevelt , who enacted 76 laws in 100 days including nine that were `` major '' -- `` Trump is really pretty low down on the list . ''"}
{"_id": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "title": "Fisheries and climate change", "headings": "", "text": "Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture ."}
{"_id": "Flood", "title": "Flood", "headings": "", "text": "A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry . The European Union ( EU ) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered by water . In the sense of `` flowing water '' , the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide .   Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies , such as a river , lake , or ocean , in which the water overtops or breaks levees , resulting in some of that water escaping its usual boundaries , or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal flood . While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt , these changes in size are unlikely to be considered significant unless they flood property or drown domestic animals .   Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel , particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway . Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers . While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water , people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce and industry .   Some floods develop slowly , while others such as flash floods , can develop in just a few minutes and without visible signs of rain . Additionally , floods can be local , impacting a neighborhood or community , or very large , affecting entire river basins ."}
{"_id": "Florida", "title": "Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Florida -LSB- ˈflɒrᵻdə -RSB- ( Spanish for `` land of flowers '' ) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States . It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico , to the north by Alabama and Georgia , to the east by the Atlantic Ocean , and to the south by the Straits of Florida and Cuba . Florida is the 22nd-most extensive , the 3rd-most populous , and the 8th-most densely populated of the U.S. states . Jacksonville is the most populous municipality in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States . The Miami metropolitan area is Florida 's most populous urban area . The city of Tallahassee is the state capital .   A peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico , the Atlantic Ocean , and the Straits of Florida , it has the longest coastline in the contiguous United States , approximately 1350 mi , and is the only state that borders both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean . Much of the state is at or near sea level and is characterized by sedimentary soil . The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south . The American alligator , American crocodile , Florida panther , and manatee can be found in the Everglades National Park .   Since the first European contact was made in 1513 by Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León -- who named it La Florida ( -LSB- la floˈɾiða -RSB- `` land of flowers '' ) upon landing there in the Easter season , Pascua Florida -- Florida was a challenge for the European colonial powers before it gained statehood in the United States in 1845 . It was a principal location of the Seminole Wars against the Native Americans , and racial segregation after the American Civil War .   Today , Florida is distinctive for its large Cuban expatriate community and high population growth , as well as for its increasing environmental issues . The state 's economy relies mainly on tourism , agriculture , and transportation , which developed in the late 19th century . Florida is also renowned for amusement parks , orange crops , the Kennedy Space Center , and as a popular destination for retirees .   Florida culture is a reflection of influences and multiple inheritance ; Native American , European American , Hispanic and Latino , and African American heritages can be found in the architecture and cuisine . Florida has attracted many writers such as Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings , Ernest Hemingway and Tennessee Williams , and continues to attract celebrities and athletes . It is internationally known for golf , tennis , auto racing and water sports ."}
{"_id": "Flying_Spaghetti_Monster", "title": "Flying Spaghetti Monster", "headings": "", "text": "The Flying Spaghetti Monster ( FSM ) is the deity of the Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster , or Pastafarianism . Pastafarianism ( a portmanteau of pasta and Rastafarian ) is a social movement that promotes a light-hearted view of religion and opposes the teaching of intelligent design and creationism in public schools . According to adherents , Pastafarianism is a `` real , legitimate religion , as much as any other '' . It is legally recognized as a religion in the Netherlands and New Zealand -- where Pastafarian representatives have been authorized to celebrate weddings and where the first legally recognized Pastafarian wedding was performed in April 2016 . However , in the United States , a federal judge has ruled that the `` Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster '' is not a real religion .   The `` Flying Spaghetti Monster '' was first described in a satirical open letter written by Bobby Henderson in 2005 to protest the Kansas State Board of Education decision to permit teaching intelligent design as an alternative to evolution in public school science classes . In the letter , Henderson demanded equal time in science classrooms for the Flying Spaghetti Monster , alongside intelligent design and evolution . After Henderson published the letter on his website , the Flying Spaghetti Monster rapidly became an Internet phenomenon and a symbol of opposition to the teaching of intelligent design in public schools .   Because of its popularity and exposure , the Flying Spaghetti Monster is often used as a contemporary version of Russell 's teapot -- an argument that the philosophic burden of proof lies upon those who make unfalsifiable claims , not on those who reject them . Pastafarianism has received praise from the scientific community and criticism from proponents of intelligent design . Pastafarians have engaged in disputes with creationists , including in Polk County , Florida , where they played a role in dissuading the local school board from adopting new rules on teaching evolution .   Pastafarian tenets ( generally satires of creationism ) are presented both on Henderson 's Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster website , where he is described as `` prophet '' , and in The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster , written by Henderson in 2006 . The central belief is that an invisible and undetectable Flying Spaghetti Monster created the universe . Pirates are revered as the original Pastafarians . Henderson asserts that a decline in the number of pirates over the years is the cause of global warming . The FSM community congregates at Henderson 's website to share ideas about the Flying Spaghetti Monster and crafts representing images of it ."}
{"_id": "Forest", "title": "Forest", "headings": "", "text": "A forest is a large area dominated by trees . Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world , incorporating factors such as tree density , tree height , land use , legal standing and ecological function . According to the widely used Food and Agriculture Organization definition , forests covered four billion hectares ( 15 million square miles ) or approximately 30 percent of the world 's land area in 2006 .   Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth , and are distributed across the globe . Forests account for 75 % of the gross primary productivity of the Earth 's biosphere , and contain 80 % of the Earth 's plant biomass .   Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly different ecozones : boreal forests near the poles , tropical forests near the equator and temperate forests at mid-latitudes . Higher elevation areas tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes , and amount of precipitation also affects forest composition .   Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways . Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions . Forests can also affect people 's health . Human activities , including harvesting forest resources , can negatively affect forest ecosystems ."}
{"_id": "Forestry_in_India", "title": "Forestry in India", "headings": "", "text": "Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental resource . India is one of the ten most forest-rich countries of the world along with the Russian Federation , Brazil , Canada , United States of America , China , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Australia , Indonesia and Sudan . Together , India and these countries account for 67 percent of total forest area of the world . India 's forest cover grew at 0.22 % annually over 1990-2000 , and has grown at the rate of 0.46 % per year over 2000-2010 , after decades where forest degradation was a matter of serious concern .   As of 2010 , the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations estimates India 's forest cover to be about 68 million hectares , or 22 % of the country 's area . The 2013 Forest Survey of India states its forest cover increased to 69.8 million hectares by 2012 , per satellite measurements ; this represents an increase of 5,871 square kilometers of forest cover in 2 years . However , the gains were primarily in northern , central and southern Indian states , while northeastern states witnessed a net loss in forest cover over 2010 to 2012 .   In 2002 , forestry industry contributed 1.7 % to India 's GDP . In 2010 , the contribution to GDP dropped to 0.9 % , largely because of rapid growth of the economy in other sectors and the government 's decision to reform and reduce import tariffs to let imports satisfy the growing Indian demand for wood products . India produces a range of processed forest ( wood and non-wood ) products ranging from wood panel products and wood pulp to make bronze , rattazikistan ware and pern resin . India 's paper industry produces over 3,000 metric tonnes annually from more than 400 mills . The furniture and craft industry is another consumer of wood . India 's wood-based processing industries consumed about 30 million cubic metres of industrial wood in 2002 . India annually consumes an additional 270 million tonnes of fuelwood , 2800 million tonnes of fodder , and about 102 million cubic meter of forest products - valued at about a year .  India is one of the world 's largest consumer of fuel-wood . India 's consumption of fuel-wood is about five times higher than what can be sustainably removed from forests . However , a large percentage of this fuel-wood is grown as biomass remaining from agriculture , and is managed outside forests . Fuel-wood meets about 40 % of the energy needs of the country . Around 80 % of rural people and 48 % of urban people use fuel-wood . Unless India makes major , rapid and sustained effort to expand electricity generation and power plants , the rural and urban poor in India will continue to meet their energy needs through unsustainable destruction of forests and fuel wood consumption . India 's dependence on fuel-wood and forestry products as a primary energy source is not only environmentally unsustainable , it is a primary cause of India 's near-permanent haze and air pollution .   Forestry in India is more than just about wood and fuel . India has a thriving non-wood forest products industry , which produces latex , gums , resins , essential oils , flavours , fragrances and aroma chemicals , incense sticks , handicrafts , thatching materials and medicinal plants . About 60 % of non-wood forest products production is consumed locally . About 50 % of the total revenue from the forestry industry in India is in non-wood forest products category . In 2002 , non-wood forest products were a source of significant supplemental income to over 400 million people in India , mostly rural ."}
{"_id": "Fossil_fuel", "title": "Fossil fuel", "headings": "", "text": "Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms , containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years , and sometimes exceeds 650 million years . Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum , coal , and natural gas . Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane . Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon to hydrogen ratios like methane , to liquids like petroleum , to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon , like anthracite coal . Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone , associated with oil , or in the form of methane clathrates .   The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth 's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century .   The Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 the primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0 % , coal 27.4 % , natural gas 23.0 % , amounting to an 86.4 % share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world . Non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8.5 % , hydroelectric 6.3 % , and others ( geothermal , solar , tidal , wind , wood , waste ) amounting to 0.9 % . World energy consumption was growing about 2.3 % per year .   Although fossil fuels are continually being formed via natural processes , they are generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and the known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made .   The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns . The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes ( 21.3 gigatonnes ) of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) per year . It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount , so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year . Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming . A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions ."}
{"_id": "Fossil_fuel_power_station", "title": "Fossil fuel power station", "headings": "", "text": "A fossil fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel such as coal , natural gas , or petroleum to produce electricity . Central station fossil fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation . In many countries , such plants provide most of the electrical energy used . Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy , which then operates an electrical generator . The prime mover may be a steam turbine , a gas turbine or , in small plants , a reciprocating internal combustion engine . All plants use the energy extracted from expanding gas , either steam or combustion gases . Very few MHD generators have been built which directly convert the energy of hot , moving water into electricity . MHD means Magnetohydrodynamics , which is the study of the magnetic properties of electrically conducting fluids . Examples of such magnetofluids include plasmas , liquid metals , salt water and electrolytes .   By-products of thermal power plant operation must be considered in their design and operation . Waste heat energy , which remains due to the finite efficiency of the Carnot , Rankine , or Diesel power cycle , is released directly to the atmosphere or river/lake water , or indirectly to the atmosphere using a cooling tower with river or lake water used as a cooling medium . The flue gas from combustion of the fossil fuels is discharged to the air . This gas contains carbon dioxide and water vapor , as well as other substances such as nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur oxides ( SOx ) , mercury , traces of other metals , and , for coal-fired plants , fly ash . Solid waste ash from coal-fired boilers must also be removed . Some coal ash can be recycled for building materials .   Fossil fueled power stations are major emitters of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , a greenhouse gas which according to a consensus opinion of scientific organisations is a contributor to global warming . The results of a recent study show that the net income available to shareholders of large companies could see a significant reduction from the greenhouse gas emissions liability related to only natural disasters in the U.S. from a single coal-fired power plant . However , as of 2015 , no such cases have awarded damages in the U.S. Per unit of electric energy , brown coal emits nearly two times as much CO2 as natural gas , and black coal emits somewhat less than brown . Carbon capture and storage of emissions is not currently available ."}
{"_id": "Fox_News", "title": "Fox News", "headings": "", "text": "Fox News ( officially known as the Fox News Channel ) is an American basic cable and satellite news entertainment television channel owned by the Fox Entertainment Group , a subsidiary of 21st Century Fox . The channel broadcasts primarily from studios at 1211 Avenue of the Americas , New York City , New York .   The channel was created by Australian-American media mogul Rupert Murdoch , who hired former Republican Party media consultant and CNBC executive Roger Ailes as its founding CEO .   It launched on October 7 , 1996 , to 17 million cable subscribers . Fox News grew during the late 1990s and 2000s to become a dominant cable news network in the United States . Rupert Murdoch is the current chairman and acting CEO of Fox News .   Fox News Channel has been accused of biased reporting and promoting the Republican Party . Critics have cited the channel as detrimental to the integrity of news overall . Fox News employees have responded that news reporting operates independently of its opinion and commentary programming , and have denied bias in news reporting . The network has also been accused of permitting sexual harassment and racial discrimination by on-air hosts , executives , and employees , paying out millions of dollars in legal settlements . The company is currently under federal investigation for its harassment settlements and other alleged misconduct .   As of February 2015 , approximately 94,700,000 US households ( 81.4 % of cable , satellite & telco customers ) receive the Fox News Channel ."}
{"_id": "Framing_(social_sciences)", "title": "Framing (social sciences)", "headings": "", "text": "In the social sciences , framing comprises a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives on how individuals , groups , and societies , organize , perceive , and communicate about reality . Framing involves social construction of a social phenomenon -- by mass media sources , political or social movements , political leaders , or other actors and organizations . Participation in a language community necessarily influences an individual 's perception of the meanings attributed to words or phrases . Politically , the language communities of advertising , religion , and mass media are highly contested , whereas framing in less-sharply defended language communities might evolve imperceptibly and organically over cultural time frames , with fewer overt modes of disputation .   Framing itself can be framed in one of two ways , depending on whether one chooses to emphasise processes of thought or processes of interpersonal communication . Frames in thought consist of the mental representations , interpretations , and simplifications of reality . Frames in communication consist of the communication of frames between different actors .   One can view framing in communication as positive or negative -- depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented . Framing might also be understood as being either equivalence frames , which represent logically equivalent alternatives portrayed in different ways ( see framing effect ) or as emphasis frames , which simplify reality by focusing on a subset of relevant aspects of a situation or issue . In the case of `` equivalence frames '' , the information being presented is based on the same facts , but the `` frame '' in which it is presented changes , thus creating a reference-dependent perception .   The effects of framing can be seen in many journalism applications . With the same information being used as a base , the `` frame '' surrounding the issue can change the reader 's perception without having to alter the actual facts . In the context of politics or mass-media communication , a frame defines the packaging of an element of rhetoric in such a way as to encourage certain interpretations and to discourage others . For political purposes , framing often presents facts in such a way that implicates a problem that is in need of a solution . Members of political parties attempt to frame issues in a way that makes a solution favoring their own political leaning appear as the most appropriate course of action for the situation at hand .   In social theory , framing is a schema of interpretation , a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes , that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events . In other words , people build a series of mental `` filters '' through biological and cultural influences . They then use these filters to make sense of the world . The choices they then make are influenced by their creation of a frame .   Framing is also a key component of sociology , the study of social interaction among humans . Framing is an integral part of conveying and processing data on a daily basis . Successful framing techniques can be used to reduce the ambiguity of intangible topics by contextualizing the information in such a way that recipients can connect to what they already know ."}
{"_id": "France", "title": "France", "headings": "", "text": "France ( -LSB- fʁɑ̃s -RSB- ) , officially the French Republic ( -LSB- ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz -RSB- ) , is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories . The European , or metropolitan , area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea , and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean . Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic , Pacific and Indian oceans . France spans 643801 km2 and had a total population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017 . It is a unitary semi-presidential republic with the capital in Paris , the country 's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre . Other major urban centres include Marseille , Lyon , Lille , Nice , Toulouse and Bordeaux .   During the Iron Age , what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls , a Celtic people . The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome , which held Gaul until 486 , when the Germanic Franks conquered the region and formed the Kingdom of France . France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages , with its victory in the Hundred Years ' War ( 1337 to 1453 ) strengthening state-building and political centralisation . During the Renaissance , French culture flourished and a global colonial empire was established , which by the 20th century would be the second largest in the world . The 16th century was dominated by religious civil wars between Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots ) . France became Europe 's dominant cultural , political , and military power under Louis XIV . In the late 18th century , the French Revolution overthrew the absolute monarchy , established one of modern history 's earliest republics , and saw the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , which expresses the nation 's ideals to this day .   In the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire , whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe . Following the collapse of the Empire , France endured a tumultuous succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870 . France was a major participant in the First World War , from which it emerged victorious , and was one of the Allied Powers in the Second World War , but came under occupation by the Axis Powers in 1940 . Following liberation in 1944 , a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War . The Fifth Republic , led by Charles de Gaulle , was formed in 1958 and remains to this day . Algeria and nearly all the other colonies became independent in the 1960s and typically retained close economic and military connections with France .   France has long been a global centre of art , science , and philosophy . It hosts Europe 's fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually , the most of any country in the world . France is a developed country with the world 's sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity . In terms of aggregate household wealth , it ranks fourth in the world . France performs well in international rankings of education , health care , life expectancy , and human development . France remains a great power in the world , being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state . It is a leading member state of the European Union and the Eurozone . It is also a member of the Group of 7 , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , and La Francophonie ."}
{"_id": "Fred_Singer", "title": "Fred Singer", "headings": "", "text": "Siegfried Fred Singer ( born September 27 , 1924 ) is an Austrian-born American physicist and emeritus professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia . Singer trained as an atmospheric physicist and is known for his work in space research , atmospheric pollution , rocket and satellite technology , his questioning of the link between UV-B and melanoma rates , and that between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss , his public downplaying of the health risks of passive smoking , and as an advocate for climate change denial . He is the author or editor of several books including Global Effects of Environmental Pollution ( 1970 ) , The Ocean in Human Affairs ( 1989 ) , Global Climate Change ( 1989 ) , The Greenhouse Debate Continued ( 1992 ) , and Hot Talk , Cold Science ( 1997 ) . He has also co-authored Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years ( 2007 ) with Dennis Avery , and Climate Change Reconsidered ( 2009 ) with Craig Idso .   Singer has had a varied career , serving in the armed forces , government , and academia . He designed mines for the U.S. Navy during World War II , before obtaining his Ph.D. in physics from Princeton University in 1948 and working as a scientific liaison officer in the U.S. Embassy in London . He became a leading figure in early space research , was involved in the development of earth observation satellites , and in 1962 established the National Weather Bureau 's Satellite Service Center . He was the founding dean of the University of Miami School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences in 1964 , and held several government positions , including deputy assistant administrator for the Environmental Protection Agency , and chief scientist for the Department of Transportation . He held a professorship with the University of Virginia from 1971 until 1994 , and with George Mason University until 2000 .   In 1990 Singer founded the Science & Environmental Policy Project , and in 2006 was named by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as one of a minority of scientists said to be creating a stand-off on a consensus on climate change . Singer argues there is no evidence that global warming is attributable to human-caused increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide , and that humanity would benefit if temperatures do rise .  He is an opponent of the Kyoto Protocol , and has claimed that climate models are neither based on reality nor evidence . Singer has been accused of rejecting peer-reviewed and independently confirmed scientific evidence in his claims concerning public health and environmental issues ."}
{"_id": "Free_will", "title": "Free will", "headings": "", "text": "Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action . It is closely linked to the concepts of responsibility , praise , guilt , sin , and other judgments which apply only to actions that are freely chosen . It is also connected with the concepts of advice , persuasion , deliberation , and prohibition . Traditionally , only actions that are freely willed are seen as deserving credit or blame . There are numerous different concerns about threats to the possibility of free will , varying by how exactly it is conceived , which is a matter of some debate .   Some conceive free will to be the capacity to make choices in which the outcome has not been determined by past events . Determinism suggests that only one course of events is possible , which is inconsistent with the existence of such free will . This problem has been identified in ancient Greek philosophy , and remains a major focus of philosophical debate . This view that conceives free will to be incompatible with determinism is called incompatibilism , and encompasses both metaphysical libertarianism , the claim that determinism is false and thus free will is at least possible , and hard determinism , the claim that determinism is true and thus free will is not possible . It also encompasses hard incompatibilism , which holds not only determinism but also its negation to be incompatible with free will , and thus free will to be impossible whatever the case may be regarding determinism .   In contrast , compatibilists hold that free will is compatible with determinism . Some compatibilists even hold that determinism is necessary for free will , arguing that choice involves preference for one course of action over another , requiring a sense of how choices will turn out . Compatibilists thus consider the debate between libertarians and hard determinists over free will vs determinism a false dilemma . Different compatibilists offer very different definitions of what `` free will '' even means , and consequently find different types of constraints to be relevant to the issue . Classical compatibilists considered free will nothing more than freedom of action , considering one free of will simply if , had one counterfactually wanted to do otherwise , one could have done otherwise without physical impediment . Contemporary compatibilists instead identify free will as a psychological capacity , such as to direct one 's behavior in a way responsive to reason . And there are still further different conceptions of free will , each with their own concerns , sharing only the common feature of not finding the possibility of determinism a threat to the possibility of free will ."}
{"_id": "Freedom_of_Information_requests_to_the_Climatic_Research_Unit", "title": "Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit", "headings": "", "text": "Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 .   The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report .   In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request .   A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . ''   In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest ."}
{"_id": "Friction", "title": "Friction", "headings": "", "text": "Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces , fluid layers , and material elements sliding against each other . There are several types of friction :  Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact . Dry friction is subdivided into static friction ( `` stiction '' ) between non-moving surfaces , and kinetic friction between moving surfaces .  Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other .   Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces .   Skin friction is a component of drag , the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body .  Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation .   When surfaces in contact move relative to each other , the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy ( that is , it converts work to heat ) . This property can have dramatic consequences , as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire . Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs , for example when a viscous fluid is stirred . Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear , which may lead to performance degradation or damage to components . Friction is a component of the science of tribology .   Friction is desirable and important in supplying traction to facilitate motion on land . Most land vehicles rely on friction for acceleration , deceleration and changing direction . Sudden reductions in traction can cause loss of control and accidents .   Friction is not itself a fundamental force . Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion , surface roughness , surface deformation , and surface contamination . The complexity of these interactions makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical methods for analysis and the development of theory .   Friction is a non-conservative force - work done against friction is path dependent . In the presence of friction , some energy is always lost in the form of heat . Thus mechanical energy is not conserved ."}
{"_id": "Funamanu", "title": "Funamanu", "headings": "", "text": "Funamanu is a small narrow island that is part of Funafuti atoll in Tuvalu . It is a motu ( islet ) or very small island and is located 2.6 miles southwestward of the southwest tip of Funafuti . The islet is known to be covered in coconut trees which grow 70 feet high . Te Ava Pua Pua is the passage through the reef , with a least depth of 12.7 metres , between the islets of Funamanu to the north and Fale Fatu to the south , in the southeast of Funafuti atoll .   Funamanu is an example of an isle on an atoll that is mainly composed of coral debris eroded from encircling reefs and pushed up onto the island by winds and waves . Paul Kench at the University of Auckland in New Zealand and Arthur Webb at the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission in Fiji released a study in 2010 on the dynamic response of reef islands to sea level rise in the central Pacific . Funamanu was mentioned in the study as being one of seven islands on the atolls of Tuvalu that have spread by more than 3 per cent on average since the 1950s . Funamanu gained 0.44 hectares , or nearly 30 per cent of its previous area .   The storm surge resulting from a tropical cyclone can dramatically shift coral debris . In 1972 Funafuti was in the path of Cyclone Bebe . Tropical Cyclone Bebe was a pre-season tropical cyclone that impacted the Gilbert , Ellice Islands , and Fiji island groups . First spotted on October 20 , the system intensified and grew in size through October 22 ."}
{"_id": "Fuse_(electrical)", "title": "Fuse (electrical)", "headings": "", "text": "In electronics and electrical engineering , a fuse is an electrical safety device that operates to provide overcurrent protection of an electrical circuit including the source of power and the load . Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current flows through it , thereby interrupting the current . It is a sacrificial device and once a fuse has operated it is an open circuit , and it must be replaced or rewired , depending on type .   Fuses have been used as essential safety devices from the early days of electrical engineering , and today there are thousands of different fuse designs which have specific current and voltage ratings , breaking capacity and response times , depending on the application . The time and current operating characteristics of fuses are chosen to provide adequate protection without needless interruption . Wiring regulations usually define a maximum fuse current rating for particular circuits . Short circuits , overloading , mismatched loads , or device failure are the prime reasons for fuse operation .   A fuse is an automatic means of removing power from a faulty system ; often abbreviated to ADS ( Automatic Disconnection of Supply ) . Circuit breakers can be used as an alternative design solution to fuses , but if used as direct replacements , their different characteristics must be taken into account ."}
{"_id": "Future_of_Earth", "title": "Future of Earth", "headings": "", "text": "The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes .   Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° .   During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth .   In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit ."}
{"_id": "Futures_studies", "title": "Futures studies", "headings": "", "text": "Futures studies ( also called futurology ) is the study of postulating possible , probable , and preferable futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them . There is a debate as to whether this discipline is an art or science . In general , it can be considered as a branch of the social sciences and parallel to the field of history . History studies the past , futures studies considers the future . Futures studies ( colloquially called `` futures '' by many of the field 's practitioners ) seeks to understand what is likely to continue and what could plausibly change . Part of the discipline thus seeks a systematic and pattern-based understanding of past and present , and to determine the likelihood of future events and trends . Unlike the physical sciences where a narrower , more specified system is studied , futures studies concerns a much bigger and more complex world system . The methodology and knowledge are much less proven as compared to natural science or even social science like sociology , economics , and political science ."}
{"_id": "GRACE_and_GRACE-FO", "title": "GRACE and GRACE-FO", "headings": "", "text": "The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) was a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR). Twin satellites took detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field anomalies from its launch in March 2002 to the end of its science mission in October 2017.  The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) is a continuation of the mission on near-identical hardware, launched in May 2018. By measuring gravity anomalies, GRACE showed how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate. GRACE was a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas at Austin, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the German Aerospace Center and Germany's National Research Center for Geosciences, Potsdam. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory was responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP (Earth System Science Pathfinder) program. The principal investigator is Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research, and the co-principal investigator is Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.The two GRACE satellites (GRACE-1 and GRACE-2) were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle on 17 March 2002.  The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89°.  During normal operations, the satellites were separated by 220 km along their orbit track. This system was able to gather global coverage every 30 days. GRACE far exceeded its 5-year design lifespan, operating for 15 years until the decommissioning of GRACE-2 on 27 October 2017. Its successor, GRACE-FO, was successfully launched on 22 May 2018. In 2019, a glacier in West Antarctica was named after the GRACE mission."}
{"_id": "Gaia_hypothesis", "title": "Gaia hypothesis", "headings": "", "text": "The Gaia hypothesis ( -LSB- ˈɡaɪ.ə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈɡeɪ.ə -RSB- ) , also known as the Gaia theory or the Gaia principle , proposes that organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic self-regulating , complex system that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet . Topics of interest include how the biosphere and the evolution of life forms affect the stability of global temperature , ocean salinity , oxygen in the atmosphere , the maintenance of a hydrosphere of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the habitability of Earth .   The hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock and co-developed by the microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s . The hypothesis was initially criticized for being teleological , and contradicting principles of natural selection , but later refinements aligned the Gaia hypothesis with ideas from fields such as Earth system science , biogeochemistry and systems ecology , with Lovelock referring to the `` geophysiology '' of the Earth . Even so , the Gaia hypothesis continues to attract criticism , and today some scientists consider it to be only weakly supported by , or at odds with , the available evidence . In 2006 , the Geological Society of London awarded Lovelock the Wollaston Medal in part for his work on the Gaia hypothesis ."}
{"_id": "Gainesville,_Florida", "title": "Gainesville, Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Gainesville is the county seat and largest city in Alachua County , Florida , United States , and the principal city of the Gainesville , Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) . The population of Gainesville in the 2013 US Census estimates was 127,488 , a 2.4 % growth from 2010 . Gainesville is the largest city in the region of North Central Florida . It is also a component of the Gainesville-Lake City Combined Statistical Area , which had a 2013 population of 337,925 .   Gainesville is home to the University of Florida , the nation 's ninth-largest university campus by enrollment , as well as to Santa Fe College . The Gainesville MSA was ranked as the No. 1 place to live in North America in the 2007 edition of Cities Ranked and Rated . Also in 2007 , Gainesville was ranked as one of the `` best places to live and play '' in the United States by National Geographic Adventure . Gainesville was ranked as the `` 5th meanest city '' in the United States by the National Coalition for the Homeless twice , first in 2004 for its criminalization of homelessness and then in 2009 for its ordinance restricting soup kitchens to 130 meals a day.Meanwhile , the 130-meal restriction has since been repealed ."}
{"_id": "Gale_(crater)", "title": "Gale (crater)", "headings": "", "text": "Gale is a crater , and probable dry lake on Mars near the northwestern part of the Aeolis quadrangle at . It is 154 km in diameter and estimated to be about 3.5-3 .8 billion years old . The crater was named after Walter Frederick Gale , an amateur astronomer from Sydney , Australia , who observed Mars in the late 19th century . Aeolis Mons is a mountain in the center of Gale and rises 5.5 km high . Aeolis Palus is the plain between the northern wall of Gale and the northern foothills of Aeolis Mons . Peace Vallis , a nearby outflow channel , ` flows ' down from the Gale crater hills to the Aeolis Palus below and seems to have been carved by flowing water .   The NASA Mars rover , Curiosity , of the Mars Science Laboratory ( MSL ) mission , landed in `` Yellowknife '' Quad 51 of Aeolis Palus in Gale at 05:32 UTC August 6 , 2012 . NASA named the landing location Bradbury Landing on August 22 , 2012 . Curiosity is exploring Aeolis Mons and surrounding areas ."}
{"_id": "Galileo_affair", "title": "Galileo affair", "headings": "", "text": "The Galileo affair was a sequence of events , beginning around 1610 , culminating with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of heliocentrism ( il processo a Galileo Galilei ) .   In 1610 , Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius ( Starry Messenger ) , describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope , namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter . With these observations he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus ( published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543 ) . Galileo 's initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church , and in 1616 the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical . Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding , teaching or defending heliocentric ideas .   Galileo went on to propose a theory of tides in 1616 , and of comets in 1619 ; he argued that the tides were evidence for the motion of the Earth . In 1632 Galileo , now an old man , published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , which implicitly defended heliocentrism , and was immensely popular . Responding to mounting controversy over theology , astronomy and philosophy , the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him `` vehemently suspect of heresy '' , sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment . Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642 ."}
{"_id": "Gambler's_fallacy", "title": "Gambler's fallacy", "headings": "", "text": "The gambler 's fallacy , also known as the Monte Carlo fallacy or the fallacy of the maturity of chances , is the mistaken belief that , if something happens more frequently than normal during some period , it will happen less frequently in the future , or that , if something happens less frequently than normal during some period , it will happen more frequently in the future ( presumably as a means of balancing nature ) . In situations where what is being observed is truly random ( i.e. , independent trials of a random process ) , this belief , though appealing to the human mind , is false . This fallacy can arise in many practical situations , but is most strongly associated with gambling , where such mistakes are common among players .   The use of the term Monte Carlo fallacy originates from the most famous example of this phenomenon , which occurred in a Monte Carlo Casino in 1913 ."}
{"_id": "Ganges", "title": "Ganges", "headings": "", "text": "The Ganges ( -LSB- ˈɡændʒiːz -RSB- ) , also Ganga ( -LSB- ˈɡəŋɡaː -RSB- ) , is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh . The 2525 km river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand , and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India into Bangladesh , where it empties into the Bay of Bengal . It is the third largest river in the world by discharge .   The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus . It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs . It is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism . It has also been important historically , with many former provincial or imperial capitals ( such as Kannauj , Kampilya , Kara , Prayag or Allahabad , Kashi , Pataliputra or Patna , Hajipur , Munger , Bhagalpur , Murshidabad , Baharampur , Nabadwip , Saptagram , Kolkata and Dhaka ) located on its banks .   The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007 . Pollution threatens not only humans , but also more than 140 fish species , 90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin . The levels of fecal coliform from human waste in the waters of the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the Indian government 's official limit . The Ganga Action Plan , an environmental initiative to clean up the river , has been a major failure thus far , due to corruption , lack of technical expertise , poor environmental planning , and lack of support from religious authorities ."}
{"_id": "Gas_exchange", "title": "Gas exchange", "headings": "", "text": "Gas exchange is the biological process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface . Typically , this surface is - or contains - a biological membrane that forms the boundary between an organism and its extracellular environment .   Gases are constantly consumed and produced by cellular and metabolic reactions in most living things , so an efficient system for their exchange is required . Smaller organisms , such as bacteria , have a high surface-area to volume ratio . In these unicellular organisms , the external boundary of the organism - typically the cell membrane - is usually sufficient for the necessary gas exchange . Some small multicellular organisms , such as flatworms , are also able to perform sufficient gas exchange across the skin or cuticle that surrounds their bodies . However , in most larger organisms , which have a small surface-area to volume ratio , specialised structures with convoluted surfaces such as gills , pulmonary alveoli and spongy mesophyll provide the additional area needed for effective gas exchange . These convoluted surfaces may sometimes be internalised into the body of the organism : this is the case for alveoli , which form the inner surface of the mammalian lung ; spongy mesophyll , which is found inside the leaves of some kinds of plant ; and the gills of those molluscs that have them , which may be found in the mantle cavity .   In aerobic organisms , gas exchange is particularly important for respiration , which involves the uptake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide . Conversely , in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms such as most land plants , uptake of carbon dioxide and release of both oxygen and water vapour are the main gas-exchange processes occurring during the day . Other gas-exchange processes are important in less familiar organisms : e.g. carbon dioxide , methane and hydrogen are exchanged across the cell membrane of methanogenic archaea ; nitrogen is exchanged in denitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria ; and hydrogen sulfide and other gases are exchanged in giant tube worms ."}
{"_id": "Gasoline", "title": "Gasoline", "headings": "", "text": "Gasoline ( American English ) or petrol ( British English ) , is a transparent , petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines . It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum , enhanced with a variety of additives . On average , a 42-gallon barrel of crude oil ( 159 L ) yields about 19 gal of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery , though this varies based on the crude oil source 's assay .   The characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist igniting too early ( which causes knocking and reduces efficiency in reciprocating engines ) is measured by its octane rating . Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating . Tetraethyllead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas to regulate and increase octane-rating , but many other additives are put into gasoline to improve its chemical stability , control corrosiveness and provide fuel system ` cleaning , ' and determine performance characteristics under intended use . Sometimes , gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel , for economic or environmental reasons .   Gasoline , as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry , has a significant impact on the environment , both in local effects ( e.g. , smog ) and in global effects ( e.g. , effect on the climate ) . Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted , as liquid and as vapors , from leakage and handling during production , transport and delivery , from storage tanks , from spills , etc. . As an example of efforts to control such leakage , many ( underground ) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks . Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens ."}
{"_id": "Gene", "title": "Gene", "headings": "", "text": "A gene ( from ancient Greek : γόνος , gonos ) is a locus ( or region ) of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity . The transmission of genes to an organism 's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits . These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes . Genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be . Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes ( many different genes ) as well as gene -- environment interactions . Some genetic traits are instantly visible , such as eye color or number of limbs , and some are not , such as blood type , risk for specific diseases , or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life .   Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence , leading to different variants , known as alleles , in the population . These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein , which cause different phenotypical traits . Usage of the term `` having a gene '' ( e.g. , `` good genes , '' `` hair colour gene '' ) typically refers to containing a different allele of the same , shared gene . Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles .   The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered . For example , regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions , and coding regions can be split into several exons . Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs . Therefore , a broad , modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable , genomic sequence which affect an organism 's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression ."}
{"_id": "General_circulation_model", "title": "General circulation model", "headings": "", "text": "A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components .   GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change .   Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations ."}
{"_id": "Genetics", "title": "Genetics", "headings": "", "text": "Genetics ( from ancient Greek γένεσις , genesis ) is the study of genes , genetic variation , and heredity in living organisms . It is generally considered a field of biology , but intersects frequently with many other life sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems .   The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel , a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian friar . Mendel studied `` trait inheritance '' , patterns in the way traits are handed down from parents to offspring . He observed that organisms ( pea plants ) inherit traits by way of discrete `` units of inheritance '' . This term , still used today , is a somewhat ambiguous definition of what is referred to as a gene .   Trait inheritance and molecular inheritance mechanisms of genes are still primary principles of genetics in the 21st century , but modern genetics has expanded beyond inheritance to studying the function and behavior of genes . Gene structure and function , variation , and distribution are studied within the context of the cell , the organism ( e.g. dominance ) , and within the context of a population . Genetics has given rise to a number of subfields , including epigenetics and population genetics . Organisms studied within the broad field span the domain of life , including bacteria , plants , animals , and humans .   Genetic processes work in combination with an organism 's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior , often referred to as nature versus nurture . The intracellular or extracellular environment of a cell or organism may switch gene transcription on or off . A classic example is two seeds of genetically identical corn , one placed in a temperate climate and one in an arid climate . While the average height of the two corn stalks may be genetically determined to be equal , the one in the arid climate only grows to half the height of the one in the temperate climate due to lack of water and nutrients in its environment ."}
{"_id": "Geobiology", "title": "Geobiology", "headings": "", "text": "Geobiology is a field of scientific research that explores the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere . It is a relatively young field , and its borders are fluid . There is considerable overlap with the fields of ecology , evolutionary biology , microbiology , paleontology , and particularly biogeochemistry . Geobiology applies the principles and methods of biology and geology to the study of the ancient history of the co-evolution of life and Earth as well as the role of life in the modern world . Geobiologic studies tend to be focused on microorganisms , and on the role that life plays in altering the chemical and physical environment of the lithosphere , atmosphere , hydrosphere and/or cryosphere . It differs from biogeochemistry in that the focus is on processes and organisms over space and time rather than on global chemical cycles .   Geobiological research synthesizes the geologic record with modern biologic studies . It deals with process - how organisms affect the Earth and vice versa - as well as history - how the Earth and life have changed together . Much research is grounded in the search for fundamental understanding , but geobiology can also be applied , as in the case of microbes that clean up oil spills .   Geobiology employs molecular biology , environmental microbiology , chemical analyses , and the geologic record to investigate the evolutionary interconnectedness of life and Earth . It attempts to understand how the Earth has changed since the origin of life and what it might have been like along the way . Some definitions of geobiology even push the boundaries of this time frame - to understanding the origin of life and to the role that man has played and will continue to play in shaping the Earth in the Anthropocene ."}
{"_id": "Geography_of_Tuvalu", "title": "Geography of Tuvalu", "headings": "", "text": "The Western Pacific nation of Tuvalu , formerly known as the Ellice Islands , is situated 4,000 km northeast of Australia and is approximately halfway between Hawaii and Australia . It lies east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands ( belonging to the Solomons ) , southeast of Nauru , south of Kiribati , west of Tokelau , northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna and north of Fiji .   Tuvalu consists of three reef islands and six atolls . The three reef islands are actually atolls , although they have a completely closed rim of dry land , with a lagoon that has no connection to the open sea or that may be drying up . For example , Niutao has two lakes , which are brackish to saline ; and are the degraded lagoon as the result of coral debris filling the lagoon .   The islands of Tuvalu have poor soil and a total land area of only about 26 km ² , less than 10 sqmi . The land is very low-lying , with narrow coral atolls . The highest elevation is 4.6 m above sea level on Niulakita .   Tuvalu experiences two distinct seasons , a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October . Westerly gales and heavy rain are the predominate weather conditions from October to March , the period that is known as Tau-o-lalo , with tropical temperatures moderated by easterly winds from April to November . In terms of size , it is the second-smallest country in Oceania ."}
{"_id": "Geoid", "title": "Geoid", "headings": "", "text": "The geoid is the shape that the surface of the oceans would take under the influence of Earth 's gravity and rotation alone , in the absence of other influences such as winds and tides . This surface is extended through the continents ( such as with very narrow hypothetical canals ) . All points on a geoid surface have the same gravitational potential energy ( the sum of gravitational potential energy and centrifugal potential energy ) . The geoid can be defined at any value of gravitational potential such as within the Earth 's crust or far out in space , not just at sea level . The force of gravity acts everywhere perpendicular to the geoid , meaning that plumb lines point perpendicular and water levels parallel to the geoid if only gravity and rotational acceleration were at work .   Specifically , the geoid is the equipotential surface that would coincide with the mean ocean surface of Earth if the oceans and atmosphere were in equilibrium , at rest relative to the rotating Earth , and extended through the continents ( such as with very narrow canals ) . According to Gauss , who first described it , it is the `` mathematical figure of Earth '' , a smooth but highly irregular surface whose shape results from the uneven distribution of mass within and on the surface of Earth . It does not correspond to the actual surface of Earth 's crust , but to a surface which can only be known through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations . Despite being an important concept for almost two hundred years in the history of geodesy and geophysics , it has only been defined to high precision since advances in satellite geodesy in the late 20th century . It is often described as the true physical figure of the Earth , in contrast to the idealized geometrical figure of a reference ellipsoid .   The surface of the geoid is higher than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a positive gravity anomaly ( mass excess ) and lower than the reference ellipsoid wherever there is a negative gravity anomaly ( mass deficit ) ."}
{"_id": "Geologic_temperature_record", "title": "Geologic temperature record", "headings": "", "text": "The Geologic temperature record are changes in Earth 's environment as determined from geologic evidence on multi-million to billion ( 109 ) year time scales . The study of past temperatures provides an important paleoenvironmental insight because it is a crucial component of the climate and oceanography of the time ."}
{"_id": "Geologist", "title": "Geologist", "headings": "", "text": "A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes that shape it . Geologists usually study geology , although backgrounds in physics , chemistry , biology , and other sciences are also useful . Field work is an important component of geology , although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work .   Some geologists work in the mining business searching for metals , oils , and other Earth resources . They are also in the forefront of natural hazards and disasters prevention and mitigation , studying natural hazards such as earthquakes , volcanic activity , tsunamis , weather storms . Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events . Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions ."}
{"_id": "Geology", "title": "Geology", "headings": "", "text": "Geology ( from the Ancient Greek γῆ , gē , i.e. `` earth '' and - λoγία , - logia , i.e. `` study of , discourse '' ) is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth , the rocks of which it is composed , and the processes by which they change over time . Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet ( such as the geology of the Moon or Mars ) .   Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the primary evidence for plate tectonics , the evolutionary history of life , and past climates . Geology is important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation , evaluating water resources , understanding of natural hazards , the remediation of environmental problems , and for providing insights into past climate change . Geology also plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic discipline ."}
{"_id": "Geology_of_Scotland", "title": "Geology of Scotland", "headings": "", "text": "The geology of Scotland is unusually varied for a country of its size , with a large number of differing geological features . There are three main geographical sub-divisions : the Highlands and Islands is a diverse area which lies to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault ; the Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations ; and the Southern Uplands , which lie south of the Southern Uplands Fault , are largely composed of Silurian deposits .   The existing bedrock includes very ancient Archean gneiss , metamorphic beds interspersed with granite intrusions created during the Caledonian mountain building period ( the Caledonian orogeny ) , commercially important coal , oil and iron bearing carboniferous deposits and the remains of substantial Paleogene volcanoes . During their formation , tectonic movements created climatic conditions ranging from polar to desert to tropical and a resultant diversity of fossil remains .   Scotland has also had a role to play in many significant discoveries such as plate tectonics and the development of theories about the formation of rocks and was the home of important figures in the development of the science including James Hutton ( the `` father of modern geology '' ) , Hugh Miller and Archibald Geikie . Various locations such as ` Hutton 's Unconformity ' at Siccar Point in Berwickshire and the Moine Thrust in the north west were also important in the development of geological science ."}
{"_id": "George_W._Bush", "title": "George W. Bush", "headings": "", "text": "George Walker Bush ( born July 6 , 1946 ) is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 . He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 . After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975 , he worked in the oil industry . Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter . He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . Bush was elected president in 2000 after a close and controversial win over Democratic rival Al Gore , becoming the fourth president to be elected while receiving fewer popular votes than his opponent .   From a prominent political family , he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush , the 41st President of the United States , making him only the second president to assume the nation 's highest office after his father , following the lead of John Quincy Adams . His brother , Jeb Bush , a former Governor of Florida , was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election . His paternal grandfather , Prescott Bush , was a United States Senator from Connecticut .   The September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bush 's first term as president . Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine : launching a `` War on Terror '' , an international military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001 and the Iraq War in 2003 . He also promoted policies on the economy , health care , education , Social Security reform , and amending the Constitution to prohibit same-sex marriage . He signed into law broad tax cuts , the Patriot Act , the No Child Left Behind Act , the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act , Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors , and funding for the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . His tenure included national debates on immigration , Social Security , electronic surveillance , and torture .   In the 2004 Presidential race , Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another relatively close election . After his re-election , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post-World War II recession , often referred to as the `` Great Recession '' , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis .   Bush left office in 2009 , returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford . He wrote a memoir , Decision Points . His presidential library was opened in 2013 . His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians ' polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s ."}
{"_id": "Georgia_(U.S._state)", "title": "Georgia (U.S. state)", "headings": "", "text": "Georgia ( -LSB- ˈdʒɔrdʒə -RSB- ) is a state in the southeastern United States . It began as a British colony in 1733 , the last of the original Thirteen Colonies . Named after King George II of Great Britain , the Province of Georgia covered the area from South Carolina down to Spanish Florida and New France along La Louisiane , also bordering to the west towards the Mississippi River . Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution , on January 2 , 1788 . In 1802-1804 , western Georgia was split to the Mississippi Territory , which later split to form Alabama with part of former West Florida in 1819 . Georgia declared its secession from the Union on January 19 , 1861 , and was one of the original seven Confederate states . It was the last state to be restored to the Union , on July 15 , 1870 . Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States . From 2007 to 2008 , 14 of Georgia 's counties ranked among the nation 's 100 fastest-growing , second only to Texas . Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South . Atlanta is the state 's capital , its most populous city , and has been named a global city .   Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida , to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina , to the west by Alabama , and to the north by Tennessee and North Carolina . The state 's northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains , part of the Appalachian Mountains system . The Piedmont extends through the central part of the state from the foothills of the Blue Ridge to the Fall Line , where the rivers cascade down in elevation to the coastal plain of the state 's southern part . Georgia 's highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4784 ft above sea level ; the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean . Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area ."}
{"_id": "Geothermal_energy", "title": "Geothermal energy", "headings": "", "text": "Geothermal energy is heat energy generated and stored in the Earth . Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter . The geothermal energy of the Earth 's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials ( in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions ) . The geothermal gradient , which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface , drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface . The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη ( ge ) , meaning earth , and θερμος ( thermos ) , meaning hot .   Earth 's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth 's formation . Temperatures at the core -- mantle boundary may reach over 4000 ° C ( 7,200 ° F ) . The high temperature and pressure in Earth 's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically , resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock . Rock and water is heated in the crust , sometimes up to 370 ° C ( 700 ° F ) .   From hot springs , geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times , but it is now better known for electricity generation . Worldwide , 11,700 megawatts ( MW ) of geothermal power is online in 2013 . An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating , space heating , spas , industrial processes , desalination and agricultural applications as of 2010 .   Geothermal power is cost-effective , reliable , sustainable , and environmentally friendly , but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries . Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources , especially for applications such as home heating , opening a potential for widespread exploitation . Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth , but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels .   The Earth 's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity 's energy needs , but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited . Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive . Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology , energy prices , subsidies , plate boundary movement and interest rates . Pilot programs like EWEB 's customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal . But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience , the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25 % over the past two decades . In 2001 , geothermal energy costs between two and ten US cents per kWh ."}
{"_id": "Geothermal_gradient", "title": "Geothermal gradient", "headings": "", "text": "Geothermal gradient is the rate of increasing temperature with respect to increasing depth in the Earth 's interior . Away from tectonic plate boundaries , it is about 25 ° C per km of depth ( 1 ° F per 70 feet of depth ) near the surface in most of the world . Strictly speaking , geo-thermal necessarily refers to the Earth but the concept may be applied to other planets . A line tracing the gradient through the planetary body is called a geotherm on Earth and other terrestrial planets . On the Moon it is called a selenotherm .   The Earth 's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion , heat produced through radioactive decay , and possibly heat from other sources . The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40 , uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 . At the center of the planet , the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa ( 3.6 million atm ) . Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay , scientists believe that early in Earth history , before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted , Earth 's heat production would have been much higher . Heat production was twice that of present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago , resulting in larger temperature gradients within the Earth , larger rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics , allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed anymore today ."}
{"_id": "Germany", "title": "Germany", "headings": "", "text": "Germany ( listen ) , is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe . It includes 16 constituent states , covers an area of 357,021 km2 , and has a largely temperate seasonal climate . With about 82 million inhabitants , Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union . After the United States , it is the second most popular immigration destination in the world . Germany 's capital and largest metropolis is Berlin , while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr ( main centres : Dortmund and Essen ) . The country 's other major cities are Hamburg , Munich , Cologne , Frankfurt , Stuttgart , Düsseldorf , Leipzig , Bremen , Dresden , Hannover and Nuremberg .   Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity . A region named Germania was documented before 100 AD . During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward . Beginning in the 10th century , German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire . During the 16th century , northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation . The remains of the Holy Roman Empire formed the German Confederation in 1815 , while the German revolutions of 1848 -- 49 established major democratic rights first .   In 1871 , Germany became a nation state when most of the German states were unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire . After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919 , the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic . In 1933 the Nazi seizure of power quickly led to the establishment of Nazi Germany which was built upon a dictatorship and consequently led to World War II and one of the biggest genocides in history , the Holocaust . By 1945 Germany and most of Europe were left in destruction and ruins . After the end of World War II in Europe and a period of Allied occupation , two German states were founded : the democratic Federal Republic of Germany ( commonly known as West Germany ) and the socialist German Democratic Republic ( commonly known as East Germany ) . A wall encircling West Berlin was created on August 13 , 1961 , and was torn down on November 9 , 1989 . On 3 October 1990 , the country was reunified .   In the 21st century , Germany is a great power and has the world 's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP , as well as the fifth-largest by PPP . As a global leader in several industrial and technological sectors , it is both the world 's third-largest exporter and importer of goods . Germany is a developed country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled and productive society . It upholds a social security and universal health care system , environmental protection and a tuition-free university education .   The Federal Republic of Germany was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957 and the European Union in 1993 . It is part of the Schengen Area , and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999 . Germany is a member of the United Nations , NATO , the G8 , the G20 , and the OECD . The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world . Known for its rich cultural history , Germany has been continuously the home of influential and successful artists , philosophers , musicians , sportspeople , entrepreneurs , scientists , engineers , and inventors ."}
{"_id": "Geysers_on_Mars", "title": "Geysers on Mars", "headings": "", "text": "Martian geysers (or CO2 jets) are putative sites of small gas and dust eruptions that occur in the south polar region of Mars during the spring thaw. \"Dark dune spots\" and \"spiders\" – or araneiforms  – are the two most visible types of features ascribed to these eruptions. Martian geysers are distinct from geysers on Earth, which are typically associated with hydrothermal activity. These are unlike any terrestrial geological phenomenon. The reflectance (albedo), shapes and unusual spider appearance of these features have stimulated a variety of hypotheses about their origin, ranging from differences in frosting reflectance, to explanations involving biological processes. However, all current geophysical models assume some sort of jet or geyser-like activity on Mars.  Their characteristics, and the process of their formation, are still a matter of debate. These features are unique to the south polar region of Mars in an area informally called the 'cryptic region', at latitudes 60° to 80° south and longitudes 150°W to 310°W;  this 1 meter deep  carbon dioxide (CO2) ice transition area—between the scarps of the thick polar ice layer and the permafrost—is where clusters of the apparent geyser systems are located. The seasonal frosting and defrosting of carbon dioxide ice results in the appearance of a number of features, such dark dune spots with spider-like rilles or channels below the ice, where spider-like radial channels are carved between the ground and the carbon dioxide ice, giving it an appearance of spider webs, then, pressure accumulating in their interior ejects gas and dark basaltic sand or dust, which is deposited on the ice surface and thus, forming dark dune spots.  This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars.  However, it would seem that multiple years would be required to carve the larger spider-like channels.  There is no direct data on these features other than images taken in the visible and infrared spectra."}
{"_id": "Glacier", "title": "Glacier", "headings": "", "text": "A glacier ( -LSB- pronˈɡleɪʃər -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɡlæsiə -RSB- ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight ; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation ( melting and sublimation ) over many years , often centuries . Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight , creating crevasses , seracs , and other distinguishing features . They also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines . Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water .   On Earth , 99 % of glacial ice is contained within vast ice sheets in the polar regions , but glaciers may be found in mountain ranges on every continent except Australia , and on a few high-latitude oceanic islands . Between 35 ° N and 35 ° S , glaciers occur only in the Himalayas , Andes , Rocky Mountains , a few high mountains in East Africa , Mexico , New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran . Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earth 's land surface . Continental glaciers cover nearly 5 e6sqmi or about 98 percent of Antarctica 's 5.1 e6sqmi , with an average thickness of 7,000 ft. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers .   Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth . Many glaciers from temperate , alpine and seasonal polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt , creating a water source that is especially important for plants , animals and human uses when other sources may be scant . Within high altitude and Antarctic environments , the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater .   Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes , e.g. , precipitation , mean temperature , and cloud cover , glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change and are a major source of variations in sea level .   A large piece of compressed ice , or a glacier , appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue . This is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue . The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles . Air bubbles , which give a white color to ice , are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice ."}
{"_id": "Glaciology", "title": "Glaciology", "headings": "", "text": "Glaciology ( from Latin : glacies , `` frost , ice '' , and Ancient Greek : λόγος , logos , `` subject matter '' ; literally `` study of ice '' ) is the scientific study of glaciers , or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice .   Glaciology is an interdisciplinary earth science that integrates geophysics , geology , physical geography , geomorphology , climatology , meteorology , hydrology , biology , and ecology . The impact of glaciers on people includes the fields of human geography and anthropology . The discoveries of water ice on the Moon , Mars , Europa and Pluto add an extraterrestrial component to the field , as in `` astroglaciology '' ."}
{"_id": "Glen_Canyon_Dam", "title": "Glen Canyon Dam", "headings": "", "text": "Glen Canyon Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam on the Colorado River in northern Arizona , United States , near the town of Page . The 710 ft high dam was built by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( USBR ) from 1956 to 1966 and forms Lake Powell , one of the largest man-made reservoirs in the U.S. with a capacity of 27 million acre feet ( 33 km3 ) . The dam is named for Glen Canyon , a series of deep sandstone gorges now flooded by the reservoir ; Lake Powell is named for John Wesley Powell , who in 1869 led the first expedition to traverse the Colorado 's Grand Canyon by boat .   A dam in Glen Canyon was studied as early as 1924 , but these plans were initially dropped in favor of a dam in Black Canyon ( the Hoover Dam , completed in 1936 ) . By the 1950s , due to rapid population growth in the seven U.S. and two Mexican states comprising the Colorado River Basin , the Bureau of Reclamation deemed the construction of additional reservoirs necessary . However , the USBR faced opposition when it proposed the Echo Park Dam in Utah 's Dinosaur National Monument , which the nascent environmental movement saw as a legal threat to the status of protected lands . After a long fight , the USBR agreed not to build the dam in Dinosaur , but only if the environmentalists did not oppose the proposed dam in Glen Canyon .   Since first filling to capacity in 1980 , Lake Powell water levels have fluctuated greatly depending on water demand and annual runoff . Operation of Glen Canyon Dam helps ensure an equitable distribution of water between the states of the Upper Colorado River Basin ( Colorado , Wyoming , and most of New Mexico and Utah ) and the Lower Basin ( California , Nevada and most of Arizona ) . During years of drought , Glen Canyon guarantees a water delivery to the Lower Basin states , without the need for rationing in the Upper Basin . In wet years , it captures extra runoff for future use . The dam is also a major source of hydroelectricity , averaging over 4 billion kilowatt hours per year . The long and winding Lake Powell , known for its scenic beauty and recreational opportunities including houseboating , fishing and water-skiing , attracts millions of tourists each year to the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area .   In addition to its flooding of the scenic Glen Canyon , the dam 's economic justification was highly questioned ; with what critics saw as unnecessary damage to the wilderness , it became `` a catalyst for the modern environmental movement , '' and was one of the last dams of its size to be built in the United States . The dam has been criticized for the huge evaporative losses from Lake Powell and its heavy impact on the ecology of the Grand Canyon , which lies downstream ; environmental groups continue to advocate for the dam 's removal . Water managers and utilities state that the dam is a major source of renewable energy and provides a vital defense against severe droughts ."}
{"_id": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "title": "Global Climate Coalition", "headings": "", "text": "The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism ."}
{"_id": "Global_Energy_and_Water_Exchanges", "title": "Global Energy and Water Exchanges", "headings": "", "text": "The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP).  In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future."}
{"_id": "Global_catastrophic_risk", "title": "Global catastrophic risk", "headings": "", "text": "A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk .   Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth ."}
{"_id": "Global_cooling", "title": "Global cooling", "headings": "", "text": "Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century ."}
{"_id": "Global_dimming", "title": "Global dimming", "headings": "", "text": "Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed .   Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action .   It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming ."}
{"_id": "Global_governance", "title": "Global governance", "headings": "", "text": "Global governance or world governance is a movement towards political cooperation among transnational actors , aimed at negotiating responses to problems that affect more than one state or region . Institutions of global governance -- the United Nations , the International Criminal Court , the World Bank , etc. -- tend to have limited or demarcated power to enforce compliance . The modern question of world governance exists in the context of globalization and globalizing regimes of power : politically , economically and culturally . In response to the acceleration of interdependence on a worldwide scale , both between human societies and between humankind and the biosphere , the term `` global governance '' may also be used to name the process of designating laws , rules , or regulations intended for a global scale .   Global governance is not a singular system . There is no `` world government '' but the many different regimes of global governance do have commonalities :"}
{"_id": "Global_issue", "title": "Global issue", "headings": "", "text": "Informally , a global issue describes any social , economic , political or environmental problem that affects the global community , possibly in a catastrophic way .   Solution to global issues requires cooperation among nations .   In their book Global Issues , Hite and Seitz emphasize that global issues are qualitatively different from international affairs and that the former arise from growing international interdependencies which makes the issues themselves interdependent ."}
{"_id": "Global_storm_activity_of_2009", "title": "Global storm activity of 2009", "headings": "", "text": "Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2009 to December 31 , 2009 . Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Summer storms including flooding , severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones ( which can occur in summer or winter ) are also included in this list to a certain extent .   As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010 . Victoria , the scene of horrific bushfires the year before , had a far colder summer , with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009 . August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010 . The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China , however , contributed to a severe drought in the southwest . Bolivia , Venezuela , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010 . On between May 12 and 26 , both Mauritania , the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010 .   A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather .   Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds ."}
{"_id": "Global_storm_activity_of_2010", "title": "Global storm activity of 2010", "headings": "", "text": "The global storm activity of 2010 includes major meteorological events in the Earth 's atmosphere during the year , including winter storms ( blizzards , ice storms , European windstorms ) , hailstorms , out of season monsoon rain storms , extratropical cyclones , gales , microbursts , flooding , rainstorms , tropical cyclones , and other severe weather events .   The thunderstorm season for the Northern Hemisphere began this time of year , beginning on March 1 , and ending on August 31 ."}
{"_id": "Global_temperature_record", "title": "Global temperature record", "headings": "", "text": "The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time.  The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began.  There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch.  Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology."}
{"_id": "Global_warming", "title": "Global warming", "headings": "", "text": "Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years .   In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .   Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .   Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) ,  whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change .   Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ."}
{"_id": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "title": "Global warming conspiracy theory", "headings": "", "text": "A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus .  Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both ."}
{"_id": "Global_warming_controversy", "title": "Global warming controversy", "headings": "", "text": "The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally .   Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be .   Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming ."}
{"_id": "Global_warming_hiatus", "title": "Global warming hiatus", "headings": "", "text": "A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods .   Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system .   Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified .   Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability ."}
{"_id": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "title": "Global warming in Antarctica", "headings": "", "text": "The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt ."}
{"_id": "Global_warming_potential", "title": "Global warming potential", "headings": "", "text": "Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 .  The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP .   The GWP depends on the following factors :  the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species  the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths  the atmospheric lifetime of the species  Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph .   Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change ."}
{"_id": "Glossary_of_fishery_terms", "title": "Glossary of fishery terms", "headings": "", "text": "This is a glossary of terms used in fisheries , fisheries management and fisheries science ."}
{"_id": "Glossary_of_geography_terms", "title": "Glossary of geography terms", "headings": "", "text": "Geographical terms are words or phrases which describe and identify natural phenomenons , geographical locations , spatial dimension and natural resources . Geographical terms are classified according to their functions , such as description , explanation , analysing , evaluating and integrating .   This is a list of geographical terms in alphabetical order ."}
{"_id": "Gondwana", "title": "Gondwana", "headings": "", "text": "In paleogeography , Gondwana ( -LSB- pronɡɒndˈwɑːnə -RSB- ) , also Gondwanaland , is the name given to an ancient supercontinent . It is believed to have sutured about , joining East Gondwana to West Gondwana . Gondwana formed prior to Pangaea , and later became part of it .   Around , Gondwana and Laurasia joined together to form the supercontinent Pangaea , which existed until approximately . Gondwana then separated from Laurasia ( the mid-Mesozoic era ) in the breakup of Pangaea , drifting farther south after the split . Gondwana itself then also broke apart .   Gondwana included most of the landmasses in today 's Southern Hemisphere , including Antarctica , South America , Africa , Madagascar , and the Australian continent , as well as the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent , which have now moved entirely into the Northern Hemisphere .   The continent of Gondwana was named by Austrian scientist Eduard Suess , after the Gondwana region of central northern India which is derived from Sanskrit for `` forest of the Gonds '' . The name had been previously used in a geological context , first by H.B. Medlicott in 1872 , from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences ( Permian-Triassic ) are also described .   The adjective `` Gondwanan '' is in common use in biogeography when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms , typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana , including the Antarctic flora . For example , the plant family Proteaceae , known only from southern South America , South Africa , Australia , and New Zealand , is considered to have a `` Gondwanan distribution '' . This pattern is often considered to indicate an archaic , or relict , lineage ."}
{"_id": "Google", "title": "Google", "headings": "", "text": "Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products . These include online advertising technologies , search , cloud computing , software , and hardware . Google was founded in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph.D. students at Stanford University , in California . Together , they own about 14 percent of its shares , and control 56 percent of the stockholder voting power through supervoting stock . They incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4 , 1998 . An initial public offering ( IPO ) took place on August 19 , 2004 , and Google moved to its new headquarters in Mountain View , California , nicknamed the Googleplex . In August 2015 , Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. . Google , Alphabet 's leading subsidiary , will continue to be the umbrella company for Alphabet 's Internet interests . Upon completion of the restructure , Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google , replacing Larry Page , who became CEO of Alphabet .   Rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products , acquisitions , and partnerships beyond Google 's core search engine ( Google Search ) . It offers services designed for work and productivity ( Google Docs , Sheets and Slides ) , email ( Gmail/Inbox ) , scheduling and time management ( Google Calendar ) , cloud storage ( Google Drive ) , social networking ( Google + ) , instant messaging and video chat ( Google Allo/Duo/Hangouts ) , language translation ( Google Translate ) , mapping and turn-by-turn navigation ( Google Maps ) , video sharing ( YouTube ) , notetaking ( Google Keep ) , and photo organizing and editing ( Google Photos ) . The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system , the Google Chrome web browser , and Chrome OS , a lightweight operating system based on the Chrome browser . Google has moved increasingly into hardware ; from 2010 to 2015 , it partnered with major electronics manufacturers in the production of its Nexus devices , and in October 2016 , it released multiple hardware products ( including the Google Pixel smartphone , Home smart speaker , Wifi mesh wireless router , and Daydream View virtual reality headset ) . The new hardware chief , Rick Osterloh , stated : `` a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience '' . Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier . In February 2010 , it announced Google Fiber , a fiber-optic infrastructure that was installed in Kansas City ; in April 2015 , it launched Project Fi in the United States , combining Wi-Fi and cellular networks from different providers ; and in 2016 , it announced the Google Station initiative to make public Wi-Fi around the world , which had already been deployed in India .   Alexa , a company that monitors commercial web traffic , lists Google.com as the most visited website in the world . Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites , including YouTube and Blogger . Google has been the second most valuable brand in the world for 4 consecutive years , but has received significant criticism involving issues such as privacy concerns , tax avoidance , antitrust , censorship , and search neutrality . Google 's mission statement , from the outset , was `` to organize the world 's information and make it universally accessible and useful '' , and its unofficial slogan was `` Do n't be evil '' . In October 2015 , the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase `` Do the right thing '' ."}
{"_id": "Google_Scholar", "title": "Google Scholar", "headings": "", "text": "Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines . Released in beta in November 2004 , the Google Scholar index includes most peer-reviewed online academic journals and books , conference papers , theses and dissertations , preprints , abstracts , technical reports , and other scholarly literature , including court opinions and patents . While Google does not publish the size of Google Scholar 's database , third-party researchers estimated it to contain roughly 160 million documents as of May 2014 and an earlier statistical estimate published in PLOS ONE using a Mark and recapture method estimated approximately 80-90 % coverage of all articles published in English with an estimate of 100 million . This estimate also determined how many documents were freely available on the web .   Google Scholar is similar in function to the freely available CiteSeerX and getCITED . It also resembles the subscription-based tools , Elsevier 's Scopus and Thomson Reuters ' Web of Science ."}
{"_id": "Gordon_Brown", "title": "Gordon Brown", "headings": "", "text": "James Gordon Brown ( born 20 February 1951 ) is a British politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 to 2010 . He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Blair Government from 1997 to 2007 . Brown was a Member of Parliament ( MP ) from 1983 to 2015 , first for Dunfermline East and later for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath .   A doctoral graduate of the University of Edinburgh , Brown spent his early career working as both a lecturer at a further education college and a television journalist . He entered Parliament in 1983 as the MP for Dunfermline East . He joined the Shadow Cabinet in 1989 as Shadow Secretary of State for Trade , and was later promoted to become Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1992 . After Labour 's victory in 1997 , he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer , becoming the longest-serving holder of that office in modern history .   Brown 's time as Chancellor was marked by major reform of Britain 's monetary and fiscal policy architecture , transferring interest rate setting powers to the Bank of England , by a wide extension of the powers of the Treasury to cover much domestic policy and by transferring responsibility for banking supervision to the Financial Services Authority . Controversial moves included the abolition of advance corporation tax ( ACT ) relief in his first budget , and the removal in his final budget of the 10 % `` starting rate '' of personal income tax which he had introduced in 1999 . In 2007 , Tony Blair resigned as Prime Minister and Labour Leader and Brown was chosen to replace him in an uncontested election .   After initial rises in opinion polls following Brown becoming Prime Minister , Labour 's popularity declined with the onset of a recession in 2008 , leading to poor results in the local and European elections in 2009 . A year later , Labour lost 91 seats in the House of Commons at the 2010 general election , the party 's biggest loss of seats in a single general election since 1931 , making the Conservatives the largest party in a hung parliament . Brown remained in office as Labour negotiated to form a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats . On 10 May 2010 , Brown announced he would stand down as leader of the Labour Party , and instructed the party to put into motion the processes to elect a new leader . Labour 's attempts to retain power failed and on 11 May , he officially resigned as Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party . He was succeeded as Prime Minister by David Cameron , and as Leader of the Labour Party by Ed Miliband .   Later , Brown played a prominent role in the campaign surrounding the Scottish independence referendum of 2014 , galvanising support behind maintaining the union ."}
{"_id": "Granger_causality", "title": "Granger causality", "headings": "", "text": "The Granger causality test is a statistical hypothesis test for determining whether one time series is useful in forecasting another , first proposed in 1969 . Ordinarily , regressions reflect `` mere '' correlations , but Clive Granger argued that causality in economics could be tested for by measuring the ability to predict the future values of a time series using prior values of another time series . Since the question of `` true causality '' is deeply philosophical , and because of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy of assuming that one thing preceding another can be used as a proof of causation , econometricians assert that the Granger test finds only `` predictive causality '' .   A time series X is said to Granger-cause Y if it can be shown , usually through a series of t-tests and F-tests on lagged values of X ( and with lagged values of Y also included ) , that those X values provide statistically significant information about future values of Y.   Granger also stressed that some studies using `` Granger causality '' testing in areas outside economics reached `` ridiculous '' conclusions . `` Of course , many ridiculous papers appeared '' , he said in his Nobel lecture . However , it remains a popular method for causality analysis in time series due to its computational simplicity . The original definition of Granger causality does not account for latent confounding effects and does not capture instantaneous and non-linear causal relationships , though several extensions have been proposed to address these issues ."}
{"_id": "Gravimeter", "title": "Gravimeter", "headings": "", "text": "A gravimeter is an instrument used in gravimetry for measuring the local gravitational field of the Earth . A gravimeter is a type of accelerometer , specialized for measuring the constant downward acceleration of gravity , which varies by about 0.5 % over the surface of the Earth . Though the essential principle of design is the same as in other accelerometers , gravimeters are typically designed to be much more sensitive in order to measure very tiny fractional changes within the Earth 's gravity of 1 g , caused by nearby geologic structures or the shape of the Earth and by temporal tidal variations . This sensitivity means that gravimeters are susceptible to extraneous vibrations including noise that tend to cause oscillatory accelerations . In practice this is counteracted by integral vibration isolation and signal processing . The constraints on temporal resolution are usually less for gravimeters , so that resolution can be increased by processing the output with a longer time constant . Gravimeters display their measurements in units of gals ( cm/s2 ) , instead of more common units of acceleration .   Gravimeters are used for petroleum and mineral prospecting , seismology , geodesy , geophysical surveys and other geophysical research , and for metrology .   There are two types of gravimeters : relative and absolute . Absolute gravimeters measure the local gravity in absolute units , gals . Relative gravimeters compare the value of gravity at one point with another . They must be calibrated at a location where the gravity is known accurately , and then transported to the location where the gravity is to be measured . They measure the ratio of the gravity at the two points ."}
{"_id": "Gravity_Probe_B", "title": "Gravity Probe B", "headings": "", "text": "Gravity Probe B ( GP-B ) was a satellite-based mission which launched on 20 April 2004 on a Delta II rocket . The spaceflight phase lasted until 2005 ; its aim was to measure spacetime curvature near Earth , and thereby the stress -- energy tensor ( which is related to the distribution and the motion of matter in space ) in and near Earth . This provided a test of general relativity , gravitomagnetism and related models . The principal investigator was Francis Everitt .   Initial results confirmed the expected geodetic effect to an accuracy of about 1 % . The expected frame-dragging effect was similar in magnitude to the current noise level ( the noise being dominated by initially unmodeled effects due to nonuniform coatings on the gyroscopes ) . Work continued to model and account for these sources of error , thus permitting extraction of the frame-dragging signal . By August 2008 , the frame-dragging effect had been confirmed to within 15 % of the expected result , and the December 2008 NASA report indicated that the geodetic effect was confirmed to better than 0.5 % .   In an article published in the journal Physical Review Letters in 2011 , the authors reported analysis of the data from all four gyroscopes results in a geodetic drift rate of and a frame-dragging drift rate of , in good agreement with the general relativity predictions of and , respectively ."}
{"_id": "Gravity_of_Mars", "title": "Gravity of Mars", "headings": "", "text": "The gravity of Mars is a natural phenomenon, due to the law of gravity, or gravitation, by which all things with mass around the planet Mars are brought towards it. It is weaker than Earth's gravity due to the planet's smaller mass. The average gravitational acceleration on Mars is 3.72076 ms−2 (about 38% of that of Earth) and it varies laterally. In general, topography-controlled isostasy drives the short wavelength free-air gravity anomalies. At the same time, convective flow and finite strength of the mantle lead to long-wavelength planetary-scale free-air gravity anomalies over the entire planet. Variation in crustal thickness, magmatic and volcanic activities, impact-induced Moho-uplift, seasonal variation of polar ice caps, atmospheric mass variation and variation of porosity of the crust could also correlate to the lateral variations. Over the years models consisting of an increasing but limited number of spherical harmonics have been produced. Maps produced have included free-air gravity anomaly, Bouguer gravity anomaly, and crustal thickness. In some areas of Mars there is a correlation between gravity anomalies and topography.  Given the known topography, higher resolution gravity field can be inferred. Tidal deformation of Mars by the Sun or Phobos can be measured by its gravity. This reveals how stiff the interior is, and shows that the core is partially liquid. The study of surface gravity of Mars can therefore yield information about different features and provide beneficial information for future landing projects."}
{"_id": "Great_Barrier_Reef", "title": "Great Barrier Reef", "headings": "", "text": "The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia .   The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland .   A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 .   The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef .   A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change ."}
{"_id": "Great_Lakes", "title": "Great Lakes", "headings": "", "text": "The Great Lakes ( les Grands-Lacs ) , also called the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Great Lakes of North America , are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located primarily in the upper mid-east region of North America , on the Canada -- United States border , which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River . Consisting of Lakes Superior , Michigan , Huron ( or Michigan -- Huron ) , Erie , and Ontario , they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area , and second largest by total volume containing 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water by volume . The total surface is 94250 sqmi , and the total volume ( measured at the low water datum ) is 5439 cumi . Due to their sea-like characteristics ( rolling waves , sustained winds , strong currents , great depths , and distant horizons ) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas . Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area , and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country . The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis .   The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago , as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land which then filled with meltwater . The lakes have been a major highway for transportation , migration and trade , and they are home to a large number of aquatic species . Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade , and some threaten the region 's biodiversity ."}
{"_id": "Great_Lakes_Storm_of_1913", "title": "Great Lakes Storm of 1913", "headings": "", "text": "The Great Lakes Storm of 1913 , historically referred to as the `` Big Blow , '' the `` Freshwater Fury , '' or the `` White Hurricane , '' was a blizzard with hurricane-force winds that devastated the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and the province of Ontario in Canada from November 7 through November 10 , 1913 . The storm was most powerful on November 9 , battering and overturning ships on four of the five Great Lakes , particularly Lake Huron . Deceptive lulls in the storm and the slow pace of weather reports contributed to the storm 's destructiveness .   The deadliest and most destructive natural disaster to hit the lakes in recorded history , the Great Lakes Storm killed more than 250 people , destroyed 19 ships , and stranded 19 others . The financial loss in vessels alone was nearly US $ 5 million ( or about $ in today 's dollars ) . This included about $ 1 million at current value in lost cargo totalling about 68,300 tons , such as coal , iron ore , and grain .   The storm , an extratropical cyclone , originated as the convergence of two major storm fronts , fueled by the lakes ' relatively warm waters -- a seasonal process called a `` November gale '' . It produced 90 mph ( 145 km/h ) wind gusts , waves over 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , and whiteout snowsqualls . Analysis of the storm and its impact on humans , engineering structures , and the landscape led to better forecasting and faster responses to storm warnings , stronger construction ( especially of marine vessels ) , and improved preparedness ."}
{"_id": "Great_Salt_Lake", "title": "Great Salt Lake", "headings": "", "text": "The Great Salt Lake , located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah , is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere , and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world . In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1700 sqmi , but the lake 's size fluctuates substantially due to its shallowness . For instance , in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles ( 2,460 km ² ) , but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3300 sqmi . In terms of surface area , it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region .   The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville , a prehistoric pluvial lake that once covered much of western Utah . The three major tributaries to the lake , the Jordan , Weber , and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake each year . As it is endorheic ( has no outlet besides evaporation ) , it has very high salinity , far saltier than seawater , which makes swimming similar to floating , and its mineral content is steadily increasing . Its shallow , warm waters cause frequent , sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring .   Although it has been called `` America 's Dead Sea '' , the lake provides habitat for millions of native birds , brine shrimp , shorebirds , and waterfowl , including the largest staging population of Wilson 's phalarope in the world ."}
{"_id": "Green-collar_worker", "title": "Green-collar worker", "headings": "", "text": "A green-collar worker is a worker who is employed in the environmental sectors of the economy . Environmental green-collar workers ( or green jobs ) satisfy the demand for green development . Generally , they implement environmentally conscious design , policy , and technology to improve conservation and sustainability . Formal environmental regulations as well as informal social expectations are pushing many firms to seek professionals with expertise with environmental , energy efficiency , and clean renewable energy issues . They often seek to make their output more sustainable , and thus more favorable to public opinion , governmental regulation , and the Earth 's ecology .   Green collar workers include professionals such as conservation movement workers , environmental consultants , council environmental services/waste management/recycling managers/officers , environmental or biological systems engineers , green building architects , landscape architects , holistic passive solar building designers , solar energy and wind energy engineers and installers , nuclear engineers , green vehicle engineers , `` green business '' owners , green vehicle , organic farmers , environmental lawyers , ecology educators , and ecotechnology workers , and sales staff working with these services or products . Green collar workers also include vocational or trade-level workers : electricians who install solar panels , plumbers who install solar water heaters , recycling centre/MRF attendants , process managers and collectors , construction workers who build energy-efficient green buildings and wind power farms , construction workers who weatherize buildings to make them more energy efficient , or other workers involved in clean , renewable , sustainable future energy development .   There is a growing movement to incorporate social responsibility within the green industries . A sustainable green economy simultaneously values the importance of natural resources and inclusive , equitable , and healthy opportunities for all communities .   In the context of the current world economic crisis , many experts now argue that a massive push to develop renewable sources of energy could create millions of new jobs and help the economy recover while simultaneously improving the environment , increasing labour conditions in poor economies , and strengthening energy and food security ."}
{"_id": "Green_Climate_Fund", "title": "Green Climate Fund", "headings": "", "text": "The Green Climate Fund ( GCF ) is a fund within the framework of the UNFCCC founded as a mechanism to assist developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change . The GCF is based in the new Songdo district of Incheon , South Korea . It is governed by a Board of 24 members and initially supported by a Secretariat .   `` The Green Climate Fund will support projects , programmes , policies and other activities in developing country Parties using thematic funding windows '' . It is intended to be the centrepiece of efforts to raise Climate Finance of $ 100 billion a year by 2020 . This is not an official figure for the size of the Fund itself , however . Disputes also remain as to whether the funding target will be based on public sources , or whether `` leveraged '' private finance will be counted towards the total . A total of US$ 10.3 billion has been pledged so far , which is meant to cover investments over a four year period . Only a fraction of this sum had been pledged as of July 2013 , mostly to cover start-up costs .   According to the Climate & Development Knowledge Network , at the third meeting of the Board in Berlin in March 2013 , members agreed on how to move forward with the fund 's Business Model Framework ( BMF ) . They identified the need to assess various options for how nations could access the fund , approaches for involving the private sector , plus ways to measure results and ensure requests for monies are country-driven . At the fourth Board meeting in Songdo , South Korea , in June 2013 , Hela Cheikhrouhou , a Tunisian national , was selected to become the Fund 's first Executive Director . Cheikhrouhou left the Fund in September 201"}
{"_id": "Greenhouse", "title": "Greenhouse", "headings": "", "text": "A greenhouse ( also called a glasshouse , or , if with sufficient heating , a hothouse ) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material , such as glass , in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown . These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings . A miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame . The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the external ambient temperature , protecting its contents in cold weather .   Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers . The glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations , heating , cooling , lighting , and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth . Different techniques are then used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate ( i.e. , air temperature , relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit ) in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop ."}
{"_id": "Greenhouse_effect", "title": "Greenhouse effect", "headings": "", "text": "The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere .   If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains .   On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect .   Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming .   The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure ."}
{"_id": "Greenhouse_gas", "title": "Greenhouse gas", "headings": "", "text": "A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect .   Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture .   It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 ."}
{"_id": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "title": "Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States", "headings": "", "text": "According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand .   While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 .   The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels ."}
{"_id": "Greenland", "title": "Greenland", "headings": "", "text": "Greenland ( -LSB- ˈɡriːnlənd -RSB- Kalaallit Nunaat -LSB- kaˈlaːɬit ˈnunaːt -RSB- Grønland -LSB- ˈɡ̊ʁɶnˌlanˀ -RSB- ) is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans , east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America , Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe ( specifically Norway and Denmark , the colonial powers , as well as the nearby island of Iceland ) for more than a millennium . The majority of its residents are Inuit , whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century , gradually settling across the island .   Greenland is the world 's largest island ( Australia , although larger , is generally considered to be a continental landmass rather than an island ) . Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica . With a population of about 56,480 ( 2013 ) , it is the least densely populated country in the world . The Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland , connecting the various cities and settlements .   Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada . Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century , and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century . The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century . Soon after their demise , beginning in 1499 , the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island , naming it Terra do Lavrador ( later applied to Labrador in Canada ) . In the early 18th century , Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again . To strengthen trading and power , Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island .   Denmark -- Norway claimed Greenland for centuries . Greenland was settled by Vikings ( of Norwegian origin ) more than a thousand years ago , who had previously settled Iceland to escape persecution from the King of Norway and his central government . Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland , encountering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean islands . They attempted to colonize land . Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians , Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262 . The Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century . Norway was dramatically hit with a larger death toll than Denmark by the Black Death , forcing Norway to accept a union in which the central government , university and other fundamental institutions were located in Copenhagen . Thus , the two kingdoms ' resources were directed at creating Copenhagen . Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved . Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814 , and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark .   In 1973 , Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark . However , in a referendum in 1982 , a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985 . Greenland contains the world 's largest and most northernly national park , Northeast Greenland National Park ( Kalaallit Nunaanni nuna eqqissisimatitaq ) . Established in 1974 and expanded to its present size in 1988 , it protects 972001 km2 of the interior and northeastern coast of Greenland and is bigger than all but twenty-nine countries in the world . Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq , Kujalleq , Qaasuitsup , and Qeqqata .   In 1979 , Denmark had granted home rule to Greenland , and in 2008 , Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act , which transferred more power from the Danish royal government to the local Greenlandic government . Under the new structure , in effect since 21 June 2009 , Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing , judicial system , company law , accounting , and auditing ; mineral resource activities ; aviation ; law of legal capacity , family law and succession law ; aliens and border controls ; the working environment ; and financial regulation and supervision , while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence . It also retains control of monetary policy , providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK 3.4 billion , which is planned to diminish gradually over time . Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources . The capital , Nuuk , held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games . At 70 % , Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world , mostly coming from hydropower ."}
{"_id": "Greenland_ice_sheet", "title": "Greenland ice sheet", "headings": "", "text": "The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland .   It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap ."}
{"_id": "Greenpeace", "title": "Greenpeace", "headings": "", "text": "Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over 40 countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam , the Netherlands . Founded by Canadian and US ex-pat environmental activists in 1971 , Greenpeace states its goal is to `` ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity '' and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change , deforestation , overfishing , commercial whaling , genetic engineering , and anti-nuclear issues . It uses direct action , lobbying , research , and ecotage to achieve its goals . The global organization does not accept funding from governments , corporations , or political parties , relying on 2.9 million individual supporters and foundation grants . Greenpeace has a general consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council and is a founding member of the INGO Accountability Charter ; an international non-governmental organization that intends to foster accountability and transparency of non-governmental organizations .   Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described as the most visible environmental organization in the world . Greenpeace has raised environmental issues to public knowledge , and influenced both the private and the public sector . Greenpeace has also been a source of controversy ; its motives and methods ( some of the latter being illegal ) have received criticism , including an open letter from more than 100 Nobel laureates urging Greenpeace to end its campaign against genetically modified organisms ( GMOs ) . The organization 's direct actions have sparked legal actions against Greenpeace activists , such as fines and suspended sentences for destroying a test plot of genetically modified wheat and damaging the Nazca Lines , a UN World Heritage site in Peru ."}
{"_id": "Grissom_Air_Reserve_Base", "title": "Grissom Air Reserve Base", "headings": "", "text": "Grissom Air Reserve Base is a United States Air Force base , located about 12 mi north of Kokomo in Cass County , Indiana and Miami County , Indiana . The facility was established as Naval Air Station Bunker Hill in 1942 and an active Air Force installation from 1954 to 1994 . Since then it is a joint-use civil airport/military base with the Grissom Aeroplex providing general aviation and charter service .   The base is named in memory of astronaut and Indiana native Virgil I. `` Gus '' Grissom , who , along with fellow astronauts Ed White and Roger Chaffee , perished in the Apollo 1 fire at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 in 1967 ."}
{"_id": "Grizzly_bear", "title": "Grizzly bear", "headings": "", "text": "The grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos ssp . ) , less commonly known as the silvertip bear , is a large subspecies of brown bear inhabiting North America . Scientists generally do not use the name grizzly bear but call it the North American brown bear .   Multiple morphological forms sometimes recognized as subspecies exist , including the mainland grizzly ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) , Kodiak bear ( U. a. middendorffi ) , peninsular grizzly ( U. a. gyas ) , and the recently extinct California grizzly ( U. a. californicus † ) and Mexican grizzly bear ( U. a. nelsoni † ) . On average bears near the coast tend to be larger while inland Grizzlies tend to be smaller .   The Ussuri brown bear ( U. a. lasiotus ) inhabiting Russia , Northern China , and Korea is sometimes referred to as black grizzly although it is a different subspecies from the bears in America ."}
{"_id": "Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States", "title": "Gulf Coast of the United States", "headings": "", "text": "The Gulf Coast of the United States is the coastline along which the Southern United States meets the Gulf of Mexico . The coastal states that have a shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico are Texas , Louisiana , Mississippi , Alabama , and Florida , and these are known as the Gulf States .   The economy of the Gulf Coast area is dominated by industries related to energy , petrochemicals , fishing , aerospace , agriculture , and tourism . The large cities of the region are ( from west to east ) Brownsville , Corpus Christi , Houston , Galveston , Beaumont , Lafayette , Baton Rouge , New Orleans , Biloxi , Mobile , Pensacola , St. Petersburg , Tampa , and increasingly , Sarasota ; all are the centers of their respective metropolitan areas and contain large ports . ( Baton Rouge is relatively far from the Gulf of Mexico ; its port is on the Mississippi River , as is the port of New Orleans . )"}
{"_id": "Gulf_Stream", "title": "Gulf Stream", "headings": "", "text": "The Gulf Stream , together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Drift , is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida , and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean . The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America . At about , it splits in two , with the northern stream , the North Atlantic Drift , crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream , the Canary Current , recirculating off West Africa .   The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland , and the west coast of Europe . Although there has been recent debate , there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream . It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre . Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types , both within the atmosphere and within the ocean . The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation . The Gulf Stream may be slowing down as a result of climate change .   The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) wide and 800 metres ( 2,600 ft ) to 1,200 metres ( 3,900 ft ) deep . The current velocity is fastest near the surface , with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second ( 5.6 mph ) ."}
{"_id": "Gulf_War", "title": "Gulf War", "headings": "", "text": "The Gulf War ( 2 August 1990 -- 28 February 1991 ) , codenamed Operation Desert Shield ( 2 August 1990 -- 17 January 1991 ) for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm ( 17 January 1991 -- 28 February 1991 ) in its combat phase , was a war waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq 's invasion and annexation of Kuwait .   The war is also known under other names , such as the Persian Gulf War , First Gulf War , Gulf War I , Kuwait War , First Iraq War , or Iraq War before the term `` Iraq War '' became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War ( also referred to in the US as `` Operation Iraqi Freedom '' ) .  The Iraqi Army 's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation , and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council . US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia , and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene . An array of nations joined the coalition , the largest military alliance since World War II . The great majority of the coalition 's military forces were from the US , with Saudi Arabia , the United Kingdom , and Egypt as leading contributors , in that order . Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$ 32 billion of the US$ 60 billion cost .   The war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle , principally by the US network CNN . The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm .   The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 , continuing for five weeks . This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February . This was a decisive victory for the coalition forces , who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory . The coalition ceased its advance , and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the ground campaign started . Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq , Kuwait , and areas on Saudi Arabia 's border . Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel ."}
{"_id": "Habitat_destruction", "title": "Habitat destruction", "headings": "", "text": "Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species present . In this process , the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed , reducing biodiversity . Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization . Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction . Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining , logging , trawling and urban sprawl . Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide . It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation , geological processes , climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , and other human activities   The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense , including loss of habitat from other factors , such as water and noise pollution ."}
{"_id": "Hawthorne_effect", "title": "Hawthorne effect", "headings": "", "text": "The Hawthorne effect ( also referred to as the observer effect ) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed . The original research at the Hawthorne Works in Cicero , Illinois , on lighting changes and work structure changes such as working hours and break times was originally interpreted by Elton Mayo and others to mean that paying attention to overall worker needs would improve productivity . Later interpretations such as that done by Landsberger suggested that the novelty of being research subjects and the increased attention from such could lead to temporary increases in workers ' productivity . This interpretation was dubbed `` the Hawthorne effect '' ."}
{"_id": "Hazard", "title": "Hazard", "headings": "", "text": "A hazard is a situation that poses a level of threat to life , health , property , or environment . Hazards can be dormant or potential , with only a theoretical risk of harm ; however , once a hazard becomes `` active '' , it can create an emergency . A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an incident . Hazard , consequence and probability interact together to create risk .   Identification of hazard risks is the first step in performing a risk assessment ."}
{"_id": "Headlamp", "title": "Headlamp", "headings": "", "text": "A headlamp is a lamp attached to the front of a vehicle to light the road ahead . While it is common for the term headlight to be used interchangeably in informal discussion , headlamp is the term for the device itself , while headlight properly refers to the beam of light produced and distributed by the device .   Headlamp performance has steadily improved throughout the automobile age , spurred by the great disparity between daytime and nighttime traffic fatalities : the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration states that nearly half of all traffic-related fatalities occur in the dark , despite only 25 % of traffic travelling during darkness .   Other vehicles , such as trains and aircraft , are required to have headlamps . Bicycle headlamps are often used on bicycles , and are required in some jurisdictions . They can be powered by a battery or a small generator mechanically integrated into the workings of the bicycles ."}
{"_id": "Heat_flux_sensor", "title": "Heat flux sensor", "headings": "", "text": "A heat flux sensor is a transducer that generates an electrical signal proportional to the total heat rate applied to the surface of the sensor . The measured heat rate is divided by the surface area of the sensor to determine the heat flux .   The heat flux can have different origins ; in principle convective , radiative as well as conductive heat can be measured . Heat flux sensors are known under different names , such as heat flux transducers , heat flux gauges , heat flux plates . Some instruments that actually are single-purpose heat flux sensors like pyranometers for solar radiation measurement . Other heat flux sensors include Gardon gauges ( also known as a circular-foil gauge ) , thin-film thermopiles , and Schmidt-Boelter gauges . In SI units , the heat rate is measured in Watts , and the heat flux is computed in Watts per meter squared ."}
{"_id": "Heat_stroke", "title": "Heat stroke", "headings": "", "text": "Heat stroke , also known as sun stroke , is a severe heat illness , defined as hyperthermia with a body temperature greater than 40.6 C because of environmental heat exposure with lack of thermoregulation . This is distinct from a fever , where there is a physiological increase in the temperature set point of the body . The term `` stroke '' in `` heat stroke '' is a misnomer in that it does not involve a blockage or hemorrhage of blood flow to the brain . Preventive measures include drinking plenty of cool liquids and avoiding excessive heat and humidity , especially in unventilated spaces , such as parked cars , that can overheat quickly . Treatment requires rapid physical cooling of the body ."}
{"_id": "Heat_transfer", "title": "Heat transfer", "headings": "", "text": "Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation , use , conversion , and exchange of thermal energy and heat between physical systems . Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms , such as thermal conduction , thermal convection , thermal radiation , and transfer of energy by phase changes . Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species , either cold or hot , to achieve heat transfer . While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics , they often occur simultaneously in the same system .   Heat conduction , also called diffusion , is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems . When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings , heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature , at which point they are in thermal equilibrium . Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature , as described by the second law of thermodynamics .   Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid ( gas or liquid ) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid . The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes , or sometimes ( in gravitational fields ) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid ( for example in a fire plume ) , thus influencing its own transfer . The latter process is often called `` natural convection '' . All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion , as well . Another form of convection is forced convection . In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump , fan or other mechanical means .   Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium ( solid or fluid ) . It is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws ."}
{"_id": "Heat_wave", "title": "Heat wave", "headings": "", "text": "A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area .   The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body ."}
{"_id": "Hekla", "title": "Hekla", "headings": "", "text": "Hekla ( -LSB- 3 = Is-Hekla_pronunciation . ogg -RSB- ) , or Hecla , is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland with a height of 1491 m. Hekla is one of Iceland 's most active volcanoes ; over 20 eruptions have occurred in and around the volcano since 874 . During the Middle Ages , Europeans called the volcano the `` Gateway to Hell '' .   Hekla is part of a volcanic ridge , 40 km long . The most active part of this ridge , a fissure about 5.5 km long named Heklugjá , is considered to be the volcano Hekla proper . Hekla looks rather like an overturned boat , with its keel being a series of craters , two of which are generally the most active .   The volcano 's frequent large eruptions have covered much of Iceland with tephra and these layers can be used to date eruptions of Iceland 's other volcanos . 10 % of the tephra created in Iceland in the last thousand years has come from Hekla , amounting to 5 km3 . The volcano has produced one of the largest volumes of lava of any in the world in the last millennium , around 8 km3 ."}
{"_id": "Henrik_Svensmark", "title": "Henrik Svensmark", "headings": "", "text": "Henrik Svensmark ( born 1958 ) is a physicist and professor in the Division of Solar System Physics at the Danish National Space Institute ( DTU Space ) in Copenhagen . He is known for his theory on the effects of cosmic rays on cloud formation as an indirect cause of global warming . He detailed his work in the book The Chilling Stars as well as the film The Cloud Mystery ."}
{"_id": "Henry's_law", "title": "Henry's law", "headings": "", "text": "In chemistry , Henry 's law is one of the gas laws formulated by the English chemist William Henry , who studied the topic in the early 19th century . In his publication about the quantity of gases absorbed by water , he described the results of his experiments :   ... `` water takes up , of gas condensed by one , two , or more additional atmospheres , a quantity which , ordinarily compressed , would be equal to twice , thrice , & c. the volume absorbed under the common pressure of the atmosphere . ''   In other words , the amount of dissolved gas is proportional to its partial pressure in the gas phase . The proportionality factor is called the Henry 's law constant .   An example where Henry 's law is at play is in the depth-dependent dissolution of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood of underwater divers that changes during decompression , leading to decompression sickness . An everyday example is given by one 's experience with carbonated soft drinks , which contain dissolved carbon dioxide . Before opening , the gas above the drink in its container is almost pure carbon dioxide , at a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure . After the bottle is opened , this gas escapes , moving the partial pressure of carbon dioxide above the liquid to be much lower , resulting in degassing as the dissolved carbon dioxide comes out of solution ."}
{"_id": "Highway", "title": "Highway", "headings": "", "text": "A highway is any public road or other public way on land . It is used for major roads , but also includes other public roads and public tracks : It is not an equivalent term to controlled-access highway , or a translation for autobahn , autoroute , etc. .   In North American and Australian English , major roads such as controlled-access highways or arterial roads are often state highways ( Canada : provincial highways ) . Other roads may be designated `` county highways '' in the US and Ontario . These classifications refer to the level of government ( state , provincial , county ) that maintains the roadway .   In British English , `` highway '' is primarily a legal term . Everyday use normally implies roads , while the legal use covers any route or path with a public right of access , including footpaths etc. .   The term has led to several related derived terms , including highway system , highway code , highway patrol and highwayman .   The term highway exists in distinction to `` waterway '' ."}
{"_id": "Hilda_Heine", "title": "Hilda Heine", "headings": "", "text": "Hilda Cathy Heine ( born April 6 , 1951 ) is a Marshallese educator and politician , currently serving as the eighth President of the Marshall Islands . Prior to assuming office , she served as the Minister of Education . She was the first individual in the Marshall Islands to earn a doctorate degree , and the founder of the women 's rights group Women United Together Marshall Islands ( WUTMI ) .   Heine is the first woman to hold the presidency of the Marshall Islands . She is also the first female president of any Micronesian country , and only the fourth woman to serve as head of government for any independent Pacific nation ( following Jenny Shipley and Helen Clark of New Zealand and Julia Gillard of Australia ) . She is one of only three women currently serving in the Nitijeļā , the country 's legislature , as of January 2016 ."}
{"_id": "Hillary_Clinton", "title": "Hillary Clinton", "headings": "", "text": "Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton ( -LSB- ˈhɪləri_daɪˈæn_ˈrɒdəm_ˈklɪntən -RSB- born October 26 , 1947 ) is an American politician who was the 67th United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 , U.S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009 , First Lady of the United States from 1993 to 2001 , and the Democratic Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2016 election .   Born in Chicago , Illinois , and raised in the Chicago suburb of Park Ridge , Clinton graduated from Wellesley College in 1969 , and earned a J.D. from Yale Law School in 1973 . After serving as a congressional legal counsel , she moved to Arkansas and married Bill Clinton in 1975 . In 1977 , she co-founded Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families . She was appointed the first female chair of the Legal Services Corporation in 1978 and became the first female partner at Rose Law Firm the following year . As First Lady of Arkansas , she led a task force whose recommendations helped reform Arkansas 's public schools .   As First Lady of the United States , Clinton was an advocate for gender equality and healthcare reform . Her relationship with her husband came under public speculation during the Lewinsky scandal , forcing her to issue a statement reaffirming her commitment to the marriage . Clinton was elected in 2000 as the first female senator from New York . She was re-elected to the Senate in 2006 . Running for president in 2008 , she won far more delegates than any previous female candidate , but lost the Democratic nomination to Barack Obama .   As Secretary of State in the Obama administration from 2009 to 2013 , Clinton responded to the Arab Spring , during which she advocated the U.S. military intervention in Libya . She helped organize a diplomatic isolation and international sanctions regime against Iran , in an effort to force curtailment of that country 's nuclear program ; this would eventually lead to the multinational Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action agreement in 2015 . Leaving office after Obama 's first term , she wrote her fifth book and undertook speaking engagements .   Clinton made a second presidential run in 2016 . She received the most votes and primary delegates in the 2016 Democratic primaries , and formally accepted her party 's nomination for President of the United States on July 28 , 2016 with vice presidential running mate Senator Tim Kaine . She became the first female candidate to be nominated for president by a major U.S. political party . Despite winning a plurality of the national popular vote , Clinton lost the Electoral College and the presidency to her Republican opponent Donald Trump . Following her loss , in 2017 she decided to focus on being a self-described `` activist citizen '' ."}
{"_id": "Himalayas", "title": "Himalayas", "headings": "", "text": "The Himalayas , or Himalaya , ( -LSB- ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə -RSB- or -LSB- hɪˈmɑːləjə -RSB- ) form a mountain range in Asia separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau .   The Himalayan range has many of the Earth 's highest peaks , including the highest , Mount Everest . The Himalayas include over fifty mountains exceeding 7200 m in elevation , including ten of the fourteen 8000m peaks . By contrast , the highest peak outside Asia -- Aconcagua , in the Andes -- is 6961 m tall .   The Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges , on the north by the Tibetan Plateau , and on the south by the Indo-Gangetic Plain . The Himalayas are distinct from the other great ranges of central Asia , although sometimes the term Himalaya is loosely used to include the Karakoram and some of the other ranges . The Himalayas are spread across five countries : Nepal , India , Bhutan , China and Pakistan , with the first three countries having sovereignty over most of the range . Some of the world 's major rivers , the Indus , the Ganges , and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra , rise in the Himalayas , and their combined drainage basin is home to roughly 600 million people . The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia ; many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism .   Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate , the Himalayan Mountain range runs , west-northwest to east-southeast , in an arc 2400 km long . Its western anchor , Nanga Parbat , lies just south of the northernmost bend of Indus river . Its eastern anchor , Namcha Barwa , is just west of the great bend of the Tsangpo river . The range varies in width from 400 km in the west to 150 km in the east ."}
{"_id": "Hip_hop_music", "title": "Hip hop music", "headings": "", "text": "Hip hop music , also called hip-hop or rap music , is a music genre developed in the United States by inner-city African Americans in the 1970s which consists of a stylized rhythmic music that commonly accompanies rapping , a rhythmic and rhyming speech that is chanted . It developed as part of hip hop culture , a subculture defined by four key stylistic elements : MCing/rapping , DJing/scratching with turntables , break dancing , and graffiti writing . Other elements include sampling beats or bass lines from records ( or synthesized beats and sounds ) , and rhythmic beatboxing . While often used to refer solely to rapping , `` hip hop '' more properly denotes the practice of the entire subculture . The term hip hop music is sometimes used synonymously with the term rap music , though rapping is not a required component of hip hop music ; the genre may also incorporate other elements of hip hop culture , including DJing , turntablism , scratching , beatboxing , and instrumental tracks .   Hip hop as both a musical genre and a culture was formed during the 1970s when block parties became increasingly popular in New York City , particularly among African-American youth residing in the Bronx . At block parties DJs played percussive breaks of popular songs using two turntables and a DJ mixer to be able to play breaks from two copies of the same record , alternating from one to the other and extending the `` break '' . Hip hop 's early evolution occurred as sampling technology and drum machines became widely available and affordable . Turntablist techniques such as scratching and beatmatching developed along with the breaks and Jamaican toasting , a chanting vocal style , was used over the beats . Rapping developed as a vocal style in which the artist speaks or chants along rhythmically with an instrumental or synthesized beat . Notable artists at this time include DJ Kool Herc , Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five , Fab Five Freddy , Marley Marl , Afrika Bambaataa , Kool Moe Dee , Kurtis Blow , Doug E. Fresh , Whodini , Warp 9 , The Fat Boys , and Spoonie Gee . The Sugarhill Gang 's 1979 song `` Rapper 's Delight '' is widely regarded to be the first hip hop record to gain widespread popularity in the mainstream . The 1980s marked the diversification of hip hop as the genre developed more complex styles . Prior to the 1980s , hip hop music was largely confined within the United States . However , during the 1980s , it began to spread to music scenes in dozens of countries , many of which mixed hip hop with local styles to create new subgenres .   New school hip hop was the second wave of hip hop music , originating in 1983 -- 84 with the early records of Run-D.M.C . and LL Cool J . The Golden age hip hop period was an innovative period between the mid-1980s and the early 1990s . Notable artists from this era include the Juice Crew , Public Enemy , Eric B. & Rakim , Boogie Down Productions and KRS-One , EPMD , Slick Rick , Beastie Boys , Kool G Rap , Big Daddy Kane , Ultramagnetic MCs , De La Soul , and A Tribe Called Quest . Gangsta rap is a subgenre of hip hop that often focuses on the violent lifestyles and impoverished conditions of inner-city African-American youth . Schoolly D , N.W.A , Ice-T , Ice Cube , and the Geto Boys are key founding artists , known for mixing the political and social commentary of political rap with the criminal elements and crime stories found in gangsta rap . In the West Coast hip hop style , G-funk dominated mainstream hip hop for several years during the 1990s . East Coast hip hop in the early to mid 1990s was dominated by the Afrocentric jazz rap and alternative hip hop of the Native Tongues posse as well as the hardcore rap of artists such as Nas , Wu-Tang Clan , and Notorious B.I.G. .   In the 1990s , hip hop began to diversify with other regional styles emerging , such as Southern rap and Atlanta hip hop . At the same time , hip hop continued to be assimilated into other genres of popular music , examples being Neo soul and nu metal . Hip hop became a best-selling pop music genre in the mid-1990s and the top selling music genre by 1999 . The popularity of hip hop music continued through the 2000s , with hip hop influences also increasingly finding their way into mainstream pop . The United States also saw the success of regional styles such as crunk , a Southern genre that emphasized the beats and music more than the lyrics . Starting in 2005 , sales of hip hop music in the United States began to severely wane . During the mid-2000s , alternative hip hop secured a place in the mainstream , due in part to the crossover success of artists such as OutKast and Kanye West ."}
{"_id": "History_of_economic_thought", "title": "History of economic thought", "headings": "", "text": "The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics , from the ancient world to the present day . It encompasses many disparate schools of economic thought . Ancient Greek writers such as the philosopher Aristotle examined ideas about the art of wealth acquisition , and questioned whether property is best left in private or public hands . In the Middle Ages , scholasticists such as Thomas Aquinas argued that it was a moral obligation of businesses to sell goods at a just price .   In the Western world , economics was not a separate discipline , but part of philosophy until the 18th -- 19th century Industrial Revolution and the 19th century Great Divergence , which accelerated economic growth . Long before that , from the Renaissance at least , economics as an intellectual discipline or science was dominated by Western thinkers and their academic institutions , schooling economists from outside the West , although there are isolated instances in other societies ."}
{"_id": "History_of_the_world", "title": "History of the world", "headings": "", "text": "The history of the world ( or world history ) describes the history of humanity ( or human history ) as determined by the study of archaeological and written records , beginning with the invention of writing .   The roots of civilization reach back to the earliest introduction of primitive technology and culture , while Prehistory begins in the Palaeolithic Era , or `` Early Stone Age '' , which is followed by the Neolithic Era , or `` New Stone Age '' , and the Agricultural Revolution ( between 8000 and 5000 BCE ) in the Fertile Crescent . The latter period marked a change in human history , as humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals . Agriculture advanced , and most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements . Nomadism continued in some locations , especially in isolated regions with few domesticable plant species , but the relative security and increased productivity provided by farming allowed human communities to expand into increasingly larger units , fostered by advances in transportation .   As farming developed , grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons . Labour divisions then led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities . The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of writing and accounting . Many cities developed on the banks of lakes and rivers as early as 3000 BCE , when some of the first prominent , well-developed settlements had arisen in Mesopotamia ( `` the Land between the Rivers '' ) , on the banks of Egypt 's Nile River , in the Indus River valley , and along the rivers of China .   The history of the Old World ( particularly Europe and the Mediterranean ) is commonly divided into ancient history ( or `` Antiquity '' ) , up to 476 CE ; post-classical history ( or `` the Middle Ages '' ) , from the 5th through 15th centuries , including the rise of Christianity , the Islamic Golden Age ( c. 750 CE -- c. 1258 CE ) and the early Italian Renaissance ( beginning around 1300 CE ) ; the early modern period , from the 15th century to the late 18th , including the Age of Enlightenment ; and the late modern period , from the Industrial Revolution to the present , including contemporary history .   In the mid-15th century , the invention of modern printing , employing movable type , revolutionized communication , helping end the Middle Ages and ushering in the Scientific Revolution . By the 18th century , the accumulation of knowledge and technology , especially in Europe , had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution . Outside the Old World , including ancient China and ancient India , historical timelines unfolded differently . However , by the 18th century , due to extensive world trade and colonization , the histories of most civilizations had become substantially intertwined ( see `` Globalization '' ) . In the last quarter-millennium , the rates of growth of population , knowledge , technology , communications , commerce , weapons destructiveness and environmental degradation have greatly accelerated , creating opportunities and perils that now confront the planet 's human communities ."}
{"_id": "Hitler_Diaries", "title": "Hitler Diaries", "headings": "", "text": "The Hitler Diaries ( Hitler-Tagebücher ) were a series of sixty volumes of journals purportedly by Adolf Hitler , but forged by Konrad Kujau between 1981 and 1983 . The diaries were purchased in 1983 for 9.3 million Deutsche Marks ( $ 4.7 million ) by the West German news magazine Stern , which sold serialisation rights to several news organisations . One of the publications involved was The Sunday Times , who asked their independent director , the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper , to authenticate the diaries ; he did so , pronouncing them genuine . At the press conference to announce the forthcoming publication , Trevor-Roper announced that on reflection he had changed his mind , and other historians also raised questions concerning their validity . Rigorous forensic analysis , which had not been performed previously , quickly confirmed that the diaries were fakes .   Kujau , born and brought up in East Germany , had a history of petty crime and deception . In the mid-1970s he began selling Nazi memorabilia which he was smuggling from the East , but soon found he could raise the prices by forging additional authentication details which linked ordinary souvenirs to the Nazi leaders . He began forging paintings by Hitler and an increasing number of notes , poems and letters , until he produced his first diary in the mid - to late 1970s . The West German journalist with Stern who `` discovered '' the diaries and was involved in their purchase was Gerd Heidemann , who had an obsession with the Nazis . When Stern started buying the diaries , Heidemann stole a significant proportion of the money provided .   Kujau and Heidemann both spent time in prison for their parts in the fraud , and several newspaper editors lost their jobs . The story of the scandal has been the basis of various films : Selling Hitler ( 1991 ) for the British ITV channel , Schtonk ! ( 1992 ) for German cinema , and History 's Greatest Hoaxes : The Hitler Diaries . ( 2016 ) a documentary produced by Like a Shot Entertainment Ltd. in association with UKTV and Yesterday ."}
{"_id": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "title": "Hockey stick controversy", "headings": "", "text": "In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science .   The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science .   In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' .  A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional .   Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' .   Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations .   More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions ."}
{"_id": "Hockey_stick_graph", "title": "Hockey stick graph", "headings": "", "text": "Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures .   The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science .   Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 .   In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 .   A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result .   More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions ."}
{"_id": "Holarctic", "title": "Holarctic", "headings": "", "text": "The Holarctic is the name for the biogeographic realm that encompasses the majority of habitats found throughout the northern continents of the world , combining Wallace 's Palearctic zoogeographical region , consisting of North Africa and all of Eurasia ( with the exception of the southern Arabian Peninsula , Southeast Asia , and the Indian subcontinent ) , and the Nearctic zoogeographical region , consisting of North America , north of Mexico . These regions are further subdivided into a variety of ecoregions . Many ecosystems , and the animal and plant communities that depend on them , are found across multiple continents in large portions of this realm . The continuity of these ecosystems results from the shared glacial history of the realm . The floristic Boreal Kingdom corresponds to the Holarctic realm ."}
{"_id": "Holocene", "title": "Holocene", "headings": "", "text": "The Holocene ( -LSB- pronˈhɒləˌsiːn , _ ˈhoʊ - -RSB- ) is the geological epoch that began after the Pleistocene at approximately 11,700 years before present . The term `` Recent '' ( usually capitalised ) has often been used as an exact synonym of `` Holocene '' , although this usage is discouraged in 21st-century science . The Holocene is part of the Quaternary period . Its name comes from the Ancient Greek words ὅλος ( holos , whole or entire ) and καινός ( kainos , new ) , meaning `` entirely recent '' . It has been identified with the current warm period , known as MIS 1 , and can be considered an interglacial in the current ice age based on that evidence .   The Holocene also encompasses the growth and impacts of the human species worldwide , including all its written history , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition toward urban living in the present . Human impacts on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for future evolution of living species , including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence , or more recently atmospheric evidence of human impacts . Given these , a new term , Anthropocene , is specifically proposed and used informally only for the very latest part of modern history involving significant human impact ."}
{"_id": "Holocene_extinction", "title": "Holocene extinction", "headings": "", "text": "The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as the Sixth extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is the ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch , mainly due to human activity . The large number of extinctions spans numerous families of plants and animals , including mammals , birds , amphibians , reptiles and arthropods . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforest , as well as other areas , the vast majority of these extinctions is thought to be undocumented . According to the species-area theory , and based on upper-bound estimating , the present rate of extinction may be up to 140,000 species per year , making it the greatest loss of biodiversity since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event .   The Holocene extinction includes the disappearance of large land animals known as megafauna , starting at the end of the last Ice Age . Megafauna outside of the African continent , which did not evolve alongside humans , proved highly sensitive to the introduction of new predation , and many died out shortly after early humans began spreading and hunting across the Earth ( additionally , many African species have also gone extinct in the Holocene ) . These extinctions , occurring near the Pleistocene -- Holocene boundary , are sometimes referred to as the Quaternary extinction event .   The arrival of humans on different continents coincides with megafaunal extinction . The most popular theory is that human overhunting of species added to existing stress conditions . Although there is debate regarding how much human predation affected their decline , certain population declines have been directly correlated with human activity , such as the extinction events of New Zealand and Hawaii . Aside from humans , climate change may have been a driving factor in the megafaunal extinctions , especially at the end of the Quaternary .   The ecology of humanity has been noted as being that of an unprecedented `` global superpredator '' that regularly preys on the adults of other apex predators and has worldwide effects on food webs . Extinctions of species have occurred on every land mass and ocean , with many famous examples within Africa , Asia , Europe , Australia , North and South America , and on smaller islands . Overall , the Holocene extinction can be characterized by the human impact on the environment . The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century , with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal , cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity . A ballooning human population along with profligate consumption are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline ."}
{"_id": "Holocene_glacial_retreat", "title": "Holocene glacial retreat", "headings": "", "text": "Holocene glacial retreat had a profound effect on landscapes in many areas that were covered by ice at the Last Glacial Maximum ."}
{"_id": "Homeland_security", "title": "Homeland security", "headings": "", "text": "Homeland security is an American umbrella term for `` the national effort to ensure a homeland that is safe , secure , and resilient against terrorism and other hazards where American interests , aspirations , and ways of life can thrive to the national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States , reduce the vulnerability of the U.S. to terrorism , and minimize the damage from attacks that do occur . ''   Homeland security is not constrained to terrorist incidents . Terrorism is one of many threats that endanger society . Within the U.S. , an all-hazards approach exists regarding homeland security endeavors . In this sense , homeland security encompasses both natural disasters and man-made events . Thus , the domain of homeland security must accommodate a plethora of situations and scenarios , ranging from natural disasters ( e.g. , Hurricane Katrina ) to acts of terrorism ( e.g. , Boston Marathon bombing ) .   The term came about following enactment of the Homeland Security Act of 2002 and reorganization of many U.S. government civil agencies effective March 1 , 2003 , to form the United States Department of Homeland Security after the September 11 attacks , and may be used to refer to the actions of that department , the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs , or the United States House of Representatives Committee on Homeland Security .   Homeland defense ( HD ) is the military protection of U.S. territory , sovereignty , domestic population , and critical infrastructure against external threats and aggression ."}
{"_id": "Homelessness", "title": "Homelessness", "headings": "", "text": "Homelessness is the condition of people without a permanent dwelling , such as a house or apartment . People who are homeless are most often unable to acquire and maintain regular , safe , secure and adequate housing . The legal definition of homeless varies from country to country , or among different jurisdictions in the same country or region . The term homeless may also include people whose primary night-time residence is in a homeless shelter , a domestic violence shelter , long-term residence in a motel , a vehicle , squatting , cardboard boxes , a tent city , tarpaulins , shanty town structures made of discarded building materials or other ad hoc housing situations . According to the UK homelessness charity Crisis , a home is not just a physical space : it also provides roots , identity , security , a sense of belonging and a place of emotional wellbeing . American government homeless enumeration studies also include people who sleep in a public or private place not designed for use as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings . There are a number of organizations who provide help for the homeless .   In 2005 , an estimated 100 million ( 1 in 65 ) people worldwide were homeless and as many as 1 billion people live as squatters , refugees or in temporary shelter , all lacking adequate housing . In Western countries , the large majority of homeless are men ( 75 -- 80 % ) , with single males particularly overrepresented .   Most countries provide a variety of services to assist homeless people . These services often provide food , shelter ( beds ) and clothing and may be organized and run by community organizations ( often with the help of volunteers ) or by government departments or agencies . These programs may be supported by the government , charities , churches and individual donors . Many cities also have street newspapers , which are publications designed to provide employment opportunity to homeless people . While some homeless have jobs , some must seek other methods to make a living . Begging or panhandling is one option , but is becoming increasingly illegal in many cities . People who are homeless may have additional conditions , such as physical or mental health issues or substance addiction ; these issues make resolving homelessness a challenging policy issue ."}
{"_id": "Hong_Kong", "title": "Hong Kong", "headings": "", "text": "Hong Kong , officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China , is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of China . Macau lies across the delta to the west , and the province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north . With a total land area of 1,106 km2 and a population of over 7.3 million of various nationalities , it ranks as the world 's fourth most densely populated sovereign state or territory .   After the First Opium War ( 1839 -- 42 ) , Hong Kong became a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island , followed by the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898 . Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945 . In the early 1980s , negotiations between the United Kingdom and China resulted in the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration , which paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997 , when it became a special administrative region ( SAR ) of the Peoples Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy .   Under the principle of `` one country , two systems '' , Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China . Except in military defence and foreign affairs , Hong Kong maintains its independent executive , legislative and judiciary powers . In addition , Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of `` appropriate fields '' .   Hong Kong is one of the world 's most significant financial centres , with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world 's most competitive and freest economic entity . As the world 's 8th largest trading entity , its legal tender , the Hong Kong dollar , is the world 's 13th most traded currency . It 's also a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) . Hong Kong 's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system . However , while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world , it suffers from severe income inequality .   Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour , which enables ready access by international cargo ships , and its impressive skyline , with a very high density of skyscrapers ; the territory boasts the second largest number of high rises of any city in the world . It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world 's longest life expectancy . Over 90 % of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation . Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China , which adopts loose emissions standards , has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates ."}
{"_id": "Houston", "title": "Houston", "headings": "", "text": "Houston ( -LSB- ˈhjuːstən -RSB- ) is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States . With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 sqmi , it is also the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County . Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico , it is the principal city of the Greater Houston metro area , which is the fifth-most populated MSA in the United States .   Houston was founded on August 28 , 1836 , near the banks of Buffalo Bayou ( now known as Allen 's Landing ) and incorporated as a city on June 5 , 1837 . The city was named after former General Sam Houston , who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded and won at the Battle of San Jacinto 25 mi east of where the city was established . The burgeoning port and railroad industry , combined with oil discovery in 1901 , has induced continual surges in the city 's population . In the mid-20th century , Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center -- the world 's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions -- and NASA 's Johnson Space Center , where the Mission Control Center is located .   Houston 's economy has a broad industrial base in energy , manufacturing , aeronautics , and transportation . Leading in health care sectors and building oilfield equipment , outside of New York City , Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters than any other U.S. municipality within its city limits . The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled . Nicknamed the `` Space City '' , Houston is a global city , with strengths in business , international trade , entertainment , culture , media , fashion , science , sports , technology , education , medicine , and research . The city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community . Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has been described as the most racially and ethnically diverse major metropolis in the U.S. . It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits , which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District . Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District and offers year-round resident companies in all major performing arts ."}
{"_id": "Huaynaputina", "title": "Huaynaputina", "headings": "", "text": "Huaynaputina ( -LSB- wainapuˈtina -RSB- , Pronounced : -LSB- waɪnəpʊˈtiːnə -RSB- ; from young volcano , meaning `` Young Volcano '' ) is a stratovolcano in a volcanic upland in southern Peru . The volcano does not have an identifiable mountain profile , but instead is a large volcanic crater . It has produced high-potassium andesite and dacite . On 19 February 1600 , it exploded catastrophically ( Volcanic Explosivity Index -LSB- VEI -RSB- 6 ) , in the largest volcanic explosion in South America in historic times . The eruption continued with a series of events into March . An account of the event was included in Fray Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa 's Compendio y Descripción de las Indias , which was translated into English as Compendium and description of the West Indies in 1942 ."}
{"_id": "Hubble_Space_Telescope", "title": "Hubble Space Telescope", "headings": "", "text": "The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) is a space telescope that was launched into low Earth orbit in 1990 and remains in operation . Although not the first space telescope , Hubble is one of the largest and most versatile , and is well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy . The HST is named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble , and is one of NASA 's Great Observatories , along with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory , the Chandra X-ray Observatory , and the Spitzer Space Telescope .   With a 2.4 m mirror , Hubble 's four main instruments observe in the near ultraviolet , visible , and near infrared spectra . Hubble 's orbit outside the distortion of Earth 's atmosphere allows it to take extremely high-resolution images , with substantially lower background light than ground-based telescopes . Hubble has recorded some of the most detailed visible light images ever , allowing a deep view into space and time . Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics , such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe .   The HST was built by the United States space agency NASA , with contributions from the European Space Agency . The Space Telescope Science Institute ( STScI ) selects Hubble 's targets and processes the resulting data , while the Goddard Space Flight Center controls the spacecraft .   Space telescopes were proposed as early as 1923 . Hubble was funded in the 1970s , with a proposed launch in 1983 , but the project was beset by technical delays , budget problems , and the Challenger disaster ( 1986 ) . When finally launched in 1990 , Hubble 's main mirror was found to have been ground incorrectly , compromising the telescope 's capabilities . The optics were corrected to their intended quality by a servicing mission in 1993 .   Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts . After launch by in 1990 , five subsequent Space Shuttle missions repaired , upgraded , and replaced systems on the telescope , including all five of the main instruments . The fifth mission was canceled on safety grounds following the Columbia disaster ( 2003 ) . However , after spirited public discussion , NASA administrator Mike Griffin approved the fifth servicing mission , completed in 2009 . The telescope is operating , and could last until 2030 -- 2040 . Its scientific successor , the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) , is scheduled for launch in 2018 ."}
{"_id": "Human", "title": "Human", "headings": "", "text": "Modern humans ( Homo sapiens , primarily ssp . Homo sapiens sapiens ) are the only extant members of Hominina tribe ( or human tribe ) , a branch of the tribe Hominini belonging to the family of great apes . They are characterized by erect posture and bipedal locomotion ; high manual dexterity and heavy tool use compared to other animals ; and a general trend toward larger , more complex brains and societies .   Early hominins -- particularly the australopithecines , whose brains and anatomy are in many ways more similar to ancestral non-human apes -- are less often referred to as `` human '' than hominins of the genus Homo . Several of these hominins used fire , occupied much of Eurasia , and gave rise to anatomically modern Homo sapiens in Africa about 200,000 years ago . They began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago . In several waves of migration , anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa and populated most of the world .   The spread of humans and their large and increasing population has had a profound impact on large areas of the environment and millions of native species worldwide . Advantages that explain this evolutionary success include a relatively larger brain with a particularly well-developed neocortex , prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes , which enable high levels of abstract reasoning , language , problem solving , sociality , and culture through social learning . Humans use tools to a much higher degree than any other animal , are the only extant species known to build fires and cook their food , and are the only extant species to clothe themselves and create and use numerous other technologies and arts .   Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of symbolic communication ( such as language and art ) for self-expression and the exchange of ideas , and for organizing themselves into purposeful groups . Humans create complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups , from families and kinship networks to political states . Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety of values , social norms , and rituals , which together form the basis of human society . Curiosity and the human desire to understand and influence the environment and to explain and manipulate phenomena ( or events ) has provided the foundation for developing science , philosophy , mythology , religion , anthropology , and numerous other fields of knowledge .   Though most of human existence has been sustained by hunting and gathering in band societies , increasing numbers of human societies began to practice sedentary agriculture approximately some 10,000 years ago , domesticating plants and animals , thus allowing for the growth of civilization . These human societies subsequently expanded in size , establishing various forms of government , religion , and culture around the world , unifying people within regions to form states and empires . The rapid advancement of scientific and medical understanding in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the development of fuel-driven technologies and increased lifespans , causing the human population to rise exponentially . Today the global human population is estimated by the United Nations to be near billion ."}
{"_id": "Human_extinction", "title": "Human extinction", "headings": "", "text": "In futures studies , human extinction is the hypothetical end of the human species . This may be caused by natural causes or it may be anthropogenic , i.e. the result of human action .   The likelihood of human extinction in the near future by wholly natural scenarios , such as a meteorite impact or large-scale volcanism , is generally considered to be extremely low .   For anthropogenic extinction , many possible scenarios have been proposed : Human global nuclear annihilation , biological warfare or the release of a pandemic-causing agent , dysgenics , overpopulation , ecological collapse , and global warming ; in addition , emerging technologies could bring about new extinction scenarios , such as advanced artificial intelligence , biotechnology or self-replicating nanobots . The probability of anthropogenic human extinction within the next hundred years is the topic of an active debate .   Human extinction needs to be differentiated from the extinction of all life on Earth ( see also future of Earth ) and from the extinction of major components of human culture ( e.g. , through a global catastrophe leaving only small , scattered human populations , which might evolve in isolation ) ."}
{"_id": "Human_impact_on_marine_life", "title": "Human impact on marine life", "headings": "", "text": "Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through overfishing, habitat loss, the introduction of invasive species, ocean pollution, ocean acidification and ocean warming. These impact marine ecosystems and food webs and may result in consequences as yet unrecognised for the biodiversity and continuation of marine life forms.According to the IPCC (2019), since 1950 \"many marine species across various groups have undergone shifts in geographical range and seasonal activities in response to ocean warming, sea ice change and biogeochemical changes, such as oxygen loss, to their habitats.\"It has been estimated only 13% of the ocean area remains as wilderness, mostly in open ocean areas rather than along the coast."}
{"_id": "Human_impact_on_the_environment", "title": "Human impact on the environment", "headings": "", "text": "Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical environments , biodiversity , and other resources . The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity . The term was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey Pavlov , and was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to human influences on climax plant communities . The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term `` Anthropocene '' in the mid-1970s . The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced as a result of human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment ."}
{"_id": "Human_nutrition", "title": "Human nutrition", "headings": "", "text": "Human nutrition refers to the provision of essential nutrients necessary to support human life and health . Generally , people can survive up to 40 days without food , a period largely depending on the amount of water consumed , stored body fat , muscle mass and genetic factors .   Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty , poor nutrition understanding and practices , and deficient sanitation and food security . Malnutrition and its consequences are immense contributors to deaths and disabilities worldwide . Promoting good nutrition helps children grow , promotes human development and eradication of poverty ."}
{"_id": "Human_overpopulation", "title": "Human overpopulation", "headings": "", "text": "Human overpopulation occurs when the ecological footprint of a human population in a specific geographical location exceeds the carrying capacity of the place occupied by that group . Overpopulation can further be viewed , in a long term perspective , as existing when a population can not be maintained given the rapid depletion of non-renewable resources or given the degradation of the capacity of the environment to give support to the population .   The term human overpopulation refers to the relationship between the entire human population and its environment : the Earth , or to smaller geographical areas such as countries . Overpopulation can result from an increase in births , a decline in mortality rates , an increase in immigration , or an unsustainable biome and depletion of resources . It is possible for very sparsely populated areas to be overpopulated if the area has a meagre or non-existent capability to sustain life ( e.g. a desert ) . Advocates of population moderation cite issues like quality of life , carrying capacity , and risk of starvation as a basis to argue against continuing high human population growth and for population decline . Scientists suggest that the human impact on the environment as a result of overpopulation , profligate consumption and proliferation of technology has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene ."}
{"_id": "Human_population_planning", "title": "Human population planning", "headings": "", "text": "Human population planning is the practice of intentionally managing the rate of growth of a human population . Historically human population planning has been implemented with the goal of increasing the rate of human population growth . However , in the period from the 1950s to the 1980s , concerns about global population growth and its effects on poverty , environmental degradation and political stability led to efforts to reduce human population growth rates . More recently , some countries , such as Iran and Spain , have begun efforts to increase their birth rates once again .   While population planning can involve measures that improve people 's lives by giving them greater control of their reproduction , a few programs , most notably the Chinese government 's `` one-child policy '' , have resorted to coercive measures ."}
{"_id": "Humboldt_Current", "title": "Humboldt Current", "headings": "", "text": "The Humboldt Current System ( HCS ) , also called the Peru Current , is a major Eastern Boundary Upwelling Ecosystem that flows north along the western coast of South America . It is an eastern boundary current flowing in the direction of the equator , and extend 500-1 ,000 kilometers offshore . The Humboldt Current is named after the Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt . In 1846 , von Humboldt reported measurements of the cold-water current in his book Cosmos .   The current extends from the southern Chile ( ~ 45 'S ) to northern Peru ( ~ 4 'S ) where cold , upwelled waters intersect warm tropical waters to form the Equatorial Front . Sea surface temperatures off the coast of Peru , around 5 'S , reach temperatures as low as 16 ' C . This is highly uncharacteristic of tropical waters , as most other regions have temperatures measuring above 25 ' C. Upwelling brings nutrients to the surface , which support phytoplankton and ultimately increase biological productivity .   Upwelling within the current is not uniform across the entire system . Three notable upwelling subsystems are produced by this current : i ) seasonal upwelling in Chile , ii ) upwelling `` shadow '' that is less productive , but still large in northern Chile and Southern Peru , and iii ) year-round upwelling in Peru .   The Humboldt Current is considered a Class I , highly productive ( > 300 gC/m2-yr ) , ecosystem . It is the most productive eastern boundary current system . It accounts for roughly 18-20 % of the total worldwide marine fish catch . The species are mostly pelagic : sardines , anchovies and jack mackerel . The system 's high productivity supports other important fishery resources as well as marine mammals ( eared seals and cetaceans ) and seabirds . The cold , nutrient-rich water brought to the surface by upwelling drives the system 's extraordinary productivity.Periodically , the upwelling that drives the system 's productivity is disrupted by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) event . When this occurs , fish abundance and distribution are significantly affected , often leading to stock crashes and cascading social and economic impacts . These events have led to sequential changes , where sardines and anchovies have replaced each other periodically as the dominant species in the ecosystem . These species changes can have negative consequences for the fishing industry and the economies of the countries that fish the system .   The Humboldt has a considerable cooling influence on the climate of Chile , Peru and Ecuador . It is also largely responsible for the aridity of Atacama Desert in northern Chile and coastal areas of Peru and also of the aridity of southern Ecuador . Marine air is cooled by the current and thus is not conducive to generating precipitation ( although clouds and fog are produced ) ."}
{"_id": "Humid_subtropical_climate", "title": "Humid subtropical climate", "headings": "", "text": "A humid subtropical climate is a zone of climate characterised by hot and humid summers where tropical air masses dominate , and mild winters . These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents , generally between latitudes 25 ° and 40 ° and are adjacent to tropical climates to the south . While many subtropical climates tend to be located at coastal or near coastal locations . in some cases they extend inland , most notably in southern China and the southern United States .   Under the Köppen climate classification , Cfa and Cwa climates are described as mild temperate climates . This climate features mean temperatures in the coldest month between 0 ° C and 18 ° C and mean temperatures in the warmest month 22 ° C or higher . The Trewartha system was a 1966 update of the Köppen climate classification , and sought to redefine middle latitude climates into smaller zones ( the original Köppen system grouped all middle latitude climates into a single zone ) . Under the Trewartha climate classification , climates are termed humid subtropical when they have monthly mean air temperatures higher than 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) for eight or more months a year and at least one month with mean temperature below 18 ° C ( 64.4 ° F ) . Normally , humid subtropical climates occupy the southernmost portions of the temperate zone from 23.5 to 35.0 north and south latitude .   Rainfall often shows a summer peak , especially where monsoons are well developed , as in Southeast Asia and Florida ( USA ) . Other areas have a more uniform or varying rainfall cycles . Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms that build up due to the intense surface heating and strong subtropical sun angle . Weak tropical lows that move in from adjacent warm tropical oceans , as well as infrequent tropical storms often contribute to high sun ( summer ) seasonal rainfall peaks . Winter rainfall is often associated with large storms in the westerlies that have fronts that reach down into subtropical latitudes . However , many subtropical climates such as southeast Asia or Florida have very dry winters , with frequent brush fires and water shortages ."}
{"_id": "Humidity", "title": "Humidity", "headings": "", "text": "Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air . Water vapor is the gaseous state of water and is invisible to the human eye . Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation , dew , or fog . Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin . This effect is calculated in a heat index table or humidex . The amount of water vapor that is needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases . As the temperature of a parcel of water becomes lower it will eventually reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass . The differences in the amount of water vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large . For example , a parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 ° C , but only 8 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 8 ° C.   There are three main measurements of humidity : absolute , relative and specific . Absolute humidity is the water content of air expressed in gram per cubic meter . Relative humidity , expressed as a percent , measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum ( highest point ) for that temperature . Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Agnes", "title": "Hurricane Agnes", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Agnes was , at the time , the costliest hurricane to hit the United States in recorded history . The second tropical cyclone and first named storm of the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season , Agnes developed on June 14 from the interaction of a polar front and an upper trough over the Yucatán Peninsula . Initially forming as a tropical depression , the storm headed slowly eastward and emerged into the western Caribbean Sea on June 15 . Once in the Caribbean , the depression began to strengthen , and by the following day , it became Tropical Storm Agnes . Thereafter , Agnes slowly curved northward and passed just west of Cuba on June 17 . Early on June 18 , the storm intensified enough to be upgraded to Hurricane Agnes . Heading northward , the hurricane eventually made landfall near Panama City , Florida late on June 19 . After moving inland , Agnes rapidly weakened and was only a tropical depression when it entered Georgia . The weakening trend halted as the storm crossed over Georgia and into South Carolina . While over eastern North Carolina , Agnes re-strengthened into a tropical storm on June 21 , as a result of baroclinic activity . Early the following day , the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean before re-curving northwestward and making landfall near New York City as a strong tropical storm . Agnes quickly became an extratropical cyclone on June 23 , and tracked to the northwest of Great Britain before becoming absorbed by another cyclone on July 6 .   Though it moved slowly across the Yucatán Peninsula , damage in Mexico is unknown . Although the storm bypassed the tip of Cuba , heavy rainfall occurred , killing seven people . In Florida , Agnes caused a significant tornado outbreak , with at least 26 confirmed twisters , two of which were spawned in Georgia . The tornadoes and two initially unconfirmed tornadoes in Florida alone resulted in over $ 4.5 million ( 1972 USD ) in damage and six fatalities . At least 2,082 structures in Florida suffered either major damage or were destroyed . About 1,355 other dwellings experienced minor losses . Though Agnes made landfall as a hurricane , no hurricane-force winds were reported . Along the coast abnormally high tides resulted in extensive damage , especially between Apalachicola and Cedar Key . Light to moderate rainfall was reported in Florida , though no significant flooding occurred . In Georgia , damage was limited to two tornadoes , which caused approximately $ 275,000 in losses . Minimal effects were also recorded in Alabama , Connecticut , Delaware , Rhode Island , South Carolina , and Tennessee ; though one fatality was reported in Delaware . The most significant effects , by far , occurred in Pennsylvania , mostly due to intense flooding . The hurricane severely flooded the Susquehanna River and the Lackawanna River causing major damage to the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre metropolitan area . In both Pennsylvania and New Jersey combined , about 43,594 structures were either destroyed or significantly damaged . In Canada , a mobile home was toppled , killing two people . Overall , Agnes caused 128 fatalities and nearly $ 3 billion in damage , though more recently , it is estimated that there were $ 2.1 billion in losses associated with the storm . Due to the significant effects , the name Agnes was retired in the spring of 1973 ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Andrew", "title": "Hurricane Andrew", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Andrew was , at the time of its occurrence in August 1992 , the most destructive hurricane in United States history . It caused major damage in the Bahamas and Louisiana , but the greatest impact was in South Florida , where it made landfall at Category 5 hurricane intensity on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane scale , with wind speeds up to 165 mph ( 270 km/h ) . Passing directly through the town of Homestead , Florida , a city south of Miami , Andrew obliterated entire blocks of homes , in many cases leaving only the concrete foundations . Over 25,500 houses were destroyed in Miami-Dade County alone , and nearly 100,000 more were severely damaged . A total of 65 people were killed and damage across the affected regions exceeded $ 26.5 billion ( 1992 USD ) .   Andrew originated from a tropical wave on August 16 over the central Atlantic , becoming the fourth tropical cyclone and the first hurricane of the season . Initially , strong wind shear prevented much intensification , but after turning westward , Andrew entered a stage of rapid intensification , peaking as a powerful Category 5 hurricane near the Bahamas on August 23 . Though it briefly weakened to Category 4 strength while traversing the island nation , Andrew regained its Category 5 status before making two separate landfalls in South Florida -- the first on Elliott Key and the second in Homestead . A barometric pressure of 922 mbar ( 27.23 inHg ) in the latter made Andrew the fourth most intense hurricane to strike the United States . Several hours later , the hurricane emerged over the Gulf of Mexico at Category 4 strength , with the Gulf Coast of the United States in its projected path . After weakening slightly , Andrew moved ashore near Morgan City , Louisiana , as low-end Category 3 storm . The effects of land caused the small hurricane to rapidly lose its intensity , and it diminished to a depression by August 27 while crossing Mississippi . The next day , Andrew merged with a frontal system over the southern Appalachian Mountains .   In the Bahamas , Andrew brought storm surge , hurricane-force winds , and tornadoes , causing widespread structural damage , especially on Cat Cays . About 800 houses were destroyed in the archipelago , and there was substantial damage to the transport , water , sanitation , agriculture , and fishing sectors . Overall , Andrew left four dead and $ 250 million in damage throughout the Bahamas . In parts of southern Florida , Andrew produced severe winds ; a wind gust of 177 mph ( 282 km/h ) was observed at a house in Perrine . These winds wreaked catastrophic damage in Florida -- Miami-Dade County cities of Florida City , Homestead , and Cutler Ridge receiving the brunt of the storm . A total of 63,000 homes were destroyed and more than 101,000 others were damaged throughout Florida , leaving roughly 175,000 people homeless . As many as 1.4 million people lost power at the height of the storm . In the Everglades , 70,000 acres ( 280 km2 ) of trees were downed . Rainfall in Florida was substantial , peaking at 13.98 in ( 355 mm ) in western Miami-Dade County . Altogether , Andrew killed 44 and left a record $ 25 billion in damage in the state .   Before moving ashore , Andrew caused extensive damage to oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico , leading to $ 500 million in losses for oil companies . It produced hurricane-force winds along its path through Louisiana , leaving about 152,000 without electricity . Over 80 % of trees in the Atchafalaya River Basin were downed , and the agriculture there was devastated . Throughout the basin and Bayou Lafourche , 187 million freshwater fish were killed in the hurricane . An F3 tornado in St. John the Baptist Parish wrecked 163 structures . With 23,000 houses damaged , 985 others destroyed , and 1,951 mobile homes demolished , property losses in Louisiana exceeded $ 1.5 billion . The hurricane caused the deaths of 17 people in the state , six of whom drowned offshore . Andrew spawned at least 28 tornadoes along the Gulf Coast , especially in Alabama , Georgia , and Mississippi . Throughout its path , Andrew left 65 dead and $ 26.5 billion in damage ; it is currently the fifth costliest hurricane in Atlantic hurricane history , behind only hurricanes Katrina , Sandy , Ike , and Wilma , and the fourth costliest hurricane in the United States , behind Katrina , Sandy , and Ike ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Donna", "title": "Hurricane Donna", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Donna was the strongest hurricane of the 1960 Atlantic hurricane season , and caused severe damage to the Lesser Antilles , the Greater Antilles , and the East Coast of the United States , especially Florida , in August -- September . The fifth tropical cyclone , third hurricane , and first major hurricane of the season , Donna developed south of Cape Verde on August 29 , spawned by a tropical wave to which 63 deaths from a plane crash in Senegal were attributed . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Donna by the following day . Donna moved west-northwestward at roughly 20 mph and by September 1 , it reached hurricane status . Donna deepened significantly and reached its peak intensity early on September 4 , with maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 230 km/h ) . Thereafter , it weakened slightly as it brushed the Lesser Antilles later that day . On Sint Maarten , the storm left a quarter of the island homeless and killed seven people . An additional five deaths were reported in Anguilla and there were seven other fatalities throughout the Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , severe flash flooding led to 107 fatalities , 85 of them in Humacao alone . Donna further weakened to a Category 3 hurricane late on September 5 , but eventually became a Category 4 hurricane again . While passing through The Bahamas , several small island communities in the central regions of the country were leveled , but no damage total or fatalities were reported .   Early on September 10 , Donna made landfall near Marathon , Florida with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km/h ) , hours before another landfall south of Naples at the same intensity . Florida bore the brunt of Hurricane Donna . In the Florida Keys , coastal flooding severely damaged 75 % of buildings , destroyed several subdivisions in Marathon . On the mainland , 5,200 houses were impacted , which does not include the 75 % of homes damaged at Fort Myers Beach ; 50 % of buildings were also destroyed in the city of Everglades . Crop losses were also extensive . A total of 50 % of grapefruit crop was lost , 10 % of the orange and tangerine crop was lost , and the avocado crop was almost destroyed . In the state of Florida alone , there were 13 deaths and $ 300 million in losses . Donna weakened over Florida and was a Category 2 hurricane when it re-emerged into the Atlantic from North Florida . By early on September 12 , the storm made landfall near Topsail Beach , North Carolina as a strong Category 2 hurricane . Donna brought tornadoes and wind gusts up to 100 mph ( 155 km/h ) , damaging or destroying several buildings in Eastern North Carolina , while crops were impacted as far as 50 mi inland . Additionally , storm surge caused significant beach erosion and structural damage at Wilmington and Nags Head . Eight people were killed and there were over 100 injuries . Later on September 12 , Donna reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean and continued to move northeastward . The storm struck Long Island , New York late on September 12 and rapidly weakened inland . On the following day , Donna became extratropical over Maine ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Floyd", "title": "Hurricane Floyd", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Floyd was a very powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane which struck the east coast of the United States . It was the sixth named storm , fourth hurricane , and third major hurricane in the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season . Floyd triggered the third largest evacuation in US history ( behind Hurricane Gustav and Hurricane Rita ) when 2.6 million coastal residents of five states were ordered from their homes as it approached . The Cape Verde-type hurricane formed off the coast of Africa and lasted from September 7 to September 19 , peaking in strength as a very strong Category 4 hurricane -- just 2 mph short of the highest possible rating on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale . It was among the largest Atlantic hurricanes of its strength ever recorded .   Floyd was once forecast to strike Florida , but turned away . Instead , Floyd struck The Bahamas at peak strength , causing heavy damage . It then paralleled the East Coast of the United States , causing massive evacuations and costly preparations from Florida through the Mid-Atlantic states . The storm weakened significantly , however , before striking the Cape Fear region , North Carolina as a very strong Category 2 hurricane , and caused further damage as it traveled up the Mid-Atlantic region and into New England .   The hurricane produced torrential rainfall in Eastern North Carolina , adding more rain to an area hit by Hurricane Dennis just weeks earlier . The rains caused widespread flooding over a period of several weeks ; nearly every river basin in the eastern part of the state exceeded 500-year flood levels . In total , Floyd was responsible for 57 fatalities and $ 6.9 billion ( 1999 USD ; $ USD ) in damage . Due to the destruction , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Floyd ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Gustav", "title": "Hurricane Gustav", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Gustav ( -LSB- ˈɡʊstɑːv -RSB- ) was the second most destructive hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season . The seventh tropical cyclone , third hurricane , and second major hurricane of the season , Gustav caused serious damage and casualties in Haiti , the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , the Cayman Islands , Cuba and the United States . Gustav caused at least $ 6.6 billion ( 2008 USD ) in damages .   It formed on the morning of August 25 , 2008 , about 260 mi southeast of Port-au-Prince , Haiti , and rapidly strengthened into a tropical storm that afternoon and into a hurricane early on August 26 . Later that day it made landfall near the Haitian town of Jacmel . It inundated Jamaica and ravaged Western Cuba and then steadily moved across the Gulf of Mexico .   Once into the Gulf , Gustav gradually weakened because of increased wind shear and dry air . It weakened to a Category 2 hurricane late on August 31 , and remained at that intensity until landfall on the morning of September 1 near Cocodrie , Louisiana . Weakening continued , and Gustav weakened to a tropical storm that evening and to a tropical depression the next day as it meandered around the south-central US . The weak system became extratropical on September 4 and was absorbed by another low on September 5 .   In total , an estimated 153 deaths had been attributed to Gustav in the U.S. and Caribbean . Damage in the U.S. totaled to $ 4.3 billion ( 2008 USD ) with additional damage of $ 2.1 billion in Cuba and $ 210 million in damage in Jamaica ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Harvey", "title": "Hurricane Harvey", "headings": "", "text": "The name Harvey has been used for five tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean .  Hurricane Harvey ( 1981 ) - threatened Bermuda but turned away before striking , no damage .  Hurricane Harvey ( 1993 ) - short-lived storm that threatened no land .  Tropical Storm Harvey ( 1999 ) - struck Florida , causing $ 15 million in damage .  Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2005 ) - earliest eighth-storm formation in the Atlantic Ocean since record-keeping began , breaking the old record set in 1936 by 12 days . Threatened Bermuda .  Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2011 ) - record eighth-storm failing to reach hurricane strength , in a single season , since reliable records began . Strong tropical storm that affected parts of Central America .   Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages"}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Irma", "title": "Hurricane Irma", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Irma was an extremely powerful Cape Verde hurricane that caused widespread destruction across its path in September 2017. Irma was the first Category 5 hurricane to strike the Leeward Islands on record, followed by Maria two weeks later. At the time, it was considered as the most powerful hurricane on record in the open Atlantic region, outside of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico until it was surpassed by Hurricane Dorian two years later. It was also the third strongest Atlantic hurricane at landfall ever recorded, just behind the 1935 Labor Day Hurricane and Hurricane Dorian. The ninth named storm, fourth hurricane, second major hurricane, and first Category 5 hurricane of the 2017 season, Irma caused widespread and catastrophic damage throughout its long lifetime, particularly in the northeastern Caribbean and the Florida Keys. It was also the most intense hurricane to strike the continental United States since Katrina in 2005, the first major hurricane to make landfall in Florida since Wilma in the same year, and the first Category 4 hurricane to strike the state since Charley in 2004. The word Irmageddon was coined soon after the hurricane to describe the damage caused by the hurricane."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Katrina", "title": "Hurricane Katrina", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Katrina was the costliest natural disaster and one of the five deadliest hurricanes in the history of the United States . The storm is currently ranked as the third most intense United States landfalling tropical cyclone , behind only the 1935 Labor Day hurricane and Hurricane Camille in 1969 . Overall , at least 1,245 people died in the hurricane and subsequent floods , making it the deadliest United States hurricane since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane . Total property damage was estimated at $ 108 billion ( 2005 USD ) , roughly four times the damage wrought by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 in the United States .   The eleventh named storm and fifth hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , Katrina originated over the Bahamas on August 23 from the interaction between a tropical wave and the remnants of Tropical Depression Ten . Early the following day , the new depression intensified into Tropical Storm Katrina . The cyclone headed generally westward toward Florida and strengthened into a hurricane only two hours before making landfall at Hallandale Beach and Aventura on August 25 . After very briefly weakening to a tropical storm , Katrina emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on August 26 and began to rapidly deepen . The storm strengthened to a Category 5 hurricane over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico , but weakened before making its second landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on August 29 in southeast Louisiana .   The storm caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central Florida to Texas , much of it due to the storm surge and levee failure . Severe property damage occurred in coastal areas , such as Mississippi beachfront towns ; over 90 percent of these were flooded . Boats and casino barges rammed buildings , pushing cars and houses inland ; water reached 6 - from the beach .   Over fifty breaches in New Orleans 's hurricane surge protection were the cause of the majority of the death and destruction during Katrina on August 29 , 2005 . Eventually 80 % of the city and large tracts of neighboring parishes became flooded , and the floodwaters lingered for weeks . According to a modeling exercise conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) , two-thirds of the deaths in Greater New Orleans were due to levee and floodwall failure . All of the major studies concluded that the USACE , the designers and builders of the levee system as mandated by the Flood Control Act of 1965 , is responsible . This is mainly due to a decision to use shorter steel sheet pilings in an effort to save money . In January 2008 , Judge Stanwood Duval , U.S. District Court , ruled that despite the Corps ' role in the flooding , the agency could not be held financially liable because of sovereign immunity in the Flood Control Act of 1928 . Exactly ten years after Katrina , J. David Rogers , lead author of a new report in the official journal of the World Water Council concluded that the flooding during Katrina `` could have been prevented had the corps retained an external review board to double-check its flood-wall designs . ''   There was also an investigation of the responses from federal , state and local governments , resulting in the resignation of Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) director Michael D. Brown , and of New Orleans Police Department ( NOPD ) Superintendent Eddie Compass . Many other government officials were criticized for their responses , especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin , Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco , and President George W. Bush . Several agencies including the United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) , National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) , and National Weather Service ( NWS ) were commended for their actions . They provided accurate hurricane weather tracking forecasts with sufficient lead time ."}
{"_id": "Hurricane_Sandy", "title": "Hurricane Sandy", "headings": "", "text": "Hurricane Sandy ( unofficially referred to as `` Superstorm Sandy '' ) was the deadliest and most destructive hurricane of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season , and the second-costliest hurricane in United States history . Classified as the eighteenth named storm , tenth hurricane and second major hurricane of the year , Sandy was a Category 3 storm at its peak intensity when it made landfall in Cuba . While it was a Category 2 storm off the coast of the Northeastern United States , the storm became the largest Atlantic hurricane on record ( as measured by diameter , with winds spanning 1100 mi ) . Estimates as of 2015 assessed damage to have been about $ 75 billion ( 2012 USD ) , a total surpassed only by Hurricane Katrina . At least 233 people were killed along the path of the storm in eight countries .   Sandy developed from a tropical wave in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22 , quickly strengthened , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Sandy six hours later . Sandy moved slowly northward toward the Greater Antilles and gradually intensified . On October 24 , Sandy became a hurricane , made landfall near Kingston , Jamaica , re-emerged a few hours later into the Caribbean Sea and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane . On October 25 , Sandy hit Cuba as a Category 3 hurricane , then weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on October 26 , Sandy moved through the Bahamas . On October 27 , Sandy briefly weakened to a tropical storm and then restrengthened to a Category 1 hurricane . Early on October 29 , Sandy curved west-northwest ( the `` left turn '' or `` left hook '' ) and then moved ashore near Brigantine , New Jersey , just to the northeast of Atlantic City , as a post-tropical cyclone with hurricane-force winds .   In Jamaica , winds left 70 % of residents without electricity , blew roofs off buildings , killed one , and caused about $ 100 million ( 2012 USD ) in damage . Sandy 's outer bands brought flooding to Haiti , killing at least 54 , causing food shortages , and leaving about 200,000 homeless ; the hurricane also caused two deaths in the Dominican Republic . In Puerto Rico , one man was swept away by a swollen river . In Cuba , there was extensive coastal flooding and wind damage inland , destroying some 15,000 homes , killing 11 , and causing $ 2 billion ( 2012 USD ) in damage . Sandy caused two deaths and damage estimated at $ 700 million ( 2012 USD ) in The Bahamas .   In the United States , Hurricane Sandy affected 24 states , including the entire eastern seaboard from Florida to Maine and west across the Appalachian Mountains to Michigan and Wisconsin , with particularly severe damage in New Jersey and New York . Its storm surge hit New York City on October 29 , flooding streets , tunnels and subway lines and cutting power in and around the city . Damage in the United States amounted to $ 71.4 billion ( 2013 USD ) . In Canada , two were killed in Ontario and an estimated $ 100 million ( 2012 CAD ) in damage was caused throughout Ontario and Quebec ."}
{"_id": "Hydrocarbon", "title": "Hydrocarbon", "headings": "", "text": "In organic chemistry , a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon , and thus are group 14 hydrides . Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups , called hydrocarbyls .  Aromatic hydrocarbons ( arenes ) , alkanes , alkenes , cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons .   The majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth naturally occur in crude oil , where decomposed organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen which , when bonded , can catenate to form seemingly limitless chains ."}
{"_id": "Hydrofluorocarbon", "title": "Hydrofluorocarbon", "headings": "", "text": "Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing .   Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group .   Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations .   In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol ."}
{"_id": "Hydrology", "title": "Hydrology", "headings": "", "text": "Hydrology is the scientific study of the movement , distribution , and quality of water on Earth and other planets , including the water cycle , water resources and environmental watershed sustainability . A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist , working within the fields of earth or environmental science , physical geography , geology or civil and environmental engineering . Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques , they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation , natural disasters , and water management .   Hydrology subdivides into surface water hydrology , groundwater hydrology ( hydrogeology ) , and marine hydrology . Domains of hydrology include hydrometeorology , surface hydrology , hydrogeology , drainage-basin management and water quality , where water plays the central role .   Oceanography and meteorology are not included because water is only one of many important aspects within those fields .   Hydrological research can inform environmental engineering , policy and planning .   The term hydrology comes from Greek : ὕδωρ , hýdōr , `` water '' ; and λόγος , lógos , `` study '' ."}
{"_id": "Hydroponics", "title": "Hydroponics", "headings": "", "text": "Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture , the method of growing plants without soil , using mineral nutrient solutions in a water solvent . Terrestrial plants may be grown with only their roots exposed to the mineral solution , or the roots may be supported by an inert medium , such as perlite or gravel . The nutrients in hydroponics can be from fish waste , duck manure , or chemical fertilizer ."}
{"_id": "Hypertension", "title": "Hypertension", "headings": "", "text": "Hypertension ( HTN or HT ) , also known as high blood pressure ( HBP ) , is a long term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated . High blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms . Long term high blood pressure , however , is a major risk factor for coronary artery disease , stroke , heart failure , peripheral vascular disease , vision loss , and chronic kidney disease .   High blood pressure is classified as either primary ( essential ) high blood pressure or secondary high blood pressure . About 90 -- 95 % of cases are primary , defined as high blood pressure due to nonspecific lifestyle and genetic factors . Lifestyle factors that increase the risk include excess salt , excess body weight , smoking , and alcohol . The remaining 5 -- 10 % of cases are categorized as secondary high blood pressure , defined as high blood pressure due to an identifiable cause , such as chronic kidney disease , narrowing of the kidney arteries , an endocrine disorder , or the use of birth control pills .   Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements , the systolic and diastolic pressures , which are the maximum and minimum pressures , respectively . Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100 -- 140 millimeters mercury ( mmHg ) systolic and 60 -- 90 mmHg diastolic . High blood pressure is present if the resting blood pressure is persistently at or above 140/90 mmHg for most adults . Different numbers apply to children . Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over a 24-hour period appears more accurate than office best blood pressure measurement .   Lifestyle changes and medications can lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of health complications . Lifestyle changes include weight loss , decreased salt intake , physical exercise , and a healthy diet . If lifestyle changes are not sufficient then blood pressure medications are used . Up to three medications can control blood pressure in 90 % of people . The treatment of moderately high arterial blood pressure ( defined as > 160/100 mmHg ) with medications is associated with an improved life expectancy . The effect of treatment of blood pressure between 140/90 mmHg and 160/100 mmHg is less clear , with some reviews finding benefit and others finding a lack of evidence for benefit . High blood pressure affects between 16 and 37 % of the population globally . In 2010 hypertension was believed to have been a factor in 18 % of all deaths ( 9.4 million globally ) ."}
{"_id": "Hyperthermia", "title": "Hyperthermia", "headings": "", "text": "Hyperthermia is elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates . Extreme temperature elevation then becomes a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent disability or death .   The most common causes include heat stroke and adverse reactions to drugs . The former is an acute temperature elevation caused by exposure to excessive heat , or combination of heat and humidity , that overwhelms the heat-regulating mechanisms . The latter is a relatively rare side effect of many drugs , particularly those that affect the central nervous system . Malignant hyperthermia is a rare complication of some types of general anesthesia .   Hyperthermia differs from fever in that the body 's temperature set point remains unchanged . The opposite is hypothermia , which occurs when the temperature drops below that required to maintain normal metabolism . The term is from Greek ὑπέρ , hyper , meaning `` above '' or `` over '' , and θέρμος , thermos , meaning `` heat '' ."}
{"_id": "Hypothermia", "title": "Hypothermia", "headings": "", "text": "Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs . In humans , it is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature . In mild hypothermia there is shivering and mental confusion . In moderate hypothermia shivering stops and confusion increases . In severe hypothermia there may be paradoxical undressing , in which a person removes his or her clothing , as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping .   Hypothermia has two main types of causes . It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold . It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss . Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar , anorexia , and advanced age , among others . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5 -- through thermoregulation . Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering , increased voluntary activity , and putting on warmer clothing . Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person 's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person 's core temperature .   The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks , warm clothing and physical activity . In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended . People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently . In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ( ECMO ) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful . In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) is indicated along with the above measures . Rewarming is typically continued until a person 's temperature is greater than 32 C . If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time resuscitation may be discontinued .   Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1500 deaths a year in the United States . It is more common in older people and males . One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 C in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden . Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described . In those in whom ECMO or bypass is used survival is around 50 % . Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars . The term is from Greek ὑπο , ypo , meaning `` under '' , and θερμία , thermía , meaning `` heat '' . The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia , an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation ."}
{"_id": "Hysterectomy", "title": "Hysterectomy", "headings": "", "text": "Hysterectomy ( from Greek ὑστέρα , hystera , `` uterus '' + ἐκτομή , ektomḗ , `` a cutting out of '' ) is the surgical removal of the uterus . It may also involve removal of the cervix , ovaries , fallopian tubes and other surrounding structures .   Usually performed by a gynecologist , hysterectomy may be total ( removing the body , fundus , and cervix of the uterus ; often called `` complete '' ) or partial ( removal of the uterine body while leaving the cervix intact ; also called `` supracervical '' ) . It is the most commonly performed gynecological surgical procedure . In 2003 , over 600,000 hysterectomies were performed in the United States alone , of which over 90 % were performed for benign conditions . Such rates being highest in the industrialized world has led to the major controversy that hysterectomies are being largely performed for unwarranted and unnecessary reasons .   Removal of the uterus renders the patient unable to bear children ( as does removal of ovaries and fallopian tubes ) and has surgical risks as well as long-term effects , so the surgery is normally recommended when other treatment options are not available or have failed . It is expected that the frequency of hysterectomies for non-malignant indications will fall as there are good alternatives in many cases .   Oophorectomy ( removal of ovaries ) is frequently done together with hysterectomy to decrease the risk of ovarian cancer . However , recent studies have shown that prophylactic oophorectomy without an urgent medical indication decreases a woman 's long-term survival rates substantially and has other serious adverse effects . This effect is not limited to pre-menopausal women ; even women who have already entered menopause were shown to have experienced a decrease in long-term survivability post-oophorectomy ."}
{"_id": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "title": "IPCC Fifth Assessment Report", "headings": "", "text": "The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation .   The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 ."}
{"_id": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "title": "IPCC First Assessment Report", "headings": "", "text": "The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .   The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established .   Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums  Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths  Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies   Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports .   The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes :   We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it .  We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ...  Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade .  There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets .  Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more .  under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century ."}
{"_id": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "title": "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report", "headings": "", "text": "Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies .   It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report .   The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''"}
{"_id": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "title": "IPCC Second Assessment Report", "headings": "", "text": "The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 ."}
{"_id": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "title": "IPCC Third Assessment Report", "headings": "", "text": "The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 .   Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) ."}
{"_id": "Ice_age", "title": "Ice age", "headings": "", "text": "An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist ."}
{"_id": "Ice_core", "title": "Ice core", "headings": "", "text": "An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition .   Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires .   The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable .   An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research ."}
{"_id": "Ice_sheet", "title": "Ice sheet", "headings": "", "text": "An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America .   Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery .   Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams .   The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet ."}
{"_id": "Ice_shelf", "title": "Ice shelf", "headings": "", "text": "An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters .   In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica .   Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss .   Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf .   The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica .   The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok ."}
{"_id": "Iceberg", "title": "Iceberg", "headings": "", "text": "An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water . It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice ( one form of sea ice ) . As it drifts into shallower waters , it may come into contact with the seabed , a process referred to as seabed gouging by ice . Almost 91 % of an iceberg is below the surface of the water ."}
{"_id": "Illinois", "title": "Illinois", "headings": "", "text": "Illinois ( -LSB- ɪlᵻˈnɔɪ -RSB- ) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States , achieving statehood in 1818 . It is the 6th-most populous state and 25th-largest state in terms of land area , and is noted as a microcosm of the entire country . The word `` Illinois '' comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word . With Chicago in the northeast , small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois , and natural resources like coal , timber , and petroleum in the south , Illinois has a diverse economic base and is a major transportation hub . The Port of Chicago connects the state to other global ports from the Great Lakes , via the Saint Lawrence Seaway , to the Atlantic Ocean , as well as the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River , via the Illinois Waterway . For decades , O'Hare International Airport has been ranked as one of the world 's busiest airports . Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics .   Although today the state 's largest population center is around Chicago in the northern part of the state , the state 's European population grew first in the west , with French Canadian colonists who settled along the Mississippi River in the 17th and 18th century , and gave the area the name , `` Pays des Illinois '' or Illinois Country a region that was known as part of New France . After the American Revolutionary War established the United States , American settlers began arriving crossing the Appalachians barrier range in the 1810s via the gaps of the Allegheny to boat building centers in Pittsburgh , from Cumberland , Maryland via the Cumberland Narrows pass to outfit in Brownsville , Pennsylvania , from North Carolina and Virginia via the Cumberland Gap to Kentucky and Tennessee , all on the Ohio River .   With the War of 1812 , the growth of Illinois slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier . After the war 's end , the federal government re-established forts such as Fort Dearborn ( in 1816 -- now the site is within Chicago ) and army patrols west of the Mississippi diminished the threat from Amerindian raids , so settlers were able to move into all of Illinois from the eastern and southern emigrant trails .   Mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration -- by the 1810s , the Eastern U.S. had exhausted most timber stands close to the established cities creating a hard felt first energy crisis by the late-1790s , and after 1818 , the industrial revolution was being fueled by new canals such as the Lehigh Canal feeding the furnaces of the rapidly industrializing east coast . Also in 1818 , Illinois achieved statehood and its growth , as yet untroubled by the speed of as yet unrefined railway technology , would be fueled by the new religion of industrialized forward thinking .   After construction of the Erie Canal with increasing traffic and trade through the Great Lakes , Chicago was founded in the 1830s on the banks of the Chicago River , at one of the few natural harbors on southern Lake Michigan . John Deere 's invention of the self-scouring steel plow turned Illinois ' rich prairie into some of the world 's most productive and valuable farmlands , attracting new immigrant farmers from Germany and Sweden . Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s , and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois , as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets . Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other mid-western states from the tyranny of water transport ; no longer was a location near a river or canal a need to ship bulk goods .   By 1900 , the growth of industrial jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants , from Eastern and Southern Europe . Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars . The Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago , who created the city 's famous jazz and blues cultures .   Three U.S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois : Abraham Lincoln , Ulysses S. Grant , and most recently Barack Obama . Additionally , Ronald Reagan , whose political career was based in California , was the only U.S. president born and raised in Illinois . Today , Illinois honors Lincoln with its official state nickname `` The Land of Lincoln , '' which has been displayed on its license plates since 1954 . The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the state capital of Springfield , and the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be completed in Chicago by 2020 ."}
{"_id": "Imagism", "title": "Imagism", "headings": "", "text": "Imagism was a movement in early 20th-century Anglo-American poetry that favored precision of imagery and clear , sharp language .   Imagism has been described as the most influential movement in English poetry since the activity of the Pre-Raphaelites . As a poetic style it gave Modernism its start in the early 20th century , and is considered to be the first organized Modernist literary movement in the English language . Imagism is sometimes viewed as ' a succession of creative moments ' rather than any continuous or sustained period of development . René Taupin remarked that ` It is more accurate to consider Imagism not as a doctrine , nor even as a poetic school , but as the association of a few poets who were for a certain time in agreement on a small number of important principles ' .   The Imagists rejected the sentiment and discursiveness typical of much Romantic and Victorian poetry , in contrast to their contemporaries , the Georgian poets , who were generally content to work within that tradition . In contrast , Imagism called for a return to what were seen as more Classical values , such as directness of presentation and economy of language , as well as a willingness to experiment with non-traditional verse forms . Imagists use free verse .   Imagist publications appearing between 1914 and 1917 featured works by many of the most prominent modernist figures , both in poetry and in other fields . The Imagist group was centered in London , with members from Great Britain , Ireland and the United States . Somewhat unusually for the time , a number of women writers were major Imagist figures .   A characteristic feature of Imagism is its attempt to isolate a single image to reveal its essence . This feature mirrors contemporary developments in avant-garde art , especially Cubism . Although Imagism isolates objects through the use of what Ezra Pound called `` luminous details '' , Pound 's Ideogrammic Method of juxtaposing concrete instances to express an abstraction is similar to Cubism 's manner of synthesizing multiple perspectives into a single image ."}
{"_id": "Incineration", "title": "Incineration", "headings": "", "text": "Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials . Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as `` thermal treatment '' . Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash , flue gas and heat . The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the waste , and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas . The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere . In some cases , the heat generated by incineration can be used to generate electric power .   Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy ( WtE ) technologies such as gasification , pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion . While incineration and gasification technologies are similar in principle , the energy product from incineration is high-temperature heat whereas combustible gas is often the main energy product from gasification . Incineration and gasification may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery .   In several countries , there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the environmental effect of incinerators ( see arguments against incineration ) .   In some countries , incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous , bulky or recyclable materials before combustion . These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control . Most of these facilities did not generate electricity .   Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80 -- 85 % and the volume ( already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks ) by 95 -- 96 % , depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling . This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling , it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal . Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator . Alternatively , at landfills , the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately 70 % by using a stationary steel compressor , albeit with a significant energy cost . In many countries , simpler waste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills .   Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures . Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams , which can not be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant .   Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource . Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century , in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes . In 2005 , waste incineration produced 4.8 % of the electricity consumption and 13.7 % of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark . A number of other European countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste , in particular Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Germany , and France ."}
{"_id": "Indian_Ocean", "title": "Indian Ocean", "headings": "", "text": "The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world 's oceanic divisions , covering 70,560,000 km2 ( approximately 20 % of the water on the Earth 's surface ) . It is bounded by Asia on the north , on the west by Africa , on the east by Australia , and on the south by the Southern Ocean or , depending on definition , by Antarctica . It is named after India . The Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara , `` the mine of gems '' in ancient Sanskrit literature , and as Hind Mahāsāgar , in Hindi ."}
{"_id": "Indo-Aryan_migration", "title": "Indo-Aryan migration", "headings": "", "text": "The Indo-Aryan migrations were the migrations into the Indian subcontinent of Indo-Aryan peoples, an ethnolinguistic group that spoke Indo-Aryan languages, the predominant languages of today's North India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indo-Aryan population movements into the region and Anatolia (ancient Mitanni) from Central Asia are considered to have started after 2000 BCE, as a slow diffusion after the Late Harappan period, which led to a language shift in the northern Indian subcontinent. The Iranian languages were brought into the Iranian plateau by the Iranians, who were closely related to the Indo-Aryans."}
{"_id": "Indoor_air_quality", "title": "Indoor air quality", "headings": "", "text": "Indoor air quality ( IAQ ) is a term which refers to the air quality within and around buildings and structures , especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants .  IAQ can be affected by gases ( including carbon monoxide , radon , volatile organic compounds ) , particulates , microbial contaminants ( mold , bacteria ) , or any mass or energy stressor that can induce adverse health conditions . Source control , filtration and the use of ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most buildings . Residential units can further improve indoor air quality by routine cleaning of carpets and area rugs .   Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples , monitoring human exposure to pollutants , collection of samples on building surfaces , and computer modelling of air flow inside buildings .   IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality ( IEQ ) , which includes IAQ as well as other physical and psychological aspects of life indoors ( e.g. , lighting , visual quality , acoustics , and thermal comfort ) .   Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard . A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass ( e.g. wood , charcoal , dung , or crop residue ) for heating and cooking . The resulting exposure to high levels of particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths in 2000 ."}
{"_id": "Indur_M._Goklany", "title": "Indur M. Goklany", "headings": "", "text": "Indur M. Goklany is a science and technology policy analyst for the United States Department of the Interior , where he holds the position of Assistant Director of Programs , Science and Technology Policy .   He has represented the United States at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and during the negotiations that led to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change . He was a rapporteur for the Resource Use and Management Subgroup of Working Group III of the IPCC First Assessment Report in 1990 ,  and is the author of Clearing the Air ( 1999 ) , The Precautionary Principle ( 2001 ) , and The Improving State of the World ( 2007 ) ."}
{"_id": "Influenza_A_virus", "title": "Influenza A virus", "headings": "", "text": "Influenza A virus causes influenza in birds and some mammals , and is the only species of influenza virus A. Influenza virus A is a genus of the Orthomyxoviridae family of viruses . Strains of all subtypes of influenza A virus have been isolated from wild birds , although disease is uncommon . Some isolates of influenza A virus cause severe disease both in domestic poultry and , rarely , in humans . Occasionally , viruses are transmitted from wild aquatic birds to domestic poultry , and this may cause an outbreak or give rise to human influenza pandemics .   Influenza A viruses are negative-sense , single-stranded , segmented RNA viruses .  The several subtypes are labeled according to an H number ( for the type of hemagglutinin ) and an N number ( for the type of neuraminidase ) . There are 18 different known H antigens ( H1 to H18 ) and 11 different known N antigens ( N1 to N11 ) . H17 was isolated from fruit bats in 2012 . H18N11 was discovered in a Peruvian bat in 2013 .   Each virus subtype has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles ; some are pathogenic to one species but not others , some are pathogenic to multiple species .   A filtered and purified influenza A vaccine for humans has been developed , and many countries have stockpiled it to allow a quick administration to the population in the event of an avian influenza pandemic . Avian influenza is sometimes called avian flu , and colloquially , bird flu . In 2011 , researchers reported the discovery of an antibody effective against all types of the influenza A virus ."}
{"_id": "Infrared", "title": "Infrared", "headings": "", "text": "Infrared radiation , or simply infrared or IR , is electromagnetic radiation ( EMR ) with longer wavelengths than those of visible light , and is therefore invisible , although it is sometimes loosely called infrared light . It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers ( frequency 430 THz ) , to 1000000 nm ( 300 GHz ) ( although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments ) . Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared . Like all EMR , IR carries radiant energy , and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle , the photon .   Infrared was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir William Herschel , who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light , by means of its effect on a thermometer . Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared . The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth 's climate .   Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements . It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment , making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry . Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range .   Infrared radiation is used in industrial , scientific , and medical applications . Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected . Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds , detect objects such as planets , and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe . Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems , to observe changing blood flow in the skin , and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus .   Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes . Military applications include target acquisition , surveillance , night vision , homing , and tracking . Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm ( micrometers ) . Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis , environmental monitoring , industrial facility inspections , remote temperature sensing , short-ranged wireless communication , spectroscopy , and weather forecasting ."}
{"_id": "Infrastructure_policy_of_Donald_Trump", "title": "Infrastructure policy of Donald Trump", "headings": "", "text": "The infrastructure policy of Donald Trump includes ensuring U.S. energy independence (by catering to the fossil fuel, nuclear, and renewable energy industries), safeguarding the cybersecurity of the national power grid and other critical infrastructure, locking China out of the U.S. fifth-generation Internet market, and rolling back regulations to ease the process of planning and construction. While there have been no major infrastructure spending packages yet, some individual policies and projects have advanced piecemeal, especially in rural areas. Although there is recognition of the need to upgrade American infrastructure from both sides of the political aisle, as of April 2020, no major infrastructure bill has been passed due to disagreements over the details of such a spending package, namely, what to spend on, how much to spend, and how to pay for it. 'Infrastructure' is a rather broad term that means different things to different people. In general, the aim of the Trump administration is revitalizing the national economy and enhancing national security despite the tendency of his own Republican Party to oppose large federal expenditures and tax hikes whereas members of the opposition Democratic Party typically favor investing in renewable energy and new infrastructure that could combat climate change, and tend to be less averse to deficit spending. This article focuses exclusively on physical or hard infrastructure, as opposed to soft infrastructure, or public institutions."}
{"_id": "Institutional_racism", "title": "Institutional racism", "headings": "", "text": "Institutional racism ( also known as institutionalized racism ) is a form of racism expressed in the practice of social and political institutions . Institutional racism is also racism by individuals or informal social groups , governed by behavioral norms that support racist thinking and foment active racism . It is reflected in disparities regarding wealth , income , criminal justice , employment , housing , health care , political power and education , among other things . Whether implicitly or explicitly expressed , institutional racism occurs when a certain group is targeted and discriminated against based upon race . Institutional racism is mostly implicit so goes unnoticed frequently , this is why it is overlooked .   Institutional racism was explained in 1967 by Kwame Ture ( formerly Stokely Carmichael ) and Charles V. Hamilton in Black Power : The Politics of Liberation , stating that while individual racism is often identifiable because of its overt nature , institutional racism is less perceptible because of its `` less overt , far more subtle '' nature . Institutional racism `` originates in the operation of established and respected forces in the society , and thus receives far less public condemnation than -LSB- individual racism -RSB- . '' They go on to give examples :  `` When white terrorists bomb a black church and kill five black children , that is an act of individual racism , widely deplored by most segments of the society . But when in that same city -- Birmingham , Alabama -- five hundred black babies die each year because of the lack of power , food , shelter and medical facilities , and thousands more are destroyed and maimed physically , emotionally and intellectually because of conditions of poverty and discrimination in the black community , that is a function of institutional racism . When a black family moves into a home in a white neighborhood and is stoned , burned or routed out , they are victims of an overt act of individual racism which most people will condemn . But it is institutional racism that keeps black people locked in dilapidated slum tenements , subject to the daily prey of exploitative slumlords , merchants , loan sharks and discriminatory real estate agents . The society either pretends it does not know of this latter situation , or is in fact incapable of doing anything meaningful about it . ''   Institutional racism was defined by Sir William Macpherson in the 1999 Lawrence report ( UK ) as : `` The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour , culture , or ethnic origin . It can be seen or detected in processes , attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice , ignorance , thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people . ''"}
{"_id": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "title": "Instrumental temperature record", "headings": "", "text": "The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets ."}
{"_id": "Intelligent_design", "title": "Intelligent design", "headings": "", "text": "Intelligent design ( ID ) is a religious argument for the existence of God . Presented by its proponents as `` an evidence-based scientific theory about life 's origins '' , it has been found to be pseudoscience . Proponents claim that `` certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause , not an undirected process such as natural selection . '' Educators , philosophers , and the scientific community have demonstrated that ID is a religious argument , a form of creationism which lacks empirical support and offers no testable or tenable hypotheses . Proponents argue that it challenges the methodological naturalism inherent in modern science , while conceding that they have yet to produce a scientific theory . The leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute , a politically conservative think tank based in the United States . Although they state that ID is not creationism and deliberately avoid assigning a personality to the designer , many of these proponents express belief that the designer is the Christian deity .   ID presents two main arguments against evolutionary explanations : irreducible complexity and specified complexity . These arguments offer assertions that certain features ( biological and informational , respectively ) are too complex to be the result of natural processes . As a positive argument against evolution , ID proposes an analogy between natural systems and human artifacts , a version of the theological argument from design for the existence of God . ID proponents then conclude by analogy that the complex features , as defined by ID , are evidence of design . Detailed scientific examination has rebutted the claims that evolutionary explanations are inadequate , and this premise of intelligent design -- that evidence against evolution constitutes evidence for design -- has been criticized as a false dichotomy .   Though the phrase `` intelligent design '' had featured previously in theological discussions of the design argument , the first publication of the term intelligent design in its present use as an alternative term for creationism was in Of Pandas and People , a 1989 textbook intended for high school biology classes . The term was substituted into drafts of the book after the 1987 United States Supreme Court 's Edwards v. Aguillard decision , which barred the teaching of creation science in public schools on constitutional grounds . From the mid-1990s , the intelligent design movement ( IDM ) , supported by the Discovery Institute , advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula . This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial in which U.S. District Judge John E. Jones III ruled that intelligent design is not science , that it `` can not uncouple itself from its creationist , and thus religious , antecedents , '' and that the school district 's promotion of it therefore violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , often described as the `` wall of separation between church and state '' ."}
{"_id": "Intensive_animal_farming", "title": "Intensive animal farming", "headings": "", "text": "Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production , also known as factory farming by opponents of the practice , is a modern form of intensive farming that refers to animal husbandry , the keeping of livestock such as cattle , poultry , and fish at higher stocking densities than is usually the case with other forms of animal agriculture -- a practice typical in industrial farming by agribusinesses . The main products of this industry are meat , milk and eggs for human consumption . There are issues regarding whether factory farming is sustainable and ethical .   Confinement at high stocking density is one part of a systematic effort to produce the highest output at the lowest cost by relying on economies of scale , modern machinery , biotechnology , and global trade . There are differences in the way factory farming techniques are practiced around the world . There is a continuing debate over the benefits , risks and ethical questions of factory farming . The issues include the efficiency of food production ; animal welfare ; whether it is essential for feeding the growing global population ; and the environmental impact ( e.g. pollution ) and health risks ."}
{"_id": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "title": "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change", "headings": "", "text": "The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP .  The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . ''   The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources .   Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries .   The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore ."}
{"_id": "International_Energy_Agency", "title": "International Energy Agency", "headings": "", "text": "The International Energy Agency ( IEA ) ( Agence internationale de l'énergie ) is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization established in the framework of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) in 1974 in the wake of the 1973 oil crisis . The IEA was initially dedicated to responding to physical disruptions in the supply of oil , as well as serving as an information source on statistics about the international oil market and other energy sectors .   The IEA acts as a policy adviser to its member states , but also works with non-member countries , especially China , India , and Russia . The Agency 's mandate has broadened to focus on the `` 3Es '' of effectual energy policy : energy security , economic development , and environmental protection . The latter has focused on mitigating climate change . The IEA has a broad role in promoting alternate energy sources ( including renewable energy ) , rational energy policies , and multinational energy technology co-operation .   IEA member countries are required to maintain total oil stock levels equivalent to at least 90 days of the previous year 's net imports . At the end of July 2009 , IEA member countries held a combined stockpile of almost 4.3 billion barrels ( 680,000,000 m3 ) of oil .   On 1 September 2015 , Fatih Birol took office as the new Executive Director , succeeding in this position former Dutch Minister of Economic Affairs , Maria van der Hoeven ."}
{"_id": "International_Space_Station", "title": "International Space Station", "headings": "", "text": "The International Space Station ( ISS ) is a space station , or a habitable artificial satellite , in low Earth orbit . Its first component launched into orbit in 1998 , and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in low Earth orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth . The ISS consists of pressurised modules , external trusses , solar arrays , and other components . ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets , and American Space Shuttles .   The ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology , human biology , physics , astronomy , meteorology , and other fields . The station is suited for the testing of spacecraft systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon and Mars . The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft . It completes orbits per day .   The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews , following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut , Almaz , and Mir stations as well as Skylab from the US . The station has been continuously occupied for since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000 . This is the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit , having surpassed the previous record of held by Mir . The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft : the Russian Soyuz and Progress , the American Dragon and Cygnus , the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle , and formerly the Space Shuttle and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle . It has been visited by astronauts , cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations .   After the US Space Shuttle programme ended in 2011 , Soyuz rockets became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the International Space Station , and Dragon became the only provider of bulk cargo return to Earth ( called downmass ) . Soyuz has very limited downmass capability .   The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies : NASA , Roscosmos , JAXA , ESA , and CSA . The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements . The station is divided into two sections , the Russian Orbital Segment ( ROS ) and the United States Orbital Segment ( USOS ) , which is shared by many nations . , the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024 . Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK .   On 28 March 2015 , Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS . NASA later issued a guarded statement expressing thanks for Russia 's interest in future co-operation in space exploration but fell short of confirming the Russian announcement ."}
{"_id": "International_Standard_Book_Number", "title": "International Standard Book Number", "headings": "", "text": "The International Standard Book Number ( ISBN ) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier .   An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation ( except reprintings ) of a book . For example , an e-book , a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN . The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007 , and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007 . The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country , often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country .   The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering ( SBN ) created in 1966 . The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 ( the SBN code can be converted to a ten digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero ) .   Occasionally , a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure ; however , this can be rectified later .   Another identifier , the International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN ) , identifies periodical publications such as magazines ; and the International Standard Music Number ( ISMN ) covers for musical scores ."}
{"_id": "Invasive_species", "title": "Invasive species", "headings": "", "text": "An invasive species is a plant , fungus , or animal species that is not native to a specific location ( an introduced species ) , and which has a tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage to the environment , human economy or human health .   One study pointed out widely divergent perceptions of the criteria for invasive species among researchers ( p. 135 ) and concerns with the subjectivity of the term `` invasive '' ( p. 136 ) . Some of the alternate usages of the term are below :   The term as most often used applies to introduced species ( also called `` non-indigenous '' or `` non-native '' ) that adversely affect the habitats and bioregions they invade economically , environmentally , or ecologically . Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region , wilderness areas , particular habitats , or wildland -- urban interface land from loss of natural controls ( such as predators or herbivores ) . This includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities . It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as conservation groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) and the California Native Plant Society . The European Union defines `` Invasive Alien Species '' as those that are , firstly , outside their natural distribution area , and secondly , threaten biological diversity . It is also used by land managers , botanists , researchers , horticulturalists , conservationists , and the public for noxious weeds . The kudzu vine ( Pueraria lobata ) , Andean Pampas grass ( Cortaderia jubata ) , and yellow starthistle ( Centaurea solstitialis ) are examples .  An alternate usage broadens the term to include indigenous or `` native '' species along with non-native species , that have colonized natural areas ( p. 136 ) . Deer are an example , considered to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens , by some in the Northeastern and Pacific Coast regions of the United States .  Sometimes the term is used to describe a non-native or introduced species that has become widespread ( p. 136 ) . However , not every introduced species has adverse effects on the environment . A nonadverse example is the common goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) , which is found throughout the United States , but rarely achieves high densities ( p. 136 ) ."}
{"_id": "Ionosphere", "title": "Ionosphere", "headings": "", "text": "The ionosphere ( -LSB- aɪˈɒnəˌsfɪər -RSB- ) is a region of Earth 's upper atmosphere , from about 60 km to 1000 km altitude , and includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere . It is ionized by solar radiation , plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere . It has practical importance because , among other functions , it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth ."}
{"_id": "Iris_hypothesis", "title": "Iris hypothesis", "headings": "", "text": "The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback .   Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''"}
{"_id": "Isis", "title": "Isis", "headings": "", "text": "Isis ( -LSB- ˈaɪsɪs -RSB- Ἶσις -LSB- îː.sis -RSB- ; original Egyptian pronunciation more likely `` Aset '' or `` Iset '' ) is a goddess from the polytheistic pantheon of Egypt . She was first worshiped in ancient Egyptian religion , and later her worship spread throughout the Roman Empire and the greater Greco-Roman world . Isis is still widely worshiped by many pagans today in diverse religious contexts ; including a number of distinct pagan religions , the modern Goddess movement , and interfaith organizations such as the Fellowship of Isis .   Isis was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the patroness of nature and magic . She was the friend of slaves , sinners , artisans and the downtrodden , but she also listened to the prayers of the wealthy , maidens , aristocrats and rulers . Isis is often depicted as the mother of Horus , the falcon-headed deity associated with king and kingship ( although in some traditions Horus 's mother was Hathor ) . Isis is also known as protector of the dead and goddess of children .   The name Isis means `` Throne '' . Her headdress is a throne . As the personification of the throne , she was an important representation of the pharaoh 's power . The pharaoh was depicted as her child , who sat on the throne she provided . Her cult was popular throughout Egypt , but her most important temples were at Behbeit El Hagar in the Nile delta , and , beginning in the reign with Nectanebo I ( 380 -- 362 BCE ) , on the island of Philae in Upper Egypt .   In the typical form of her myth , Isis was the first daughter of Geb , god of the Earth , and Nut , goddess of the Sky , and she was born on the fourth intercalary day . She married her brother , Osiris , and she conceived Horus with him . Isis was instrumental in the resurrection of Osiris when he was murdered by Set . Using her magical skills , she restored his body to life after having gathered the body parts that had been strewn about the earth by Set .   This myth became very important during the Greco-Roman period . For example , it was believed that the Nile River flooded every year because of the tears of sorrow which Isis wept for Osiris . Osiris 's death and rebirth was relived each year through rituals . The worship of Isis eventually spread throughout the Greco-Roman world , continuing until the suppression of paganism in the Christian era . The popular motif of Isis suckling her son Horus , however , lived on in a Christianized context as the popular image of Mary suckling her infant son Jesus from the fifth century onward ."}
{"_id": "Islamic_terrorism", "title": "Islamic terrorism", "headings": "", "text": "Islamic terrorism or radical Islamic terrorism , is defined as any terrorist act , set of acts or campaign committed by groups or individuals who profess Islamic or Islamist motivations or goals . Islamic terrorists justify their violent tactics through the interpretation of Quran and Hadith according to their own goals and intentions .   The highest numbers of incidents and fatalities caused by Islamic terrorism occur in Iraq , Afghanistan , Nigeria , Pakistan and Syria . In 2015 four Islamic extremist groups were responsible for 74 % of all deaths from terrorism : ISIS , Boko Haram , the Taliban and Al-Qaeda , according to the Global Terrorism Index 2016 . In recent decades , such incidents have occurred on a global scale , affecting not only Muslim-majority states in Africa and Asia , but also Europe , Russia , Australia , Canada , India and the United States . Such attacks have targeted Muslims and non-Muslims . In a number of the worst-affected Muslim-majority regions , these terrorists have been met by armed , independent resistance groups , state actors and their proxies , and elsewhere by condemnation coming from prominent Islamic figures .   The literal use of the phrase `` Islamic terrorism '' is disputed . Such use in Western political speech has variously been called `` counter-productive , '' `` highly politicized , intellectually contestable '' and `` damaging to community relations . ''  However , others have referred to the refusal to use the term as an act of `` self-deception '' , `` full-blown censorship '' and `` intellectual dishonesty '' ."}
{"_id": "Istanbul", "title": "Istanbul", "headings": "", "text": "Istanbul ( -LSB- ˌɪstænˈbʊl -RSB- , -LSB- - ˈbuːl -RSB- or -LSB- - stɑːn - -RSB- İstanbul -LSB- isˈtɑnbuɫ -RSB- ) , historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium , is the most populous city in Turkey and the country 's economic , cultural , and historic center . Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia , straddling the Bosphorus strait ( which separates Europe and Asia ) between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea . Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side .  The city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality ( conterminous with Istanbul Province ) , both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents . Istanbul is one of the world 's most populous cities and ranks as the world 's 7th-largest city proper and the largest European city .   Founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE , the city developed to become one of the most significant in history . After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE , it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries , during the Roman and Byzantine ( 330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453 ) , the Latin ( 1204 -- 1261 ) , and the Ottoman ( 1453 -- 1922 ) empires . It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times , before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate .   Istanbul 's strategic position on the historic Silk Road , rail networks to Europe and the Middle East , and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean have produced a cosmopolitan populace , although less so since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923 . Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the interwar period , the city has since regained much of its prominence . The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s , as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them . Arts , music , film , and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today . Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network .   Approximately foreign visitors arrived in Istanbul in 2015 , five years after it was named a European Capital of Culture , making the city the world 's fifth most popular tourist destination . The city 's biggest attraction is its historic center , partially listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and its cultural and entertainment hub can be found across the city 's natural harbor , the Golden Horn , in the Beyoğlu district . Considered a global city , Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world . It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country 's gross domestic product . Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion , Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years ."}
{"_id": "JAXA", "title": "JAXA", "headings": "", "text": "The , or JAXA , is Japan 's national aero-space agency . Through the merger of three previously independent organizations , JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003 . JAXA is responsible for research , technology development and the launch of satellites into orbit , and is involved in many more advanced missions , such as asteroid exploration and possible manned exploration of the Moon . Its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize ( formerly Reaching for the skies , exploring space ) ."}
{"_id": "Jacksonville,_Florida", "title": "Jacksonville, Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Jacksonville is a major seaport city and the seat of Duval County , Florida , United States . With an estimated 913,010 residents as of 2017 , Jacksonville is the most populous city in both the state of Florida and the southeastern United States . It is estimated to be the 12th most populous city in the United States and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States . The Jacksonville metropolitan area has a population of 1,626,611 and is the 34th largest in the United States and fourth largest in the state of Florida . The city is situated on the banks of the St. Johns River , in the First Coast region of North Florida , about 25 mi south of the Georgia state line and 340 mi north of Miami .   Prior to European settlement , the Jacksonville area was inhabited by Native American people known as the Timucua . In 1564 , the French established the short-lived colony of Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River , becoming one of the earliest European settlements in the continental United States . In 1822 , a year after the United States gained Florida from Spain , the town of Jacksonville was platted along the St. Johns River . Established at a narrow point in the river known as Wacca Pilatka to the Seminole and the Cow Ford to the British , the enduring name derives from the first military governor of the Florida Territory and seventh President of the United States , Andrew Jackson .   Jacksonville is the cultural , commercial and financial center of North Florida . A major military and civilian deepwater port , the city 's riverine location supports two United States Navy bases and the Port of Jacksonville , Florida 's third largest seaport . The two US Navy bases , Blount Island Command and the nearby Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay , form the third largest military presence in the United States . Jacksonville serves as headquarters for various banking , insurance , healthcare , logistics , and other institutions . These include CSX Corporation , Fidelity National Financial , FIS , Landstar System , Ameris Bancorp , Atlantic Coast Financial , Black Knight Financial Services , EverBank , Rayonier Advanced Materials , Regency Centers , Stein Mart , Web.com , Fanatics , Gate Petroleum , Haskell Company , Interline Brands , Sally Corporation , and Southeastern Grocers . Jacksonville is also home to several colleges and universities , including University of North Florida , Jacksonville University and Florida State College at Jacksonville ."}
{"_id": "James_Delingpole", "title": "James Delingpole", "headings": "", "text": "James Mark Court Delingpole ( born 6 August 1965 ) is an English columnist and novelist who has written for a number of publications , including the Daily Mail , Daily Express , The Times , The Daily Telegraph , and The Spectator . He is executive editor for the London branch of the Breitbart News Network . He has published several novels and four political books . He describes himself as a libertarian conservative , and has been described as a `` prominent voice of the right '' . He has published articles expressing his belief in the non-existence of significant anthropogenic global warming and his opposition to wind power ."}
{"_id": "James_Hansen", "title": "James Hansen", "headings": "", "text": "James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest .   In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''"}
{"_id": "James_Lovelock", "title": "James Lovelock", "headings": "", "text": "James Ephraim Lovelock ( born 26 July 1919 ) is an independent scientist , environmentalist and futurist who lives in Devon , England . He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis , which postulates that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system ."}
{"_id": "January", "title": "January", "headings": "", "text": "January is the  first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the first month to have the length of 31 days . The first day of the month is known as New Year 's Day . It is , on average , the coldest month of the year within most of the Northern Hemisphere ( where it is the second month of winter ) and the warmest month of the year within most of the Southern Hemisphere ( where it is the second month of summer ) . In the Southern hemisphere , January is the seasonal equivalent of July in the Northern hemisphere and vice versa .   Ancient Roman observances during this month include Cervula , and Juvenalia ; celebrated January 1 , as well as one of three Agonalia , celebrated January 9 , and Carmentalia , celebrated January 11 . These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar ."}
{"_id": "Jason-1", "title": "Jason-1", "headings": "", "text": "Jason-1 is a satellite oceanography mission to monitor global ocean circulation , study the ties between the ocean and the atmosphere , improve global climate forecasts and predictions , and monitor events such as El Niño and ocean eddies ."}
{"_id": "Jet_stream", "title": "Jet stream", "headings": "", "text": "Jet streams are fast flowing , narrow , meandering air currents found in the atmosphere of some planets , including Earth . On Earth , the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds ( flowing west to east ) . Their paths typically have a meandering shape . Jet streams may start , stop , split into two or more parts , combine into one stream , or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet . The strongest jet streams are the polar jets , at 9 - above sea level , and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10 - . The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet . The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America , Europe , and Asia and their intervening oceans , while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round .   Jet streams are the product of two factors : the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large scale Polar , Ferrel , and Hadley circulation cells , and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses . The Coriolis force is caused by the planet 's rotation on its axis . On other planets , internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet streams . The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells ; while the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells .   Other jet streams also exist . During the Northern Hemisphere summer , easterly jets can form in tropical regions , typically where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes . Low-level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States .   Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting . The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel , as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against , which results in significant fuel and time cost savings for airlines . Often , the airlines work to fly ` with ' the jet stream for this reason . Dynamic North Atlantic Tracks are one example of how airlines and air traffic control work together to accommodate the jet steam and winds aloft that results in the maximum benefit for airlines and other users . Clear-air turbulence , a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety , is often found in a jet stream 's vicinity , but it does not create a substantial alteration on flight times ."}
{"_id": "Jill_Stein", "title": "Jill Stein", "headings": "", "text": "Jill Ellen Stein ( born May 14 , 1950 ) is an American physician , activist , and politician . She was the Green Party 's nominee for President of the United States in the 2012 and 2016 elections . She was an unsuccessful candidate for governor of Massachusetts in 2002 and 2010 ."}
{"_id": "Jim_Inhofe", "title": "Jim Inhofe", "headings": "", "text": "James Mountain Inhofe ( -LSB- ˈɪnhɒf -RSB- born November 17 , 1934 ) is the senior United States senator from Oklahoma and a member of the Republican Party . First elected to the Senate in 1994 , he was the ranking member of the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works ( EPW ) and was its chairman from 2003 to 2007 , and again from January 2015 until January 2017 . Inhofe served eight years as the United States representative for before his election to the Senate in 1994 and also previously served as both an Oklahoma state representative and senator ."}
{"_id": "Joe_Barton", "title": "Joe Barton", "headings": "", "text": "Joe Linus Barton ( born September 15 , 1949 ) is a Republican politician , representing ( map ) in the U.S. House of Representatives since 1985 , and a member of the Tea Party Caucus . The district includes Arlington , part of Fort Worth , and several small towns and rural areas south of the Dallas -- Fort Worth Metroplex . Following the 2014 primary defeat of Ralph Hall , Barton became the dean of the Texas congressional delegation . Barton came to national prominence when he instructed a citizen at a town hall meeting to `` shut up '' .   In terms of his positions , Barton is skeptical that manmade carbon emissions have contributed to global warming , is a proponent of the use of fossil fuels , voted in favor of the May 4th 2017 GOP plan to replace Obamacare , supports Trump 's ban on immigration from Muslim-majority nations , and supports the death penalty for persons caught spying ."}
{"_id": "Joe_Biden", "title": "Joe Biden", "headings": "", "text": "Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. ( -LSB- ˈdʒoʊsᵻf_rɒbᵻˈnɛt_ˈbaɪdən -RSB- born November 20 , 1942 ) is an American politician who was the 47th Vice President of the United States from 2009 to 2017 , having been jointly elected twice with President Barack Obama . A member of the Democratic Party , he represented Delaware as a United States Senator from 1973 until becoming Vice President in 2009 .   Biden was born in Scranton , Pennsylvania , in 1942 , and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware . He became an attorney in 1969 , and was elected to the New Castle County council in 1970 . He was first elected to the Senate in 1972 , and became the sixth-youngest senator in U.S. history . He was re-elected to the Senate six times , and was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation to assume the Vice Presidency in 2009 . He was a long-time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee . He opposed the Gulf War in 1991 , but advocated U.S. and NATO intervention in the Bosnian War in 1994 and 1995 . He voted in favor of the resolution authorizing the Iraq War in 2002 , but opposed the surge of U.S. troops in 2007 . He has also served as chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee , dealing with issues related to drug policy , crime prevention , and civil liberties , and led the legislative efforts for creation of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act , and the Violence Against Women Act . He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U.S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas .   Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and in 2008 , both times dropping out after lackluster showings . In the 2008 U.S. presidential election , Barack Obama chose Biden to be his running mate in the race , which they won . He became the first Roman Catholic , and the first Delawarean , to be Vice President of the United States .   As Vice President in the Obama administration , Biden oversaw the infrastructure spending aimed at counteracting the Great Recession , and U.S. policy toward Iraq up until the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2011 . His ability to negotiate with congressional Republicans helped bring about legislation such as the Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 that resolved a taxation deadlock , the Budget Control Act of 2011 that resolved that year 's debt ceiling crisis , and the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 that addressed the impending `` fiscal cliff '' . In 2011 , he opposed going ahead with the military mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden . Obama and Biden were re-elected in 2012 . In October 2015 , after months of speculation , Biden chose not to run for President of the United States in 2016 . In December 2016 , he refused to rule out a potential bid for President in 2020 , but announced on January 13 , 2017 , that he would not run , only to seemingly backtrack just four days later , again refusing to rule out a potential bid . On January 12 , 2017 , Obama awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom , with distinction . After leaving office , Biden was named the Benjamin Franklin Presidential Practice professor at the University of Pennsylvania ."}
{"_id": "Joe_Lieberman", "title": "Joe Lieberman", "headings": "", "text": "Joseph Isadore Lieberman ( born February 24 , 1942 ) is an American politician , having served as a United States Senator from Connecticut from 1989 to 2013 . A former member of the Democratic Party , he was the party 's nominee for Vice President in the 2000 election . Currently he is an Independent .   Born in Stamford , Connecticut , Lieberman is a graduate of Yale University and Yale Law School . He was elected as a `` Reform Democrat '' in 1970 to the Connecticut Senate , where he served three terms as Majority Leader . After an unsuccessful bid for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1980 , he served as state Attorney General from 1983 to 1989 . Lieberman defeated moderate Republican Lowell Weicker in 1988 to win election to the U.S. Senate , and was re-elected in 1994 and 2000 . Lieberman was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in the 2000 United States presidential election , running with presidential nominee Al Gore , and becoming the first Jewish candidate on a major American political party presidential ticket .   In the 2000 presidential election , Gore and Lieberman won the popular vote by a margin of more than 500,000 votes , but lost the deciding Electoral College to the Republican George W. Bush / Dick Cheney ticket 271 -- 266 . Lieberman also unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination in the 2004 presidential election .   During his re-election bid in 2006 , he lost the Democratic Party primary election , but won re-election in the general election as a third party candidate under the `` Connecticut for Lieberman '' party label . Lieberman himself was never a member of that party , but instead remained a registered Democrat while he ran .   Lieberman was officially listed in Senate records for the 110th and 111th Congresses as an `` Independent Democrat '' , and sat as part of the Senate Democratic Caucus . But after his speech at the 2008 Republican National Convention in which he endorsed John McCain for President , Lieberman no longer attended Democratic Caucus leadership strategy meetings or policy lunches . On November 5 , 2008 , Lieberman met with Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid to discuss his future role with the Democratic Party . Ultimately , the Senate Democratic Caucus voted to allow Lieberman to keep chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs . Subsequently , Lieberman announced that he would continue to caucus with the Democrats . Before the 2016 election , he endorsed Hillary Clinton for President .   As Senator , he introduced and championed the Do n't Ask , Do n't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 and legislation that led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security . During debate on the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , as the crucial 60th vote needed to pass the legislation , Lieberman 's opposition to the public option was critical for its removal from the resulting bill . Lieberman announced in January 2011 that he would retire from the Senate at the end of his term , and he did so in January 2013 ."}
{"_id": "John_Christy", "title": "John Christy", "headings": "", "text": "John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record ."}
{"_id": "John_Coleman_(meteorologist)", "title": "John Coleman (meteorologist)", "headings": "", "text": "John Stewart Coleman (October 15, 1934 – January 20, 2018) was an American television weatherman.  Along with Frank Batten, he co-founded The Weather Channel and briefly served as its Chief Executive Officer and President. He retired from broadcasting in 2014 after nearly 61 years, having worked the last 20 years at KUSI-TV in San Diego."}
{"_id": "John_D._Hamaker", "title": "John D. Hamaker", "headings": "", "text": "John D. Hamaker ( 1914 -- 1994 ) , was an American mechanical engineer , ecologist , agronomist and science writer in the fields of soil regeneration , rock dusting , mineral cycles , climate cycles and glaciology ."}
{"_id": "John_Kasich", "title": "John Kasich", "headings": "", "text": "John Richard Kasich ( -LSB- ˈkeɪsᵻk -RSB- ; born May 13 , 1952 ) is an American politician and former television host . He is the 69th and current Governor of Ohio . First elected in 2010 and re-elected in 2014 , Kasich is a member of the Republican Party . His second term is set to end on January 14 , 2019 , due to term limits .   A native of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , Kasich has lived much of his adulthood in Ohio , specifically the state capital of Columbus . Kasich served nine terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives , representing from 1983 to 2001 . His tenure in the House included 18 years on the House Armed Services Committee and six years as chairman of the House Budget Committee . He was a key figure in the passage of both 1996 welfare reform legislation and the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 .   Kasich worked for Fox News , hosting Heartland with John Kasich from 2001 to 2007 and was a fill-in host for The O'Reilly Factor . He also worked as an investment banker , serving as managing director of the Lehman Brothers office in Columbus , Ohio .   In the 2010 Ohio gubernatorial election , Kasich defeated Democratic incumbent Ted Strickland . He was re-elected in 2014 , defeating Democrat Ed FitzGerald by 30 percentage points .   Kasich unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for president in 2000 and in 2016 . In 2016 , Kasich refused to support the Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump ; instead he voted for U.S. Senator and former 2008 Republican presidential nominee John McCain ."}
{"_id": "John_Kerry", "title": "John Kerry", "headings": "", "text": "John Forbes Kerry ( born December 11 , 1943 ) is an American politician who served as the 68th United States Secretary of State from 2013 to 2017 . A Democrat , he previously served Massachusetts in the United States Senate from 1985 to 2013 . He was the Democratic nominee in the 2004 presidential election , losing to Republican incumbent George W. Bush .   Kerry was born in Aurora , Colorado and attended boarding school in Massachusetts and New Hampshire . He graduated from Yale University in 1966 with a major in political science . Kerry enlisted in the Naval Reserve in 1966 , and between 1968 and 1969 , he served an abbreviated four-month tour of duty in South Vietnam as officer-in-charge ( OIC ) of a Swift Boat . For that service , he was awarded combat medals that include the Silver Star Medal , Bronze Star Medal , and three Purple Heart Medals . Securing an early return to the United States , Kerry joined the Vietnam Veterans Against the War organization in which he served as a nationally recognized spokesman and as an outspoken opponent of the Vietnam War . He appeared in the Fulbright Hearings before the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs where he deemed United States war policy in Vietnam to be the cause of war crimes .   After receiving a J.D. from Boston College Law School , Kerry worked as an Assistant District Attorney in Massachusetts . He served as Lieutenant Governor under Michael Dukakis from 1983 to 1985 and was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1984 and was sworn in the following January . On the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , he led a series of hearings from 1987 to 1989 which were a precursor to the Iran -- Contra affair . Kerry was re-elected to additional terms in 1990 , 1996 , 2002 , and 2008 . On October 11 , 2002 , Kerry voted to authorize the President `` to use force , if necessary , to disarm Saddam Hussein , '' but warned that the administration should exhaust its diplomatic avenues before launching war .107 th Congress-2nd Session 237th Roll Call Vote by members of the Senate , October 11 , 2002 . Retrieved 9 January 2017 .   In his 2004 presidential campaign , Kerry criticized George W. Bush for the Iraq War . He and his running mate , North Carolina Senator John Edwards , lost the election , finishing 35 electoral votes behind Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney . Kerry returned to the Senate , becoming Chairman of the Senate Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship in 2007 and then of the Foreign Relations Committee in 2009 . In January 2013 , Kerry was nominated by President Barack Obama to succeed outgoing Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and then confirmed by the U.S. Senate , assuming the office on February 1 , 2013 ."}
{"_id": "John_McCain", "title": "John McCain", "headings": "", "text": "John Sidney McCain III ( born August 29 , 1936 ) is an American politician who currently serves as the senior United States Senator from Arizona . He was the Republican nominee for the 2008 U.S. presidential election .   McCain followed his father and grandfather , both four-star admirals , into the United States Navy , graduating from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1958 . He became a naval aviator , flying ground-attack aircraft from aircraft carriers . During the Vietnam War , he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire . In October 1967 , while on a bombing mission over Hanoi , he was shot down , seriously injured , and captured by the North Vietnamese . He was a prisoner of war until 1973 . McCain experienced episodes of torture , and refused an out-of-sequence early repatriation offer . His war wounds have left him with lifelong physical limitations .   He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona , where he entered politics . Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1982 , McCain served two terms . He was first elected to the U.S. Senate in 1986 , winning re-election easily five times , most recently in 2016 . While generally adhering to conservative principles , McCain at times has had a media reputation as a `` maverick '' for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues . After being investigated and largely exonerated in a political influence scandal of the 1980s as a member of the Keating Five , he made campaign finance reform one of his signature concerns , eventually gaining passage of the McCain -- Feingold Act in 2002 . He is also known for his work in the 1990s to restore diplomatic relations with Vietnam , and for his belief that the Iraq War should have been fought to a successful conclusion . McCain has chaired the Senate Commerce Committee , opposed spending that he considered to be pork barrel , and played a key role in alleviating a crisis over judicial nominations with the bi-partisan group known as the Gang of 14 .   McCain ran for the Republican nomination in 2000 but lost a heated primary season contest to George W. Bush of Texas . He secured the nomination in 2008 after coming back from early reversals , but was defeated by Democratic candidate Barack Obama in the general election , losing by a 365 -- 173 electoral college margin and by 53 -- 46 % in the popular vote . He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration , especially in regard to foreign policy matters . By 2013 , however , he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment . In 2015 , McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee ."}
{"_id": "Joseph_Stiglitz", "title": "Joseph Stiglitz", "headings": "", "text": "Joseph Eugene Stiglitz ( born February 9 , 1943 ) is an American economist and a professor at Columbia University . He is a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ( 2001 ) and the John Bates Clark Medal ( 1979 ) . He is a former senior vice president and chief economist of the World Bank and is a former member and chairman of the ( US president 's ) Council of Economic Advisers . He is known for his support of Georgist public finance theory and for his critical view of the management of globalization , of laissez-faire economists ( whom he calls `` free market fundamentalists '' ) , and of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank .   In 2000 , Stiglitz founded the Initiative for Policy Dialogue ( IPD ) , a think tank on international development based at Columbia University . He has been a member of the Columbia faculty since 2001 , and received that university 's highest academic rank ( university professor ) in 2003 . He was the founding chair of the university 's Committee on Global Thought . He also chairs the University of Manchester 's Brooks World Poverty Institute . He is a member of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences . In 2009 , the President of the United Nations General Assembly Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann , appointed Stiglitz as the chairman of the U.N. Commission on Reforms of the International Monetary and Financial System , where he oversaw suggested proposals and commissioned a report on reforming the international monetary and financial system . He served as chair of the international Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress , appointed by President Sarkozy of France , which issued its report in 2010 , Mismeasuring our Lives : Why GDP does n't add up , and currently serves as co-chair of its successor , the High Level Expert Group on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress . From 2011 to 2014 , Stiglitz was president of the International Economic Association ( IEA ) . He presided over the organization of the IEA triennial world congress held near the Dead Sea in Jordan in June 2014 .   Stiglitz has received more than 40 honorary degrees , including from Harvard , Oxford , and Cambridge Universities and been decorated by several governments including Korea , Colombia , Ecuador , and most recently France , where he was appointed a member of the Legion of Honor , order Officer .   Based on academic citations , Stiglitz is the 4th most influential economist in the world today , and in 2011 he was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . Stiglitz 's work focuses on income distribution from a Georgist perspective , asset risk management , corporate governance , and international trade . He is the author of several books , the latest being The Great Divide : Unequal Societies and What We Can Do About Them ( 2015 ) , Rewriting the Rules of the American Economy : An Agenda for Growth and Shared Prosperity ( 2015 ) , and Creating a Learning Society : A New Approach to Growth Development and Social Progress ( 2014 ) ."}
{"_id": "Julia_Gillard", "title": "Julia Gillard", "headings": "", "text": "Julia Eileen Gillard , ( born 29 September 1961 ) is a former Australian politician who was the 27th Prime Minister of Australia from 2010 to 2013 , as leader of the Australian Labor Party . She was previously the 13th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia , and held the cabinet positions of Minister for Education , Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations and Minister for Social Inclusion from 2007 to 2010 . She was the first and to date only woman to hold the positions of deputy prime minister , prime minister and leader of a major party in Australia .   Born in Barry , Wales , in the United Kingdom , Gillard migrated with her family to Adelaide , South Australia , in 1966 . She attended Mitcham Demonstration School and Unley High School . Subsequently , Gillard studied at the University of Adelaide , but cut short her courses to move to Melbourne , Victoria , in 1982 , where she worked with the Australian Union of Students and was the organisation 's president from 1983 to 1984 . Gillard later graduated from the University of Melbourne , with a Bachelor of Laws degree ( 1986 ) and a Bachelor of Arts degree ( 1989 ) . In 1987 , she joined the law firm Slater & Gordon and became a partner in 1990 , specialising in industrial law . A departure from the law firm in 1996 saw Gillard serve as chief of staff to the Leader of the Opposition in Victoria John Brumby , which preceded her own entry into federal politics .   Gillard was first elected to the Australian House of Representatives at the 1998 federal election for the seat of Lalor . Following the 2001 federal election , she was elected to the Shadow Cabinet and was given the portfolio of Population and Immigration . In 2003 , she took on the responsibility for both Reconciliation and Indigenous Affairs and Health . In December 2006 , when Kevin Rudd was elected as Labor Leader and became Leader of the Opposition , Gillard was elected unopposed as his deputy . Upon Labor 's victory in the 2007 federal election , Gillard became the first female Deputy Prime Minister of Australia , and held the cabinet portfolios of Minister for Education , Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations and Minister for Social Inclusion . On , after Rudd lost the support of his party and resigned , Gillard was elected unopposed as the Leader of the Labor Party , thus becoming the 27th Prime Minister of Australia . The subsequent 2010 federal election saw the first hung parliament since the 1940 federal election . Gillard was able to form a minority government with the support of a Green MP and three independent MPs . On 26 June 2013 , after a leadership spill , Gillard lost the leadership of the Labor Party to Rudd . Her resignation as Prime Minister took effect the following day . Gillard retired from politics on 5 August 2013 , before the impending federal election .   Following her departure from politics , in August 2013 Gillard became an honorary visiting professor at the University of Adelaide , and a nonresident senior fellow at the Brookings Institution 's Center for Universal Education in October . Gillard released her political memoirs , My Story , in September 2014 . She has been on the board of the mental health organisation beyondblue since December 2014 , and was made an honorary fellow of Aberystwyth University in June 2015 . In addition to her various appointments , Gillard has served as the chairwoman of the Global Partnership for Education since February 2014 ."}
{"_id": "Julian_Assange", "title": "Julian Assange", "headings": "", "text": "Julian Paul Assange ( -LSB- əˈsɒnʒ -RSB- born Julian Paul Hawkins , 3 July 1971 ) is an Australian computer programmer and the founder of WikiLeaks , an organisation which he founded in 2006 . He has won accolades including the Sam Adams Award and Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism .   Assange founded WikiLeaks in 2006 , but came to global prominence in 2010 , when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks provided by Chelsea Manning . These leaks included the Collateral Murder video ( April 2010 ) , the Afghanistan war logs ( July 2010 ) , the Iraq war logs ( October 2010 ) , and CableGate ( November 2010 ) . Following the 2010 leaks , the United States government launched a criminal investigation into WikiLeaks and asked allied nations for assistance .   In November 2010 , a request was made for Assange 's extradition to Sweden , where he had been questioned months earlier over allegations of sexual assault and rape . Assange continued to deny the allegations , and expressed concern that he would be extradited from Sweden to the United States because of his perceived role in publishing secret American documents . Assange surrendered himself to UK police on 7 December 2010 , and was held for ten days in solitary confinement before being released on bail . He sought and was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012 . He has since remained in the Embassy of Ecuador in London , and is unable to leave without being arrested for breaching his bail conditions . On 19 May 2017 , the Swedish prosecutors dropped the investigation into rape accusations against Assange and applied to revoke his arrest warrant , although the Metropolitan Police have indicated that an arrest warrant is still in force for Assange 's failure to surrender himself to the British court ."}
{"_id": "July_1966", "title": "July 1966", "headings": "", "text": "The following events occurred in July 1966 :"}
{"_id": "July_Crisis", "title": "July Crisis", "headings": "", "text": "The July Crisis was a diplomatic crisis among the major powers of Europe in the summer of 1914 that led to World War I. Immediately after Gavrilo Princip , a Slavic nationalist , assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne , in Sarajevo , a series of diplomatic maneuverings led to an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary to the Kingdom of Serbia , and eventually to war .   The assassination had been carried out by those wishing to unite all of the territories with majority South Slavic population not already ruled by the Kingdom of Serbia or Kingdom of Montenegro . Austria-Hungary 's post-assassination ultimatum was part of a coercive program meant to weaken the Kingdom of Serbia 's threat to take control of the northern Balkans and its significant Southern Slavic population , especially the Bosnian Serbs . This was intended to be achieved either through diplomacy or by a localized war if the ultimatum were rejected . Austria-Hungary preferred war , though István Tisza , the prime minister of the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary , hoped that the ultimatum would be reasonable enough that it would not be rejected outright . A month after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand , Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28 , 1914 . This local conflict ultimately expanded into World War I as more powers became involved ."}
{"_id": "Jupiter", "title": "Jupiter", "headings": "", "text": "Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants ; the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune are ice giants . Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus .   Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium , though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules . It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements , but like the other giant planets , Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface . Because of its rapid rotation , the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid ( it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator ) . The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes , resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries . A prominent result is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope . Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere . Jupiter has at least 67 moons , including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Ganymede , the largest of these , has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury .   Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft , most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter . In late February 2007 , Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe , which used Jupiter 's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto . The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno , which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4 , 2016 . Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa ."}
{"_id": "Jupiter_trojan", "title": "Jupiter trojan", "headings": "", "text": "The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each Trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi-major axis of about 5.2 AU .   The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6,178 Jupiter trojans have been found . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name `` Trojan '' . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main-belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families .   Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0.8 to 2.5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets .   The term `` trojan '' has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term `` Trojan asteroid '' is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans ."}
{"_id": "Jurassic", "title": "Jurassic", "headings": "", "text": "The Jurassic ( -LSB- prondʒuːˈræsɪk -RSB- from Jura Mountains ) is a geologic period and system that spans 56.3 million years from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period Mya . The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic Era , also known as the Age of Reptiles . The start of the period is marked by the major Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event . Two other extinction events occurred during the period : the Pliensbachian/Toarcian event in the Early Jurassic , and the Tithonian event at the end ; however , neither event ranks among the `` Big Five '' mass extinctions .   The Jurassic is named after the Jura Mountains within the European Alps , where limestone strata from the period were first identified .  By the beginning of the Jurassic , the supercontinent Pangaea had begun rifting into two landmasses , Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south . This created more coastlines and shifted the continental climate from dry to humid , and many of the arid deserts of the Triassic were replaced by lush rainforests .   On land , the fauna transitioned from the Triassic fauna , dominated by both dinosauromorph and crocodylomorph archosaurs , to one dominated by dinosaurs alone . The first birds also appeared during the Jurassic , having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs . Other major events include the appearance of the earliest lizards , and the evolution of therian mammals , including primitive placentals . Crocodilians made the transition from a terrestrial to an aquatic mode of life . The oceans were inhabited by marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs , while pterosaurs were the dominant flying vertebrates ."}
{"_id": "Kalahari_Desert", "title": "Kalahari Desert", "headings": "", "text": "The Kalahari Desert is a large semi-arid sandy savannah in Southern Africa extending 900000 km2 , covering much of Botswana , parts of Namibia , and regions of South Africa ."}
{"_id": "Kansas_City,_Missouri", "title": "Kansas City, Missouri", "headings": "", "text": "Kansas City is the largest city in Missouri and the sixth largest city in the Midwest . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , the city had an estimated population of 481,420 in 2016 , making it the 37th largest city by population in the United States . It is the anchor city of the Kansas City metropolitan area , which straddles the Kansas -- Missouri border . Kansas City was founded in the 1830s as a Missouri River port at its confluence with the Kansas River coming in from the west . On June 1 , 1850 the town of Kansas was incorporated ; shortly after came the establishment of the Kansas Territory . Confusion between the two ensued and the name Kansas City was assigned to distinguish them soon thereafter .   Sitting on Missouri 's western border , with Downtown near the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers , the modern city encompasses some 319.03 sqmi , making it the 23rd largest city by total area in the United States . Most of the city lies within Jackson County , but portions spill into Clay , Cass , and Platte counties . Along with Independence , it serves as one of the two county seats for Jackson County . Major suburbs include the Missouri cities of Independence and Lee 's Summit and the Kansas cities of Overland Park , Olathe , and Kansas City .   The city is composed of several neighborhoods , including the River Market District in the north , the 18th and Vine District in the east , and the Country Club Plaza in the south . Kansas City is also known for its cuisine ( including its distinctive style of barbecue ) , its craft breweries and its major league sports teams ."}
{"_id": "Karachi", "title": "Karachi", "headings": "", "text": "Karachi ( -LSB- ; ڪراچي ALA-LC : , -LSB- kəˈrɑːˌtʃi -RSB- ) - the capital of the province of Sindh - is the largest and most populous city in Pakistan , as well as the 10th largest in the world and the world 's second most populous city proper . Ranked as a beta world city , the city is Pakistan 's premier industrial and financial centre . Karachi is also Pakistan 's most cosmopolitan city . Located on the shores of the Arabian Sea , Karachi is a major transportation hub , home to two of Pakistan 's largest seaports , the Port of Karachi and Port Bin Qasim , as well as the busiest airport in Pakistan .   Though the surroundings of Karachi have been inhabited for millennia , the city itself was founded as a village named Kolachi which was established as a fortified settlement in 1729 . The settlement increased in importance drastically with the arrival of British colonialists , who not only embarked on major works to transform the city into a major seaport , but also connected it with their extensive railway network . By the time of the Partition of India , the city was the largest in Sindh with an estimated population of 400,000 . Immediately following the independence of Pakistan , the city 's population increased dramatically with the arrival of thousands of Muslim immigrants from India , with Karachi remaining the primary destination of Indian Muslim migrants throughout the 1950s and 1960s . The city experienced rapid economic growth following independence , attracting migrants from throughout Pakistan and South Asia .   Karachi is one of Pakistan 's most secular and socially liberal cities . It is also the most linguistically , ethnically , and religiously diverse city in Pakistan . With an estimated population of between 15 and 23.5 million people in its greater metropolitan region , Karachi is considered to be the largest city in the Muslim world , and is the world 's 7th most populous urban agglomeration . Karachi is one of the world 's fastest growing cities , and has communities representing almost every ethnic group in Pakistan . Karachi is home to over 2 million Bangladeshi immigrants , 1 million Afghan refugees , and 400,000 Rohingyas from Myanmar .   Karachi is now Pakistan 's premier industrial and financial centre . The city has a formal economy estimated to be worth $ 113 billion . Karachi collects over a third of Pakistan 's tax revenue , and generates approximately 20 % of Pakistan 's GDP . Approximately 30 % of Pakistani industrial output is from Karachi , while Karachi 's ports handle approximately 95 % of Pakistan 's foreign trade . Approximately 90 % of the multinational corporations operating in Pakistan are headquartered in Karachi . Up to 70 % of Karachi 's workforce is employed in the informal economy , which is typically not included in GDP calculations .   Known as the `` City of Lights '' in the 1960s and 1970s for its vibrant nightlife , Karachi was beset by sharp ethnic , sectarian , and political conflict in the 1980s with the arrival of weaponry during the Soviet-Afghan war . The city had become well known for its high rates of violent crime , but recorded crimes sharply decreased following a controversial crackdown operation against criminals , the MQM political party , and Islamist militants initiated in 2013 by the Pakistan Rangers . The city 's murder rate in 2015 had decreased by 75 % compared to 2013 , and kidnappings decreased by 90 % , with the improved security environment triggering sharp increases in real-estate prices ."}
{"_id": "Karoo_Supergroup", "title": "Karoo Supergroup", "headings": "", "text": "The Karoo Supergroup is the most widespread stratigraphic unit in Africa south of the Sahara Desert . The supergroup consists of a sequence of units , mostly of nonmarine origin , deposited between the Late Carboniferous and Early Jurassic , a period of about 120 million years .   In southern Africa , rocks of the Karoo Supergroup cover almost two thirds of the present land surface , including all of Lesotho , almost the whole of Free State , and large parts of the Eastern Cape , Northern Cape , Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa . Karoo supergroup outcrops are also found in Namibia , Swaziland , Zambia , Zimbabwe and Malawi , as well as on other continents that were part of Gondwana . The basins in which it was deposited formed during the formation and breakup of Pangea . The type area of the Karoo Supergroup is the Great Karoo in South Africa , where the most extensive outcrops of the sequence are exposed . Its strata which consist mostly of shales and sandstones , record an almost continuous sequence of marine glacial to terrestrial deposition from the Late Carboniferous to the Early Jurassic . These accumulated in a retroarc foreland basin called the `` main Karoo '' Basin . This basin was formed by the subduction and orogenesis along the southern border of what eventually became Southern Africa , in southern Gondwana . Its sediments attain a maximum cumulative thickness of 12 km , with the overlying basaltic lavas ( the Drakensberg Group ) at least 1.4 km thick .   Fossils include plants ( both macro-fossils and pollen ) , rare insects and fish , common and diverse tetrapods ( mostly therapsid reptiles , temnospondyl amphibians , and in the upper strata dinosaurs ) , and ichnofossils . Their biostratigraphy has been used as the international standard for global correlation of Permian to Jurassic nonmarine strata ."}
{"_id": "Keeling_Curve", "title": "Keeling Curve", "headings": "", "text": "The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .   Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards .   Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' ."}
{"_id": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "title": "Kevin E. Trenberth", "headings": "", "text": "Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation .   Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) ."}
{"_id": "Kidney", "title": "Kidney", "headings": "", "text": "The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs found on the left and right sides of the body in vertebrates . They filter the blood in order to make urine , to release and retain water , and to remove waste and nitrogen ( the excretory system ) . They also control the ion concentrations and acid-base balance of the blood . Each kidney feeds urine into the bladder by means of a tube known as the ureter . In humans , they are roughly 11 cm in length .   The kidneys regulate the balance of ions known as electrolytes in the blood , along with maintaining acid base homeostasis . They also move waste products out of the blood and into the urine , such as nitrogen-containing urea and ammonium . Kidneys also regulate fluid balance and blood pressure . They are also responsible for the reabsorption of water , glucose , and amino acids . The kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol and erythropoietin . The kidneys also make an important enzyme , renin , which affects blood pressure through negative feedback .   Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space , the kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries , and drain into the paired renal veins .   Renal physiology is the study of kidney function , while nephrology is the medical specialty concerned with kidney diseases . Diseases of the kidney are diverse , but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features . Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the nephritic and nephrotic syndromes , renal cysts , acute kidney injury , chronic kidney disease , urinary tract infection , kidney stones , and urinary tract obstruction . Various cancers of the kidney exist . The most common adult renal cancer is renal cell carcinoma . Cancers , cysts , and some other renal conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney . This is known as nephrectomy . When renal function , measured by the glomerular filtration rate , is persistently poor , dialysis and kidney transplantation may be treatment options . Although they are not normally harmful , kidney stones can be extremely painful ."}
{"_id": "Kilowatt_hour", "title": "Kilowatt hour", "headings": "", "text": "The kilowatt-hour ( symbol kWh , kW ⋅ h or kW h ) is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules . If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate ( power ) over a period of time , the total energy in kilowatt-hours is the power in kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours . The kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities ."}
{"_id": "Kiribati", "title": "Kiribati", "headings": "", "text": "Kiribati ( -LSB- ˌkɪrɪˈbæs -RSB- or -LSB- ˌkɪrɪˈbɑːti -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of Kiribati ( Gilbertese : Ribaberiki Kiribati ) , is an island nation in the central Pacific Ocean . The permanent population is just over 100,000 ( 2011 ) , more than half of whom live on Tarawa Atoll . The nation comprises 33 atolls and reef islands and one raised coral island , Banaba . They have a total land area of 800 km2 and are dispersed over 3.5 million square kilometres ( 1,351,000 square miles ) . Their spread straddles the equator and the 180th meridian , although the International Date Line is indented to bring the Line Islands in the same day as the Kiribati Islands . The International Date Line circumscribes Kiribati by swinging far to the east , almost reaching the 150 ° W meridian . Kiribati 's easternmost islands , the southern Line Islands , south of Hawaii , have the most advanced time on Earth , UTC +14 hours .   Kiribati became independent from the United Kingdom in 1979 . The capital and now most populated area , South Tarawa , consists of a number of islets , connected by a series of causeways . These comprise about half the area of Tarawa Atoll .   Kiribati is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , the IMF and the World Bank , and became a full member of the United Nations in 1999 ."}
{"_id": "Koch_Industries", "title": "Koch Industries", "headings": "", "text": "Koch Industries , Inc. . -LSB- ˈkoʊk -RSB- is an American multinational corporation based in Wichita , Kansas , United States , with subsidiaries involved in manufacturing , trading , and investments . It was founded as Wood River Oil and Refining Company in 1940 , and later as Rock Island Oil & Refining Company .   Koch also owns Invista , Georgia-Pacific , Molex , Flint Hills Resources , Koch Pipeline , Koch Fertilizer , Koch Minerals , Matador Cattle Company and recently Guardian Industries . Koch companies are involved in industries such as the manufacturing , refining , and distribution of petroleum , chemicals , energy , fiber , intermediates and polymers , minerals , fertilizers , pulp and paper , chemical technology equipment , ranching , finance , commodities trading , and other ventures and investments . The firm employs about 60,000 people in the United States and another 40,000 in 59 other countries .   In 2013 -- 2015 , Forbes listed it as the second largest privately held company in the United States ( after Cargill ) , with an annual revenue of $ 115 billion , down from the largest in 2006 . If Koch Industries were a public company in 2013 , it would have ranked 17 in the Fortune 500 .   Fred C. Koch , after whom Koch Industries , Inc. is named , co-founded the company in 1940 and developed an innovative crude oil refining process . His sons , Charles Koch , chairman of the board and chief executive officer , and David Koch , executive vice president , are principal owners of the company after they bought out their brothers , Frederick and William `` Bill '' Koch , for $ 1.1 billion in 1983 . Charles and David Koch each own 42 % of Koch Industries . Charles has stated that the company would go public `` over my dead body '' ."}
{"_id": "Kodiak_bear", "title": "Kodiak bear", "headings": "", "text": "The Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) , also known as the Kodiak brown bear , sometimes the Alaskan brown bear , inhabits the islands of the Kodiak Archipelago in southwest Alaska . Its Alutiiq name is taquka-aq . It is the largest recognized subspecies of brown bear , and one of the two largest bears alive today , the other being the polar bear .   Physiologically , the Kodiak bear is very similar to the other brown bear subspecies , such as the mainland grizzly bear ( Ursus arctos horribilis ) and the now-extinct California grizzly bear ( U. a. californicus † ) , with the main difference being in size . While there is generally much variation in size between brown bears in different areas , most usually weigh between 115 and 360 kg ( 254 and 794 lb ) . The Kodiak bear , on the other hand , commonly reaches sizes of 300 to , and has even been known to exceed weights of 680 kg on occasion . Despite this large variation in size , the diet and lifestyle of the Kodiak bear does not differ greatly from that of other brown bears .   Ever since the first humans arrived in Alaska over the Bering land bridge , encounters between people and Kodiak bears have occurred . Today , these encounters have become relatively more common as a result of the increase in the human population in the region . Such encounters have included the hunting of bears by humans for their fur or meat , and , less commonly , attacks by bears upon humans . More recently , as conservation efforts have become more commonplace , concerns over the sustenance and stability of the Kodiak bear population have arisen . The IUCN classifies Ursus arctos , the species to which the Kodiak belongs , as being of `` least concern '' in terms of endangerment or extinction . However , the IUCN does not differentiate between subspecies ; therefore , it is unknown whether the Kodiak bear population is as healthy as is stated . As a result , the Alaska Department of Fish and Game , along with , to a lesser extent , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service , closely monitors the number of bears hunted in the state ."}
{"_id": "Koko_(gorilla)", "title": "Koko (gorilla)", "headings": "", "text": "Hanabiko `` Koko '' ( born July 4 , 1971 ) is a female western lowland gorilla who is known for having learned a large number of hand signs from a modified version of American Sign Language ( ASL ) .   Her instructor and caregiver , animal psychologist Francine `` Penny '' Patterson , reports that Koko is able to understand more than 1,000 signs of what Patterson calls `` Gorilla Sign Language '' ( GSL ) . In contrast to other experiments attempting to teach sign language to non-human primates , Patterson simultaneously exposed Koko to spoken English from an early age . Reports state that Koko understands approximately 2,000 words of spoken English , in addition to the signs . Koko 's life and learning process has been described by Patterson and some of her collaborators in a number of books , peer reviewed articles , and on a website .   As with other great ape language experiments , the extent to which Koko has mastered and demonstrates language through the use of these signs is disputed . But it is generally accepted that she does not use syntax or grammar , and that her use of language does not exceed that of a young human child .   Koko was born at the San Francisco Zoo and has lived most of her life in Woodside , California , although a move to a sanctuary on Maui , Hawaii , has been planned since the 1990s . The name is a reference to her date of birth , the Fourth of July . Koko gained public attention upon initial reportage of her adopting a kitten as a pet ."}
{"_id": "Kyoto_Protocol", "title": "Kyoto Protocol", "headings": "", "text": "The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol .   The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere .   The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified .   Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol ."}
{"_id": "Kyoto_Protocol_and_government_action", "title": "Kyoto Protocol and government action", "headings": "", "text": "This article is about the Kyoto Protocol and government action in relation to that treaty ."}
{"_id": "Köppen_climate_classification", "title": "Köppen climate classification", "headings": "", "text": "Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems . It was first published by Russian German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1884 , with several later modifications by Köppen , notably in 1918 and 1936 . Later , German climatologist Rudolf Geiger ( 1954 , 1961 ) collaborated with Köppen on changes to the classification system , which is thus sometimes called the Köppen -- Geiger climate classification system .   The Köppen climate classification system has been further modified , within the Trewartha climate classification system in the middle 1960s ( revised in 1980 ) . The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone , which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system ( the C climate group was too broad ) ."}
{"_id": "Kīlauea", "title": "Kīlauea", "headings": "", "text": "Kīlauea ( -LSB- langˌkiːlaʊˈeɪə -RSB- , also -LSB- ˌkɪləˈweɪə -RSB- ; -LSB- tiːlɐwˈwɛjə -RSB- ) is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands , and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaii . Located along the southern shore of the island , the volcano is between 300,000 and 600,000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100,000 years ago . It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian -- Emperor seamount chain . Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa , Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor . Structurally , Kīlauea has a large , fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones , one extending 125 km east and the other 35 km west , as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to per year .   Kīlauea 's eruptive history has been a long and active one ; its name means `` spewing '' or `` much spreading '' in the Hawaiian language , referring to its frequent outpouring of lava . The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage , samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes ; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples . Lavas younger than 1,000 years cover 90 percent of the volcano 's surface . The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years . The first well-documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 ( Western contact and written history began in 1778 ) , and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly . Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcano 's summit or its eastern rift zone , and are prolonged and effusive in character . The geological record shows , however , that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common , and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors ; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans . Kīlauea 's current eruption dates back to January 3 , 1983 , and is by far its longest-duration historical period of activity , as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions in the world ; as of January 2011 , the eruption has produced 3.5 km3 of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km2 of land .   Kīlauea 's high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology , where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide , producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert . Nonetheless , wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlauea 's ( and the island of Hawaii 's ) isolation from the nearest landmass . Historically , the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people , and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea 's Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele , goddess of fire , lightning , wind , and volcanoes . William Ellis , a missionary from England , gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano ; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory , located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera , has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general . In 1916 , a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson ; since then , the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination , attracting roughly 2.6 million people annually ."}
{"_id": "LED_lamp", "title": "LED lamp", "headings": "", "text": "An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode ( LED ) product which is assembled into a lamp ( or light bulb ) for use in lighting fixtures . LED lamps have a lifespan and electrical efficiency which are several times greater than incandescent lamps , and are significantly more efficient than most fluorescent lamps , with some chips able to emit more than 300 lumens per watt ( as claimed by Cree and some other LED manufacturers ) . The LED lamp market is projected to grow by more than twelve-fold over the next decade , from $ 2 billion in the beginning of 2014 to $ 25 billion in 2023 , a compound annual growth rate ( CAGR ) of 25 % . As of 2016 , LEDs use only about 10 % of the energy an incandescent lamp requires .   Like incandescent lamps and unlike most fluorescent lamps ( e.g. tubes and compact fluorescent lamps or CFLs ) , LEDs come to full brightness without need for a warm-up time ; the life of fluorescent lighting is also reduced by frequent switching on and off . The initial cost of LED is usually higher . Degradation of LED dye and packaging materials reduces light output to some extent over time .   Some LED lamps are made to be a directly compatible drop-in replacement for incandescent or fluorescent lamps . An LED lamp packaging may show the lumen output , power consumption in watts , color temperature in kelvins or description ( e.g. `` warm white '' ) , operating temperature range , and sometimes the equivalent wattage of an incandescent lamp of similar luminous output .   Most LEDs do not emit light in all directions , and their directional characteristics affect the design of lamps , although omnidirectional lamps which radiate light over a 360 ° angle are becoming more common . The light output of single LED is less than that of incandescent and compact fluorescent lamps ; in most applications multiple LEDs are used to form a lamp , although high-power versions ( see below ) are becoming available .   LED chips require controlled direct current ( DC ) electrical power and an appropriate circuit as an LED driver is required to convert the alternating current from the power supply to the regulated voltage direct current used by the LEDs . LEDs are adversely affected by high temperature , so LED lamps typically include heat dissipation elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins .   LED drivers are the essential components of LED lamps or luminaries . A good LED driver can guarantee a long life for an LED system and provide additional features such as dimming and control . The LED drivers can be put inside lamp or luminaire , which is called a built-in type , or be put outside , which is called an independent type . According to different applications , different types of LED drivers need to be applied , for example an outdoor driver for street light , an indoor point driver for a down light , and an indoor linear driver for a panel light ."}
{"_id": "La_Niña", "title": "La Niña", "headings": "", "text": "La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season ."}
{"_id": "Lake", "title": "Lake", "headings": "", "text": "A lake is an area of variable size filled with water , localized in a basin , that is surrounded by land , apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake . Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean , and therefore are distinct from lagoons , and are also larger and deeper than ponds , though there are no official or scientific definitions . Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams , which are usually flowing . Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams .   Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas , rift zones , and areas with ongoing glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers . In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales , as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them .   Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use , for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water supply , or for aesthetic or recreational purposes or even for other activities ."}
{"_id": "Lake_Erie", "title": "Lake Erie", "headings": "", "text": "Lake Erie ( -LSB- ˈɪəri -RSB- Lac Érié ) is the fourth-largest lake ( by surface area ) of the five Great Lakes in North America , and the thirteenth-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area . It is the southernmost , shallowest , and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes and therefore also has the shortest average water residence time . At its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 ft deep . Lake Erie 's northern shore is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario , with the U.S. states of Ohio , Pennsylvania , and New York on its southern and easternmost shores and the Lower Peninsula of Michigan on the west . These jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake by water boundaries . The lake was named by the Erie people , a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore . That Iroquoian tribe called it `` Erige '' ( `` cat '' ) because of its unpredictable and sometimes violently dangerous nature . It is a matter of conjecture whether the lake was named after the tribe , or if the tribe was called `` Erie '' because of its proximity to the lake .   Situated below Lake Huron , Erie 's primary inlet is the Detroit River . The main natural outflow from the lake is via the Niagara River , which provides hydroelectric power to Canada and the U.S. as it spins huge turbines near Niagara Falls at Lewiston , New York and Queenston , Ontario . Some outflow occurs via the Welland Canal which diverts water for ship passages from Port Colborne , Ontario on Lake Erie , to St. Catharines on Lake Ontario , an elevation difference of 326 ft. Lake Erie 's environmental health has been an ongoing concern for decades , with issues such as overfishing , pollution , algae blooms and eutrophication generating headlines ."}
{"_id": "Lake_Superior", "title": "Lake Superior", "headings": "", "text": "Lake Superior ( Lac Supérieur ) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America . The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north , the US state of Minnesota to the west , and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south . It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area . It is the world 's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America ."}
{"_id": "Lake_Tahoe", "title": "Lake Tahoe", "headings": "", "text": "Lake Tahoe ( -LSB- ˈtɑːhoʊ -RSB- ) is a large freshwater lake in the Sierra Nevada of the United States . Lying at 6225 ft , it straddles the border between California and Nevada , west of Carson City . Lake Tahoe is the largest alpine lake in North America , and at 122160280 acre.ft trails only the five Great Lakes as the largest by volume in the United States . Its depth is 1645 ft , making it the second deepest in the United States after Crater Lake in Oregon ( 1945 ft ) .   The lake was formed about 2 million years ago as part of the Lake Tahoe Basin , with the modern extent being shaped during the ice ages . It is known for the clarity of its water and the panorama of surrounding mountains on all sides . The area surrounding the lake is also referred to as Lake Tahoe , or simply Tahoe . More than 75 % of the lake 's watershed is national forest land , comprising the Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit of the United States Forest Service .   Lake Tahoe is a major tourist attraction in both Nevada and California . It is home to winter sports , summer outdoor recreation , and scenery enjoyed throughout the year . Snow and ski resorts are a significant part of the area 's economy and reputation . The Nevada side also offers large casinos , with highways providing year-round access to the entire area ."}
{"_id": "Lake_Vostok", "title": "Lake Vostok", "headings": "", "text": "Lake Vostok ( Озеро Восток , Ozero Vostok , lit . `` Lake East '' ) is the largest of Antarctica 's almost 400 known subglacial lakes .  Lake Vostok is located at the southern Pole of Cold , beneath Russia 's Vostok Station under the surface of the central East Antarctic Ice Sheet , which is at 3488 m above mean sea level . The surface of this fresh water lake is approximately 4000 m under the surface of the ice , which places it at approximately 500 m below sea level .   Measuring 250 km long by 50 km wide at its widest point , and covering an area of 12500 km2 and an average depth of 432 m , it has an estimated volume of 5400 km3 . The lake is divided into two deep basins by a ridge . The liquid water over the ridge is about 200 m , compared to roughly 400 m deep in the northern basin and 800 m deep in the southern .   The lake is named after Vostok Station , which in turn is named after the Vostok , a sloop-of-war ship , which means `` East '' in Russian . The existence of a subglacial lake in the Vostok region was first suggested by Russian geographer Andrey Kapitsa based on seismic soundings made during the Soviet Antarctic Expeditions in 1959 and 1964 to measure the thickness of the ice sheet . The continued research by Russian and British scientists led by 1993 to the final confirmation of the existence of the lake by J. P. Ridley using ERS-1 laser altimetry .   The overlying ice provides a continuous paleoclimatic record of 400,000 years , although the lake water itself may have been isolated for 15 to 25 million years . On 5 February 2012 , a team of Russian scientists completed the longest ever ice core of 3768 m and pierced the ice shield to the surface of the lake .   The first core of freshly frozen lake ice was obtained on 10 January 2013 at a depth of 3406 m. However , as soon as the ice was pierced , water from the underlying lake gushed up the borehole , mixing it with the Freon and kerosene used to keep the borehole from freezing . A new borehole was drilled and an allegedly pristine water sample was obtained in January 2015 . The Russian team plans to eventually lower a probe into the lake to collect water samples and sediments from the bottom . It is hypothesized that unusual forms of life could be found in the lake 's liquid layer , a fossil water reserve . Lake Vostok contains an environment sealed off below the ice for millions of years , in conditions which could resemble those of the ice-covered ocean of Jupiter 's moon Europa , and Saturn 's moon Enceladus ."}
{"_id": "Lake_Worth_Beach,_Florida", "title": "Lake Worth Beach, Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Lake Worth Beach, previously named Lake Worth, is a city in Palm Beach County, Florida, United States, located about 64 miles north of Miami, its name from the body of water along its eastern border known as the Lake Worth Lagoon. The lake itself was named for General William J. Worth, who led U.S. forces during the last part of the Second Seminole War. As of 2010, the population estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau was 34,910. It is a principal city of the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people in 2015."}
{"_id": "Lake_ecosystem", "title": "Lake ecosystem", "headings": "", "text": "A lake ecosystem includes biotic ( living ) plants , animals and micro-organisms , as well as abiotic ( nonliving ) physical and chemical interactions .   Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems . Lentic refers to stationary or relatively still water , from the Latin lentus , which means sluggish . Lentic waters range from ponds to lakes to wetlands , and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general . Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems , which involve flowing terrestrial waters such as rivers and streams . Together , these two fields form the more general study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology .   Lentic systems are diverse , ranging from a small , temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to Lake Baikal , which has a maximum depth of 1740 m . The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague , but Brown states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light , while lakes do not . In addition , some lakes become seasonally stratified ( discussed in more detail below . ) Ponds and pools have two regions : the pelagic open water zone , and the benthic zone , which comprises the bottom and shore regions . Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light , these systems have an additional zone , the profundal . These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and , hence , host species that are specifically adapted to live there ."}
{"_id": "Lakes_on_Mars", "title": "Lakes on Mars", "headings": "", "text": "In summer 1965 , the first close-up pictures from Mars showed a cratered desert with no signs of water . However , over the decades , as more parts of the planet were imaged with better cameras on more sophisticated satellites , Mars showed evidence of past river valleys , lakes , and ice in glaciers and in the ground . It was discovered that the climate of Mars displays huge changes over geologic time because its axis is not stabilized by a large moon , as Earth 's is . Also , some researchers maintain that water could exist for periods of time due to geothermal effects or asteroid impacts .   Besides seeing features that were signs of past water , researchers found other types of evidence for past water . Minerals detected in many locations needed water to form . An instrument in the Mars Odyssey , an orbiting spacecraft , mapped the distribution of water in the near surface . When the Phoenix spacecraft fired its rockets to land in the far north , ice was exposed .   When water enters a large body of water , such as a lake , a delta may form . Many craters and other depressions on Mars show deltas that resemble those on Earth . In addition , if a lake lies in a depression , channels entering it will all stop at the same altitude . Such an arrangement is visible around places on Mars that are supposed to have contained large bodies of water -- including around a possible ocean in the North .   Lake formation has been proposed by various researchers for quite some time . One study found 205 possible closed-basin lakes in craters on Mars . The basins have an inlet valley that cuts the crater rim and flows into the basin , but they have no visible outlet valley . The total volume of the basins is equivalent to a depth of 1.2 meters spread evenly over the Martian surface . However , this amount is a small fraction of the current water ice stores on Mars . Another study found 210 open-basin lakes . These were lakes with both an inlet and an outlet ; hence water must have entered the basin , and reached the height of the outlet . Some of these lakes had volumes similar to Earth 's Caspian Sea , Black Sea , and Lake Baikal .   Moreover , some basins on Mars form part of long chains of lakes . The Naktong/Scamander/Mamers Valles lake-chain system is about 4500 km ( 2800 miles ) long , with a drainage area similar to that of the Missouri-Mississippi rivers . Another , the Samara/Himera Vallis system , is 1800 km long . Many of the long chains of lakes are found in the Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle .   Some of the lakes appear to have had a high volume as compared to their drainage area ; hence , it is believed that some of the water was groundwater . Further evidence is the existence of knobby material on the basin floors . These knobs can be formed when large amounts of water left the ground .   This article describes some of the places that could have held large lakes ."}
{"_id": "Lamont–Doherty_Earth_Observatory", "title": "Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory", "headings": "", "text": "The Lamont -- Doherty Earth Observatory ( LDEO ) is a research unit of Columbia University located on a 157 acre campus in Palisades , N.Y. , 18 mi north of Manhattan on the Hudson River ."}
{"_id": "Land_degradation", "title": "Land degradation", "headings": "", "text": "Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land .  It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable . Natural hazards are excluded as a cause ; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires .   This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity , the environment , and its effects on food security . It is estimated that up to 40 % of the world 's agricultural land is seriously degraded ."}
{"_id": "Larsen_Ice_Shelf", "title": "Larsen Ice Shelf", "headings": "", "text": "The Larsen Ice Shelf is a long , fringing ice shelf in the northwest part of the Weddell Sea , extending along the east coast of the Antarctic Peninsula from Cape Longing to the area just southward of Hearst Island . It is named for Captain Carl Anton Larsen , the master of the Norwegian whaling vessel Jason , who sailed along the ice front as far as 68 ° 10 ' South during December 1893 . In finer detail , the Larsen Ice Shelf is a series of shelves that occupy ( or occupied ) distinct embayments along the coast . From north to south , the segments are called Larsen A ( the smallest ) , Larsen B , and Larsen C ( the largest ) by researchers who work in the area . Further south , Larsen D and the much smaller Larsen E , F and G are also named .   The breakup of the ice shelf since the mid 1990s has been widely reported , with the collapse of Larsen B in 2002 being particularly dramatic ."}
{"_id": "Last_Glacial_Period", "title": "Last Glacial Period", "headings": "", "text": "The Last Glacial Period (LGP) occurred from the end of the Eemian to the end of the Younger Dryas, encompassing the period c. 115,000 – c. 11,700 years ago. The LGP is part of a larger sequence of glacial and interglacial periods known as the Quaternary glaciation which started around 2,588,000 years ago and is ongoing.  The definition of the Quaternary as beginning 2.58 million years ago is based on the formation of the Arctic ice cap. The Antarctic ice sheet began to form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in the mid-Cenozoic (Eocene–Oligocene extinction event). The term Late Cenozoic Ice Age is used to include this early phase.During this last glacial period there were alternating episodes of glacier advance and retreat. Within the last glacial period the Last Glacial Maximum was approximately 22,000 years ago. While the general pattern of global cooling and glacier advance was similar, local differences in the development of glacier advance and retreat make it difficult to compare the details from continent to continent (see picture of ice core data below for differences). Approximately 12,800 years ago, the Younger Dryas, the most recent glacial epoch, began, a coda to the preceding 100,000 year glacial period. Its end about 11,550 years ago marked the beginning of the Holocene, the current geological epoch. From the point of view of human archaeology, the last glacial period falls in the Paleolithic and early Mesolithic periods. When the glaciation event started, Homo sapiens were confined to lower latitudes and used tools comparable to those used by Neanderthals in western and central Eurasia and by Denisovans and Homo erectus in Asia. Near the end of the event, Homo sapiens migrated into Eurasia and Australia. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived the last glacial period in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover."}
{"_id": "Latvia", "title": "Latvia", "headings": "", "text": "Latvia ( -LSB- ˈlætviə -RSB- Latvija -LSB- ˈlatvija -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of Latvia ( -LSB- Latvijas Republika , links = no -RSB- ) , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe , one of the three Baltic states . It is bordered by Estonia to the north , Lithuania to the south , Russia to the east , and Belarus to the southeast , as well as a maritime border to the west alongside Sweden . Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64589 km2 . The country has a temperate seasonal climate .   Latvia is a democratic parliamentary republic established in 1918 . The capital city is Riga , the European Capital of Culture 2014 . Latvian is the official language . Latvia is a unitary state , divided into 119 administrative divisions , of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities .   Latvians and Livs are the indigenous people of Latvia . Latvian and Lithuanian are the only two surviving Baltic languages . Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries , the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language and musical traditions . Latvia and Estonia share a long common history . As a consequence of centuries of Russian rule ( 1710-1918 ) and later Soviet occupation , both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians ( 26.9 % in Latvia and 25.5 % in Estonia ) , some of whom ( 14.1 % of Latvian residents ) have not gained citizenship , leaving them with no citizenship at all . Until World War II , Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans and Jews .   Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran , except for the Latgale region in the southeast , which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic . The Russian population has also brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians .   The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918 . However , its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II . In 1940 , the country was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union , invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany in 1941 , and re-occupied by the Soviets in 1944 to form the Latvian SSR for the next fifty years . The peaceful Singing Revolution , starting in 1987 , called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule . It ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990 , and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991 .   Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union , NATO , the Council of Europe , the United Nations , CBSS , the IMF , NB8 , NIB , OECD , OSCE , and WTO . For 2014 , Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and as a high income country on 1 July 2014 . It used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014 ."}
{"_id": "Lava", "title": "Lava", "headings": "", "text": "Lava is the molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption . The resulting rock after solidification and cooling is also called lava . The molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets , including Earth , and some of their satellites . The source of the heat that melts the rock within the earth is geothermal energy . When first erupted from a volcanic vent , lava is a liquid usually at temperatures from 700 to .   A lava flow is a moving outpouring of lava , which is created during a non-explosive effusive eruption . When it has stopped moving , lava solidifies to form igneous rock . The term lava flow is commonly shortened to lava . Although lava can be up to 100,000 times more viscous than water , lava can flow great distances before cooling and solidifying because of its thixotropic and shear thinning properties .   Explosive eruptions produce a mixture of volcanic ash and other fragments called tephra , rather than lava flows . The word lava comes from Italian , and is probably derived from the Latin word labes which means a fall or slide . The first use in connection with extruded magma ( molten rock below the Earth 's surface ) was apparently in a short account written by Francesco Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius between May 14 and June 4 , 1737 . Serao described `` a flow of fiery lava '' as an analogy to the flow of water and mud down the flanks of the volcano following heavy rain ."}
{"_id": "Leap_year", "title": "Leap year", "headings": "", "text": "A leap year ( also known as an intercalary year or bissextile year ) is a calendar year containing one additional day ( or , in the case of lunisolar calendars , a month ) added to keep the calendar year synchronized with the astronomical or seasonal year . Because seasons and astronomical events do not repeat in a whole number of days , calendars that have the same number of days in each year drift over time with respect to the event that the year is supposed to track . By inserting ( also called intercalating ) an additional day or month into the year , the drift can be corrected . A year that is not a leap year is called a common year .   For example , in the Gregorian calendar , each leap year has 366 days instead of the usual 365 , by extending February to 29 days rather than the common 28 . Similarly , in the lunisolar Hebrew calendar , Adar Aleph , a 13th lunar month , is added seven times every 19 years to the twelve lunar months in its common years to keep its calendar year from drifting through the seasons . In the Baha'i Calendar , a leap day is added when needed to ensure that the following year begins on the vernal equinox .   The name `` leap year '' probably comes from the fact that while a fixed date in the Gregorian calendar normally advances one day of the week from one year to the next , the day of the week in the 12 months following the leap day ( from March 1 through February 28 of the following year ) will advance two days due to the extra day ( thus `` leaping over '' one of the days in the week ) . For example , Christmas Day fell on a Tuesday in 2001 , Wednesday in 2002 , and Thursday in 2003 but then `` leapt '' over Friday to fall on a Saturday in 2004 .   The length of a day is also occasionally changed by the insertion of leap seconds into Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , owing to the variability of Earth 's rotational period . Unlike leap days , leap seconds are not introduced on a regular schedule , since the variability in the length of the day is not entirely predictable ."}
{"_id": "Legendre_symbol", "title": "Legendre symbol", "headings": "", "text": "In number theory , the Legendre symbol is a multiplicative function with values 1 , − 1 , 0 that is a quadratic character modulo an odd prime number p : its value on a ( nonzero ) quadratic residue mod p is 1 and on a non-quadratic residue ( non-residue ) is − 1 . Its value on zero is 0 .   The Legendre symbol was introduced by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1798 in the course of his attempts at proving the law of quadratic reciprocity . Generalizations of the symbol include the Jacobi symbol and Dirichlet characters of higher order . The notational convenience of the Legendre symbol inspired introduction of several other `` symbols '' used in algebraic number theory , such as the Hilbert symbol and the Artin symbol ."}
{"_id": "Leonid_Hurwicz", "title": "Leonid Hurwicz", "headings": "", "text": "Leonid `` Leo '' Hurwicz ( August 21 , 1917 -- June 24 , 2008 ) was a Polish American economist and mathematician . He originated incentive compatibility and mechanism design , which show how desired outcomes are achieved in economics , social science and political science . Hurwicz shared the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ( with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson ) for work on mechanism design . To date , Leonid Hurwicz is the oldest Nobel Laureate , having received the prize at the age of 90 .   Hurwicz was educated and grew up in Poland , and became a refugee in the United States after Hitler invaded Poland in 1939 . In 1941 , Hurwicz worked as a research assistant for Paul Samuelson at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Oskar Lange at the University of Chicago . He was a research associate for the Cowles Commission between 1942 and 1946 . In 1946 he became an associate professor of economics at Iowa State College . Hurwicz joined the University of Minnesota in 1951 , becoming Curtis L. Carlson Regents Professor of Economics in 1989 . He was Regents ' Professor of Economics ( Emeritus ) at the University of Minnesota when he died in 2008 .   Hurwicz was among the first economists to recognize the value of game theory and was a pioneer in its application . Interactions of individuals and institutions , markets and trade are analyzed and understood today using the models Hurwicz developed ."}
{"_id": "Level_Mountain", "title": "Level Mountain", "headings": "", "text": "Level Mountain is an immense volcanic massif in the Northern Interior of British Columbia , Canada . It is north-northwest of Telegraph Creek and west of Dease Lake on the Nahlin Plateau . With a maximum elevation of , it is the third highest of five large volcanic complexes in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province ( NCVP ) . Much of the massif is gently-sloping ; when measured from its base , Level Mountain is about tall , slightly taller than its neighbour to the northwest , Heart Peaks . The lower broader half of Level Mountain consists of a shield-like edifice while its upper half has a more steep , jagged profile . Its summit is dominated by the Level Mountain Range , a small mountain range with prominent peaks cut by deep valleys . These valleys serve as a radial drainage for several small streams that flow across the volcano . Meszah Peak is the only named peak in the Level Mountain Range .   The massif is about 15 million years old , with volcanism continuing up until geologically recent times . Three constructive stages have been identified at Level Mountain . The first stage commenced 14.9 million years ago with the eruption of voluminous lava flows . These lavas assembled to create a large shield volcano . The second stage began 7.1 million years ago to form a complex stratovolcano located centrally atop the shield . A series of lava domes were established during the third stage , which started 4.5 million years ago . Renewed activity might have occurred in the last 11,000 years . A wide range of rock types were produced during the long volcanic history of Level Mountain , of which alkali basalts and ankaramites are the most common . They were deposited by different types of volcanic eruptions characterized by passive lava flows and explosivity .   Level Mountain can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a largely destroyed Abies lasiocarpa forest on its flanks and a Picea glauca forest at its base . An extensive wild animal community once thrived in the area of Level Mountain . This included a wide range of animal species with caribou being the most abundant . Humans had arrived at Level Mountain by the early 1900s , followed by geological studies of the massif in the 1920s . This remote area of Cassiar Land District has a relatively dry environment compared to the Coast Mountains in the west ."}
{"_id": "Limestone", "title": "Limestone", "headings": "", "text": "Limestone is a sedimentary rock , composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral , forams and molluscs . Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite , which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate ( CaCO3 ) .   About 10 % of sedimentary rocks are limestones . The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes , in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years . Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock .   Limestone has numerous uses : as a building material , an essential component of concrete ( Portland cement ) , as aggregate for the base of roads , as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints , as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime , as a soil conditioner , or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens .   The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778 ."}
{"_id": "Lindsey_Graham", "title": "Lindsey Graham", "headings": "", "text": "Lindsey Olin Graham ( born July 9 , 1955 ) is an American politician and member of the Republican Party who has served as a United States Senator from South Carolina since 2003 .   A native of Central , South Carolina , Graham graduated from the University of South Carolina in 1977 . He received his Juris Doctor from the University of South Carolina School of Law in 1981 . He served in the United States Air Force from 1982 to 1988 and served as a Guardsman first in the South Carolina Air National Guard then in the Air Force Reserves , attaining the rank of colonel . He worked as a lawyer in private practice before he was elected to the South Carolina House of Representatives in 1992 , serving one term from 1993 to 1995 . He then served in the United States House of Representatives , representing South Carolina 's 3rd congressional district from 1995 to 2003 . He was elected to four terms , receiving at least 60 % of the vote each time .   In 2002 , Graham ran for the U.S. Senate after eight-term Republican incumbent Strom Thurmond announced his retirement . Graham won the primary unopposed and defeated Democratic opponent Alex Sanders in the general election . Graham was re-elected to a second term in 2008 , defeating Bob Conley . He won a third term in 2014 , defeating Democrat Brad Hutto and Independent Thomas Ravenel .   Graham is known in the Senate for his advocacy of a strong national defense , his support of the military , and as an advocate of strong United States leadership in world affairs . He is also known for his willingness to be bipartisan and work with Democrats on issues like global warming , tax reform and immigration reform and his belief that judicial nominees should not be opposed solely on their philosophical positions . He is also a critic of the Tea Party movement , arguing for a more inclusive Republican Party .   On May 18 , 2015 , Graham informally announced his candidacy for President of the United States , followed by a formal announcement on June 21 , 2015 , in his hometown of Central , South Carolina . On December 21 , 2015 , he ended his campaign for the presidency . He later endorsed Jeb Bush for President . After Bush suspended his campaign on February 20 , Graham subsequently endorsed Ted Cruz . When it seemed certain that Donald Trump would become the Republican Presidential candidate in early May 2016 , Graham announced he would not vote for Trump ."}
{"_id": "Liquid", "title": "Liquid", "headings": "", "text": "A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a ( nearly ) constant volume independent of pressure . As such , it is one of the four fundamental states of matter ( the others being solid , gas , and plasma ) , and is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape . A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter , such as atoms , held together by intermolecular bonds . Water is , by far , the most common liquid on Earth . Like a gas , a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container . Most liquids resist compression , although others can be compressed . Unlike a gas , a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container , and maintains a fairly constant density . A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension , leading to wetting phenomena .   The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid , and much higher than in a gas . Therefore , liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter . On the other hand , as liquids and gases share the ability to flow , they are both called fluids . Although liquid water is abundant on Earth , this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe , because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist . Most known matter in the universe is in gaseous form ( with traces of detectable solid matter ) as interstellar clouds or in plasma form within stars ."}
{"_id": "Lisa_P._Jackson", "title": "Lisa P. Jackson", "headings": "", "text": "Lisa Perez Jackson ( born February 8 , 1962 ) is an American chemical engineer who served as the Administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) from 2009 to 2013 . In May 2013 , it was announced that Jackson would be joining Apple Inc. as their environmental director .   Born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , Jackson is a graduate of Tulane University and Princeton University . She began working as a staff-level engineer for the Environmental Protection Agency in 1987 ; later moving to the EPA 's regional office in New York City , where she spent the majority of her 16-year EPA career . She joined the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection in 2002 , working as the assistant commissioner of compliance and enforcement and as the assistant commissioner for land use management . In 2006 , New Jersey Governor Jon Corzine appointed Jackson the state 's Commissioner of Environmental Protection . Jackson also briefly served as Corzine 's Chief of Staff in late 2008 .   On December 15 , 2008 , the President-elect Barack Obama nominated Jackson as the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency , she was confirmed by the Senate and took office on January 23 , 2009 . During her tenure , Jackson oversaw stricter fuel efficiency standards ; the EPA 's response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill ; authorized carbon dioxide as a public health threat , granting the EPA authority to set new regulations regarding CO2 emissions ; and laid out a failed plan to set stricter smog pollution limits by amending the National Ambient Air Quality Standards . In December 2012 , Jackson announced she would be stepping down as EPA Administrator , a move which took effect on February 15 , 2013 ; she was succeeded by Deputy Administrator Bob Perciasepe , who became Acting Administrator pending Senate confirmation of Gina McCarthy on July 18 , 2013 as a permanent successor ."}
{"_id": "List_of_climate_scientists", "title": "List of climate scientists", "headings": "", "text": "This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science . The list is compiled manually so will not be complete or up to date . See also : Category : Climatologists and List of authors of Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis .  The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines ."}
{"_id": "List_of_cognitive_biases", "title": "List of cognitive biases", "headings": "", "text": "Cognitive biases are tendencies to think in certain ways that can lead to systematic deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment , and are often studied in psychology and behavioral economics .   Although the reality of these biases is confirmed by replicable research , there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them . Some are effects of information-processing rules ( i.e. , mental shortcuts ) , called heuristics , that the brain uses to produce decisions or judgments . Such effects are called cognitive biases . Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ( `` cold '' ) bias , such as mental noise , or motivational ( `` hot '' ) bias , such as when beliefs are distorted by wishful thinking . Both effects can be present at the same time .   There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or irrational , or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior . For example , when getting to know others , people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person . However , this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example of social skill : a way to establish a connection with the other person .   Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects , some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well . For example , hyperbolic discounting has been observed in rats , pigeons , and monkeys ."}
{"_id": "List_of_ecoregions_in_North_America_(CEC)", "title": "List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)", "headings": "", "text": "This list of ecoregions of North America provides an overview of North American ecoregions designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) in its North American Environmental Atlas . It should not be confused with Wikipedia articles based on the classification system developed by the World Wildlife Fund , such as List of ecoregions ( WWF ) and Lists of ecoregions by country .   The commission was established in 1994 by the member states of Canada , Mexico , and the United States to address regional environmental concerns under the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation ( NAAEC ) , the environmental side accord to the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . The Commission 's 1997 report , Ecological Regions of North America , provides a framework that may be used by government agencies , non-governmental organizations , and academic researchers as a basis for risk analysis , resource management , and environmental study of the continent 's ecosystems . Ecoregions may be identified by similarities in geology , physiography , vegetation , climate soils , land use , wildlife distributions , and hydrology .   The classification system has four levels . Only the first three levels are shown on this list . `` Level I '' divides North America into 15 broad ecoregions . `` Level II '' subdivides the continent into 52 smaller ecoregions . `` Level III '' subdivides those regions again into 182 ecoregions . `` Level IV '' is a further subdivision of Level III ecoregions . Level IV mapping is still underway but is complete across most of the United States . For an example of Level IV data , see List of ecoregions in Oregon and the associated articles ."}
{"_id": "List_of_extreme_weather_records_in_Pakistan", "title": "List of extreme weather records in Pakistan", "headings": "", "text": "The weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low temperatures , Heaviest rainfall and flooding . The highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 54 ° C which was recorded in Turbat , Balochistan 30 May 2017 It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . and the fourth-highest temperature ever recorded on earth . The second-highest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53 C which was recorded in Larkana , Sindh on 26 May 2010 . It is hottest city in Pakistan , as well as the second hottest city in the world , but it is second-hottest place in Pakistan and fifth-hottest place of world . It is fifth-highest temperature ever recorded on Earth . The highest rainfall of 620 mm was recorded in Islamabad during 24 hours on 23 July 2001 . The record-breaking rain fell in just 10 hours ."}
{"_id": "List_of_heat_waves", "title": "List of heat waves", "headings": "", "text": "This is a partial list of significant heat waves , listed in order of occurrence ."}
{"_id": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "title": "List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years", "headings": "", "text": "This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years .   The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions .   Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears ."}
{"_id": "List_of_memory_biases", "title": "List of memory biases", "headings": "", "text": "In psychology and cognitive science , a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory ( either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all , or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled , or both ) , or that alters the content of a reported memory . There are many different types of memory biases , including :   Change bias : after an investment of effort in producing change , remembering one 's past performance as more difficult than it actually was .  Childhood amnesia : the retention of few memories from before the age of four .  Choice-supportive bias : remembering chosen options as having been better than rejected options ( Mather , Shafir & Johnson , 2000 )  Confirmation bias : the tendency to search for , interpret , or recall information in a way that confirms one 's beliefs or hypotheses .  Conservatism or Regressive bias : tendency to remember high values and high likelihoods/probabilities/frequencies lower than they actually were and low ones higher than they actually were . Based on the evidence , memories are not extreme enough .  Consistency bias : incorrectly remembering one 's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour .  Context effect : that cognition and memory are dependent on context , such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories ( e.g. , recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home , and vice versa ) .  Cryptomnesia : a form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination , because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory .  Egocentric bias : recalling the past in a self-serving manner , e.g. , remembering one 's exam grades as being better than they were , or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was .  Fading affect bias : a bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events .  Generation effect ( Self-generation effect ) : that self-generated information is remembered best . For instance , people are better able to recall memories of statements that they have generated than similar statements generated by others .  Gender differences in eyewitness memory : the tendency for a witness to remember more details about someone of the same gender .  Hindsight bias : the inclination to see past events as being predictable ; also called the `` I-knew-it-all-along '' effect .  Humor effect : that humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones , which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor , the increased cognitive processing time to understand the humor , or the emotional arousal caused by the humor .  Illusion-of-truth effect : that people are more likely to identify as true statements those they have previously heard ( even if they can not consciously remember having heard them ) , regardless of the actual validity of the statement . In other words , a person is more likely to believe a familiar statement than an unfamiliar one .  Illusory correlation : inaccurately seeing a relationship between two events related by coincidence .  Lag effect : see spacing effect .  Leveling and sharpening : memory distortions introduced by the loss of details in a recollection over time , often concurrent with sharpening or selective recollection of certain details that take on exaggerated significance in relation to the details or aspects of the experience lost through leveling . Both biases may be reinforced over time , and by repeated recollection or re-telling of a memory .  Levels-of-processing effect : that different methods of encoding information into memory have different levels of effectiveness ( Craik & Lockhart , 1972 ) .  List-length effect : a smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list , but as the length of the list increases , the absolute number of items remembered increases as well .  Memory inhibition : that being shown some items from a list makes it harder to retrieve the other items ( e.g. , Slamecka , 1968 ) .  Misattribution of memory : when information is retained in memory but the source of the memory is forgotten . One of Schacter 's ( 1999 ) seven sins of memory , misattribution was divided into source confusion , cryptomnesia and false recall/false recognition .  Misinformation effect : that misinformation affects people 's reports of their own memory .  Modality effect : that memory recall is higher for the last items of a list when the list items were received via speech than when they were received via writing .  Mood congruent memory bias : the improved recall of information congruent with one 's current mood .  Next-in-line effect : that a person in a group has diminished recall for the words of others who spoke immediately before or after this person .  Peak-end rule : that people seem to perceive not the sum of an experience but the average of how it was at its peak ( e.g. pleasant or unpleasant ) and how it ended .  Persistence : the unwanted recurrence of memories of a traumatic event .  Picture superiority effect : that concepts are much more likely to be remembered experientially if they are presented in picture form than if they are presented in word form .  Placement bias : tendency to remember ourselves to be better than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves above average ( also Illusory superiority or Better-than-average effect ) and tendency to remember ourselves to be worse than others at tasks at which we rate ourselves below average ( also Worse-than-average effect ) .  Positivity effect : that older adults favor positive over negative information in their memories .  Primacy effect , Recency effect & Serial position effect : that items near the end of a list are the easiest to recall , followed by the items at the beginning of a list ; items in the middle are the least likely to be remembered .  Processing difficulty effect .  Reminiscence bump : the recalling of more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than personal events from other lifetime periods ( Rubin , Wetzler & Nebes , 1986 ; Rubin , Rahhal & Poon , 1998 ) .  Rosy retrospection : the remembering of the past as having been better than it really was .  Saying is Believing effect : Communicating a socially tuned message to an audience can lead to a bias of identifying the tuned message as one 's own thoughts .  Self-reference effect : the phenomena that memories encoded with relation to the self are better recalled than similar information encoded otherwise .  Self-serving bias : perceiving oneself responsible for desirable outcomes but not responsible for undesirable ones .  Source confusion : misattributing the source of a memory , e.g. misremembering that one saw an event personally when actually it was seen on television .  Spacing effect : that information is better recalled if exposure to it is repeated over a longer span of time .  Stereotypical bias : memory distorted towards stereotypes ( e.g. racial or gender ) , e.g. `` black-sounding '' names being misremembered as names of criminals .  Subadditivity effect : the tendency to estimate that the likelihood of a remembered event is less than the sum of its ( more than two ) mutually exclusive components .  Suffix effect : the weakening of the recency effect in the case that an item is appended to the list that the subject is not required to recall ( Morton , Crowder & Prussin , 1971 ) .  Suggestibility : a form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory .  Telescoping effect : the tendency to displace recent events backward in time and remote events forward in time , so that recent events appear more remote , and remote events , more recent .  Testing effect : that frequent testing of material that has been committed to memory improves memory recall .  Tip of the tongue : when a subject is able to recall parts of an item , or related information , but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item . This is thought to be an instance of `` blocking '' where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other .  Verbatim effect : that the `` gist '' of what someone has said is better remembered than the verbatim wording ( Poppenk , Walia , Joanisse , Danckert , & Köhler , 2006 ) .  Von Restorff effect : that an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items ( von Restorff , 1933 ) .  Zeigarnik effect : that uncompleted or interrupted tasks are remembered better than completed ones ."}
{"_id": "List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience", "title": "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience", "headings": "", "text": "This is a list of topics that have , at one point or another in their history , been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers . Discussion about these topics is done on their main pages . These characterizations were made in the context of educating the public about questionable or potentially fraudulent or dangerous claims and practices -- efforts to define the nature of science , or humorous parodies of poor scientific reasoning .   Criticism of pseudoscience , generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations , involves critiques of the logical , methodological , or rhetorical bases of the topic in question . Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically , others were only subject to scientific research in the past , and today are considered refuted but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion . Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific , but have in one way or another infringed on scientific domains or practices . Many adherents to or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience . Each section summarizes the pseudoscientific aspects of that topic ."}
{"_id": "List_of_weather_records", "title": "List of weather records", "headings": "", "text": "This is a list of weather records , a list of the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories . Many weather records are measured under specific conditions -- such as surface temperature and wind speed -- to keep consistency among measurements around the Earth . Each of these records is understood to be the record value officially observed , as these records may have been exceeded before modern weather instrumentation was invented , or in remote areas without an official weather station . This list does not include remotely sensed observations such as satellite measurements , since those values are not considered official records ."}
{"_id": "Little_Ice_Age", "title": "Little Ice Age", "headings": "", "text": "The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions .   The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period .   Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population ."}
{"_id": "Livestock", "title": "Livestock", "headings": "", "text": "Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food , fiber , and labor . The term is often used to refer solely to those raised for food , and sometimes only farmed ruminants , such as cattle and goats . In recent years , some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds . The breeding , maintenance , and slaughter of these animals , known as animal husbandry , is a component of modern agriculture that has been practiced in many cultures since humanity 's transition to farming from hunter-gatherer lifestyles .   Animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods . Originally , livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures , but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming , sometimes referred to as `` factory farming '' . These practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs , but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact . Livestock production continues to play a major economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities ."}
{"_id": "Load_cell", "title": "Load cell", "headings": "", "text": "A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly proportional to the force being measured . The various types of load cells include hydraulic load cells , pneumatic load cells and strain gauge load cells ."}
{"_id": "Logical_positivism", "title": "Logical positivism", "headings": "", "text": "Logical positivism and logical empiricism , which together formed neopositivism , was a movement in Western philosophy whose central thesis was verificationism , a theory of knowledge which asserted that only statements verifiable through empirical observation are cognitively meaningful . The movement flourished in the 1920s and 1930s in several European centers .   Efforts to convert philosophy to this new `` scientific philosophy '' , shared with empirical sciences ' best examples , such as Einstein 's general theory of relativity , sought to prevent confusion rooted in unclear language and unverifiable claims .   The Berlin Circle and Vienna Circle -- groups of philosophers , scientists , and mathematicians in Berlin and Vienna -- propounded logical positivism , starting in the late 1920s ."}
{"_id": "London", "title": "London", "headings": "", "text": "London -LSB- ˈlʌndən -RSB- is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom . Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain , London has been a major settlement for two millennia . It was founded by the Romans , who named it Londinium . London 's ancient core , the City of London , largely retains its 1.12 sqmi medieval boundaries . Since at least the 19th century , `` London '' has also referred to the metropolis around this core , historically split between Middlesex , Essex , Surrey , Kent , and Hertfordshire , which today largely makes up Greater London , See also : Independent city § National capitals . governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.The London Mayor is not to be confused with the Lord Mayor of London who heads the City of London Corporation , which administers the City of London .   London is a leading global city in the arts , commerce , education , entertainment , fashion , finance , healthcare , media , professional services , research and development , tourism , and transportation . It is crowned as the world 's largest financial centre and has the fifth - or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world.Rankings of cities by metropolitan area GDP can vary as a result of differences in the definition of the boundaries and population sizes of the areas compared , exchange rate fluctuations and the method used to calculate output . London and Paris are of broadly similar size in terms of total economic output which can result in third party sources varying as to which is the fifth-largest city GDP in the world . A report by the McKinsey Global Institute published in 2012 estimated that London had a city GDP of US$ 751.8 billion in 2010 , compared to US$ 764.2 billion for Paris , making them respectively the sixth - and fifth-largest in the world . A report by PricewaterhouseCoopers published in November 2009 estimated that London had a city GDP measured in purchasing power parity of US$ 565 billion in 2008 , compared to US$ 564 billion for Paris , making them respectively the fifth - and sixth-largest in the world . The McKinsey Global Institute study used a metropolitan area with a population of 14.9 million for London compared to 11.8 million for Paris , whilst the PricewaterhouseCoopers study used a metropolitan area with a population of 8.59 million for London compared to 9.92 million for Paris . London is a world cultural capital . It is the world 's most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world 's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic . London is the world 's leading investment destination , hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city . London 's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe . In 2012 , London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times .   London has a diverse range of people and cultures , and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region . Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population ( corresponding to Greater London ) was 8,673,713 , the largest of any city in the European Union , and accounting for 12.5 % of the UK population . London 's urban area is the second most populous in the EU , after Paris , with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census . The city 's metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants , while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city-region ( covering a large part of the south east ) as 22.7 million .  London was the world 's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925 .   London contains four World Heritage Sites : the Tower of London ; Kew Gardens ; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster , Westminster Abbey , and St Margaret 's Church ; and the historic settlement of Greenwich ( in which the Royal Observatory , Greenwich marks the Prime Meridian , 0 ° longitude , and GMT ) . Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace , the London Eye , Piccadilly Circus , St Paul 's Cathedral , Tower Bridge , Trafalgar Square , and The Shard . London is home to numerous museums , galleries , libraries , sporting events , and other cultural institutions , including the British Museum , National Gallery , Natural History Museum , Tate Modern , British Library , and West End theatres . The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world ."}
{"_id": "Low-carbon_economy", "title": "Low-carbon economy", "headings": "", "text": "A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems .   Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts .   Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy ."}
{"_id": "Low-pressure_area", "title": "Low-pressure area", "headings": "", "text": "A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity .   Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November .   Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' ."}
{"_id": "Lucas_pseudoprime", "title": "Lucas pseudoprime", "headings": "", "text": "Lucas pseudoprimes and Fibonacci pseudoprimes are composite integers that pass certain tests which all primes and very few composite numbers pass : in this case , criteria relative to some Lucas sequence ."}
{"_id": "Lyme_disease", "title": "Lyme disease", "headings": "", "text": "Lyme disease , also known as Lyme borreliosis , is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the Borrelia type . The most common sign of infection is an expanding area of redness on the skin , known as erythema migrans , that begins at the site of a tick bite about a week after it has occurred . The rash is typically neither itchy nor painful . Approximately 25 -- 50 % of infected people do not develop a rash . Other early symptoms may include fever , headache and feeling tired . If untreated , symptoms may include loss of the ability to move one or both sides of the face , joint pains , severe headaches with neck stiffness , or heart palpitations , among others . Months to years later , repeated episodes of joint pain and swelling may occur . Occasionally , people develop shooting pains or tingling in their arms and legs . Despite appropriate treatment , about 10 to 20 % of people develop joint pains , memory problems , and feel tired for at least six months .   Lyme disease is transmitted to humans by the bite of infected ticks of the Ixodes genus . Usually , the tick must be attached for 36 to 48 hours before the bacteria can spread . In North America , Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia mayonii are the cause . In Europe and Asia , the bacteria Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii are also causes of the disease . The disease does not appear to be transmissible between people , by other animals , or through food . Diagnosis is based upon a combination of symptoms , history of tick exposure , and possibly testing for specific antibodies in the blood . Blood tests are often negative in the early stages of the disease . Testing of individual ticks is not typically useful .   Prevention includes efforts to prevent tick bites such as by wearing long pants and using DEET . Using pesticides to reduce tick numbers may also be effective . Ticks can be removed using tweezers . If the removed tick was full of blood , a single dose of doxycycline may be used to prevent development of infection , but is not generally recommended since development of infection is rare . If an infection develops , a number of antibiotics are effective , including doxycycline , amoxicillin , and cefuroxime . Treatment is usually for two or three weeks . Some people develop a fever and muscle and joint pains from treatment which may last for one or two days . In those who develop persistent symptoms , long-term antibiotic therapy has not been found to be useful .   Lyme disease is the most common disease spread by ticks in the Northern Hemisphere . It is estimated to affect 300,000 people a year in the United States and 65,000 people a year in Europe . Infections are most common in the spring and early summer . Lyme disease was diagnosed as a separate condition for the first time in 1975 in Old Lyme , Connecticut . It was originally mistaken for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis . The bacterium involved was first described in 1981 by Willy Burgdorfer . Chronic symptoms are well described and are known as post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome , although it is often called chronic Lyme disease . Some healthcare providers claim that it is due to ongoing infection ; however , this is not believed to be true . A previous vaccine is no longer available . Research is ongoing to develop new vaccines ."}
{"_id": "Lysergic_acid_diethylamide", "title": "Lysergic acid diethylamide", "headings": "", "text": "Lysergic acid diethylamide ( LSD ) , also known as acid , is a psychedelic drug known for its psychological effects . This may include altered awareness of the surroundings , perceptions , and feelings as well as sensations and images that seem real though they are not . It is used mainly as a recreational drug and for spiritual reasons . LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue . It is often sold on blotter paper , a sugar cube , or gelatin . It can also be injected .   LSD is not addictive . However , adverse psychiatric reactions such as anxiety , paranoia , and delusions are possible . LSD is in the ergoline family . LSD is sensitive to oxygen , ultraviolet light , and chlorine , though it may last for years if it is stored away from light and moisture at low temperature . In pure form it is odorless and clear or white in color . As little as 20 -- 30 micrograms can produce an effect .   LSD was first made by Albert Hofmann in Switzerland in 1938 from ergotamine , a chemical from the fungus ergot . The laboratory name for the compound was the acronym for the German `` Lyserg-säure-diäthylamid '' , followed by a sequential number : LSD-25 . Hofmann discovered its psychedelic properties in 1943 . LSD was introduced as a commercial medication under the trade-name Delysid for various psychiatric uses in 1947 . In the 1950s , officials at the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) thought the drug might be useful for mind control and chemical warfare and tested the drug on young servicemen and students , and others without their knowledge . The subsequent recreational use by youth culture in the Western world as part of 1960s counterculture resulted in its prohibition ."}
{"_id": "MIT_Technology_Review", "title": "MIT Technology Review", "headings": "", "text": "MIT Technology Review is a magazine published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It was founded in 1899 as The Technology Review , and was re-launched without the `` The '' in its name on April 23 , 1998 under then publisher R. Bruce Journey . In September 2005 , it underwent another transition under the current editor-in-chief and publisher , Jason Pontin , to a form resembling the historical magazine .   Before the 1998 re-launch , the editor stated that `` nothing will be left of the old magazine except the name . '' It is therefore necessary to distinguish between the modern and the historical Technology Review . The historical magazine had been published by the MIT Alumni Association , was more closely aligned with the interests of MIT alumni , and had a more intellectual tone and much smaller public circulation . The magazine , billed from 1998 to 2005 as `` MIT 's Magazine of Innovation , '' and from 2005 onwards as simply `` published by MIT '' , focused on new technology and how it is commercialized ; was mass-marketed to the public ; and was targeted at senior executives , researchers , financiers , and policymakers , as well as MIT alumni .   In 2011 , Technology Review received an Utne Reader Independent Press Award for Best Science/Technology Coverage ."}
{"_id": "Macau", "title": "Macau", "headings": "", "text": "Macau ( -LSB- məˈkaʊ -RSB- ; literally : `` Bay Gate '' ) , also spelled Macao , officially the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People 's Republic of China , is an autonomous territory on the western side of the Pearl River Delta in East Asia . Macau is bordered by the city of Zhuhai in Mainland China to the north and the Pearl River Estuary to the east and south . Hong Kong lies about 64 km to its east across the Delta . With a population of 650,900 living in an area of 30.5 km2 , it is the most densely populated region in the world .   Macau was administered by the Portuguese Empire and its inheritor states from the mid-16th century until late 1999 , when it constituted the last remaining European colony in Asia . Portuguese traders first settled in Macau in the 1550s . In 1557 , Macau was leased to Portugal from Ming China as a trading port . The Portuguese Empire administered the city under Chinese authority and sovereignty until 1887 , when Macau , through a mutual agreement between the two countries , became a colony . Sovereignty over Macau was transferred back to China on 20 December 1999 . The Joint Declaration on the Question of Macau and Macau Basic Law stipulate that Macau operate with a high degree of autonomy until at least 2049 , fifty years after the transfer .   Under the policy of `` one country , two systems '' , the State Council of the People 's Republic of China is responsible for military defense and foreign affairs while Macau maintains its own legal system , public security force , monetary system , customs policy , and immigration policy . Macau participates in international organizations and events that do not require members to possess national sovereignty .   Macau is a resort city in Southern China , known for its casinos and luxury hotels . Its gaming revenue has been the world 's largest since 2006 , with the economy heavily dependent on gaming and tourism . According to The World Factbook , Macau has the fourth highest life expectancy in the world . Moreover , it is one of the regions in Asia with a `` very high Human Development Index '' , ranking 18th in the world . Macau is among the world 's richest regions , and its GDP per capita by purchasing power parity is higher than that of any country in the world , according to the World Bank ."}
{"_id": "Machine_learning", "title": "Machine learning", "headings": "", "text": "Machine learning is the subfield of computer science that , according to Arthur Samuel in 1959 , gives `` computers the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed . '' Evolved from the study of pattern recognition and computational learning theory in artificial intelligence , machine learning explores the study and construction of algorithms that can learn from and make predictions on data -- such algorithms overcome following strictly static program instructions by making data-driven predictions or decisions , through building a model from sample inputs . Machine learning is employed in a range of computing tasks where designing and programming explicit algorithms with good performance is difficult or unfeasible ; example applications include email filtering , detection of network intruders or malicious insiders working towards a data breach , optical character recognition ( OCR ) , learning to rank and computer vision .   Machine learning is closely related to ( and often overlaps with ) computational statistics , which also focuses on prediction-making through the use of computers . It has strong ties to mathematical optimization , which delivers methods , theory and application domains to the field . Machine learning is sometimes conflated with data mining , where the latter subfield focuses more on exploratory data analysis and is known as unsupervised learning . Machine learning can also be unsupervised and be used to learn and establish baseline behavioral profiles for various entities and then used to find meaningful anomalies .   Within the field of data analytics , machine learning is a method used to devise complex models and algorithms that lend themselves to prediction ; in commercial use , this is known as predictive analytics . These analytical models allow researchers , data scientists , engineers , and analysts to `` produce reliable , repeatable decisions and results '' and uncover `` hidden insights '' through learning from historical relationships and trends in the data .   , machine learning is a buzzword , and according to the Gartner hype cycle of 2016 , at its peak of inflated expectations . Because finding patterns is hard , often not enough training data is available , and also because of the high expectations it often fails to deliver ."}
{"_id": "Mad_(magazine)", "title": "Mad (magazine)", "headings": "", "text": "Mad is an American humor magazine founded in 1952 by editor Harvey Kurtzman and publisher William Gaines , launched as a comic book before it became a magazine . It was widely imitated and influential , affecting satirical media as well as the cultural landscape of the 20th century , with editor Al Feldstein increasing readership to more than two million during its 1974 circulation peak . As of January 2017 , Mad has published 544 regular issues , as well as hundreds of reprint `` Specials , '' original material paperbacks , compilation books and other print projects .   The magazine is the last surviving title from the EC Comics line , offering satire on all aspects of life and popular culture , politics , entertainment , and public figures . Its format is divided into a number of recurring segments such as TV and movie parodies , as well as freeform articles . Mads mascot , Alfred E. Neuman , is typically the focal point of the magazine 's cover , with his face often replacing that of a celebrity or character who is lampooned within the issue ."}
{"_id": "Madagascar", "title": "Madagascar", "headings": "", "text": "Madagascar ( -LSB- ˌmædəˈɡæskər -RSB- ; Madagasikara ) , officially the Republic of Madagascar ( -LSB- Repoblikan ' i Madagasikara , links = no -RSB- -LSB- republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə̥ -RSB- République de Madagascar ) , and previously known as the Malagasy Republic , is an island country in the Indian Ocean , off the coast of Southeast Africa . The nation comprises the island of Madagascar ( the fourth-largest island in the world ) , and numerous smaller peripheral islands . Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana , Madagascar split from the Indian peninsula around 88 million years ago , allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation . Consequently , Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot ; over 90 % of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth . The island 's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the rapidly growing human population and other environmental threats .   The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC . Human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD 550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo . These were joined around AD 1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa . Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time , each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life . The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands .   Until the late 18th century , the island of Madagascar was ruled by a fragmented assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances . Beginning in the early 19th century , most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles . The monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire , from which the island gained independence in 1960 . The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods , termed republics . Since 1992 , the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo . However , in a popular uprising in 2009 , president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina . Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014 , when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair and transparent by the international community . Madagascar is a member of the United Nations , the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community ( SADC ) .   Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries , according to the United Nations . Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state . The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs , Christianity , or an amalgamation of both . Ecotourism and agriculture , paired with greater investments in education , health , and private enterprise , are key elements of Madagascar 's development strategy . Under Ravalomanana , these investments produced substantial economic growth , but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population , producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining living standards among the poor and some segments of the middle class . , the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis , and quality of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy population ."}
{"_id": "Malaysia", "title": "Malaysia", "headings": "", "text": "Malaysia ( -LSB- məˈleɪsiə -RSB- ; -LSB- məlejsiə -RSB- ) is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia . It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 330803 km2 separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions , Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia ( Malaysian Borneo ) . Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore , Vietnam , and Indonesia . East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur , while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government . With a population of over 30 million , Malaysia is the 44th most populous country . The southernmost point of continental Eurasia , Tanjung Piai , is in Malaysia . Located in the tropics , Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth , with large numbers of endemic species .   Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which , from the 18th century , became subject to the British Empire . The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements , whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates . The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946 . Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948 , and achieved independence on 31 August 1957 . Malaya united with North Borneo , Sarawak , and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia . Less than two years later in 1965 , Singapore was expelled from the federation .   The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural , which plays a large role in politics . About half the population is ethnically Malay , with large minorities of Malaysian Chinese , Malaysian Indians , and indigenous peoples . The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims . The government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law . The head of state is the king , known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong . He is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years . The head of government is the prime minister .   Since its independence , Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia , with its GDP growing at an average of 6.5 % per annum for almost 50 years . The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources , but is expanding in the sectors of science , tourism , commerce and medical tourism . Today , Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy , ranked third largest in Southeast Asia and 29th largest in the world . It is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the East Asia Summit and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and a member of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Commonwealth of Nations , and the Non-Aligned Movement ."}
{"_id": "Maldives", "title": "Maldives", "headings": "", "text": "The Maldives ( -LSB- ˈmɒldiːvz -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmɔːldiːvz -RSB- , -LSB- ˈmɔːldaɪvz -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmældaɪvz -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of Maldives ( ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ , Dhivehi Raa ` jeyge Jumhooriyya ) , is a South Asian island country , located in the Indian Ocean , situated in the Arabian Sea . It lies southwest of India and Sri Lanka . The chain of twenty-six atolls stretches from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to the Addu City in the south . Comprising a territory spanning roughly 298 km2 , the Maldives is one of the world 's most geographically dispersed countries , as well as the smallest Asian country by both land area and population , with a little over 393,500 inhabitants . Malé is the capital and most populated city , traditionally called the `` King 's Island '' for its central location .   The Maldives archipelago is located atop the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge , a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean , which also forms a terrestrial ecoregion , together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep . With an average ground-level elevation of 1.5 m above sea level , it is the world 's lowest country , with even its highest natural point being the lowest in the world , at 2.4 m. Due to the subsequent risks posed by rising sea-levels , the government pledged in 2009 to make the Maldives a carbon-neutral country by 2019 .   The Maldives have been historically and culturally linked to the Indian subcontinent since the fourth century BCE . The Maldivian archipelago was Islamised in the 12th century and consolidated as a sultanate , developing strong commercial and cultural ties with Asia and Africa . From the mid 16th-century , the region came under the increasing influence of European colonial powers , with the Maldives becoming a British protectorate in 1887 . Independence from the United Kingdom was achieved in 1965 and a presidential republic was established in 1968 with an elected People 's Majlis . The ensuing decades have been characterised by political instability , efforts at democratic reform , and environmental challenges posed by climate change .   The Maldives is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) . It is also a member of the United Nations , the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Non Aligned Movement . The World Bank classifies the Maldives as having an upper middle income economy . Fishing has historically been the dominant economic activity , and remains the largest sector by far , followed by the rapidly growing tourism industry . Along with Sri Lanka , it is one of only two South Asian countries rated `` high '' on the Human Development Index ( HDI ) , with its per capita income the highest among SAARC nations .   The Maldives was a Commonwealth republic from July 1982 until its withdrawal from the Commonwealth in October 2016 in protest of international criticism of its records in relation to corruption and human rights ."}
{"_id": "Malnutrition", "title": "Malnutrition", "headings": "", "text": "Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems . It may involve calories , protein , carbohydrates , vitamins or minerals . Not enough nutrients is called undernutrition or undernourishment while too much is called overnutrition . Malnutrition is often used to specifically refer to undernutrition where an individual is not getting enough calories , protein , or micronutrients . If undernutrition occurs during pregnancy , or before two years of age , it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental development . Extreme undernourishment , known as starvation , may have symptoms that include : a short height , thin body , very poor energy levels , and swollen legs and abdomen . People also often get infections and are frequently cold . The symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on the micronutrient that is lacking .   Undernourishment is most often due to not enough high-quality food being available to eat . This is often related to high food prices and poverty . A lack of breastfeeding may contribute , as may a number of infectious diseases such as : gastroenteritis , pneumonia , malaria , and measles , which increase nutrient requirements . There are two main types of undernutrition : protein-energy malnutrition and dietary deficiencies . Protein-energy malnutrition has two severe forms : marasmus ( a lack of protein and calories ) and kwashiorkor ( a lack of just protein ) . Common micronutrient deficiencies include : a lack of iron , iodine , and vitamin A . During pregnancy , due to the body 's increased need , deficiencies may become more common . In some developing countries , overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition . Other causes of malnutrition include anorexia nervosa and bariatric surgery .   Efforts to improve nutrition are some of the most effective forms of development aid . Breastfeeding can reduce rates of malnutrition and death in children , and efforts to promote the practice increase the rates of breastfeeding . In young children , providing food ( in addition to breastmilk ) between six months and two years of age improves outcomes . There is also good evidence supporting the supplementation of a number of micronutrients to women during pregnancy and among young children in the developing world . To get food to people who need it most , both delivering food and providing money so people can buy food within local markets are effective . Simply feeding students at school is insufficient . Management of severe malnutrition within the person 's home with ready-to-use therapeutic foods is possible much of the time . In those who have severe malnutrition complicated by other health problems , treatment in a hospital setting is recommended . This often involves managing low blood sugar and body temperature , addressing dehydration , and gradual feeding . Routine antibiotics are usually recommended due to the high risk of infection . Longer-term measures include : improving agricultural practices , reducing poverty , improving sanitation , and the empowerment of women .   There were 793 million undernourished people in the world in 2015 ( 13 % of the total population ) . This is a reduction of 216 million people since 1990 when 23 % were undernourished . In 2012 it was estimated that another billion people had a lack of vitamins and minerals . In 2015 , protein-energy malnutrition was estimated to have resulted in 323,000 deaths -- down from 510,000 deaths in 1990 . Other nutritional deficiencies , which include iodine deficiency and iron deficiency anemia , result in another 83,000 deaths . In 2010 , malnutrition was the cause of 1.4 % of all disability adjusted life years . About a third of deaths in children are believed to be due to undernutrition , although the deaths are rarely labelled as such . In 2010 , it was estimated to have contributed to about 1.5 million deaths in women and children , though some estimate the number may be greater than 3 million . An additional 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013 . Undernutrition is more common in developing countries . Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition , including women -- in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding -- children under five years of age , and the elderly . In the elderly , undernutrition becomes more common due to physical , psychological , and social factors ."}
{"_id": "Mangrove", "title": "Mangrove", "headings": "", "text": "A mangrove is a shrub or small tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water . The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species . Mangroves occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics , mainly between latitudes ° N and ° S.The total mangrove forest area of the world in 2000 was 137,800 km2 , spanning 118 countries and territories .   Mangroves are salt tolerant trees , also called halophytes , and are adapted to life in harsh coastal conditions . They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt water immersion and wave action . They are adapted to the low oxygen ( anoxic ) conditions of waterlogged mud .   The word is used in at least three senses : ( 1 ) most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal , for which the terms mangrove forest biome , and mangrove swamp are also used , ( 2 ) to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangrove swamp , and ( 3 ) narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants , the Rhizophoraceae , or even more specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora .   The mangrove biome , or mangal , is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments , where fine sediments ( often with high organic content ) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action . The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water , through pure seawater ( 3 to 4 % ) , to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater ( up to 9 % ) ."}
{"_id": "Mangrove_restoration", "title": "Mangrove restoration", "headings": "", "text": "Mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed . The practice of mangrove restoration is grounded in the discipline of restoration ecology , which aims to `` -LSB- assist -RSB- the recovery of resilience and adaptive capacity of ecosystems that have been degraded , damaged , or destroyed '' . Since environmental impacts are an ongoing threat , to successfully restore an ecosystem implies not merely to recreate its former condition , but to strengthen its capacity to adapt to change over time ."}
{"_id": "Marco_Rubio", "title": "Marco Rubio", "headings": "", "text": "Marco Antonio Rubio -LSB- ˈruːbioʊ -RSB- ( born May 28 , 1971 ) is an American politician and attorney , and the junior United States Senator from Florida . Rubio previously served as Speaker of the Florida House of Representatives .   Rubio is a Cuban American from Miami , with degrees from the University of Florida and the University of Miami School of Law . In the late 1990s , he served as a City Commissioner for West Miami and was elected to the Florida House of Representatives in 2000 , representing the 111th House district .   Later in 2000 , Rubio was promoted to be one of two majority whips , and in 2002 , he was appointed House Majority Leader by Speaker Johnnie Byrd . Subsequently , he was elected Speaker of the Florida House , serving as Speaker for two years beginning in November 2006 . Upon leaving the Florida legislature in 2008 due to term limits , Rubio started a new law firm , and also began teaching at Florida International University , where he continues as an adjunct professor .   Rubio successfully ran for United States Senate in 2010 . In the U.S. Senate , he chairs the Commerce Subcommittee on Oceans , Atmosphere , Fisheries , and Coast Guard , as well as the Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere , Transnational Crime , Civilian Security , Democracy , Human Rights and Global Women 's Issues . He is one of four Latino Americans serving in the Senate .   In April 2015 , Rubio announced that he would forgo seeking reelection to the Senate to run for President . He suspended his campaign for President on March 15 , 2016 , after losing the Republican primary in his home state of Florida to Donald Trump . On June 22 , 2016 , he reversed his decision not to seek reelection to the Senate and announced a campaign for reelection citing the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting . Rubio was reelected after defeating Democrat Patrick Murphy in the 2016 general election ."}
{"_id": "Marcus_Davis", "title": "Marcus Davis", "headings": "", "text": "Marcus Paul Davis ( born August 24 , 1973 ) , is a retired American professional mixed martial artist and former professional boxer who is perhaps best known for competing in the UFC . A professional MMA competitor from 2003 until 2014 , Davis also competed for Bellator MMA , the MFC , the Cage Fury Fighting Championships , and was a contestant on The Ultimate Fighter 2 ."}
{"_id": "Marine_habitats", "title": "Marine habitats", "headings": "", "text": "The marine environment supplies many kinds of habitats that support marine life . Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that is in the sea ( the term marine comes from the Latin mare , meaning sea or ocean ) . A habitat is an ecological or environmental area inhabited by one or more living species .   Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats . Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from as far as the tide comes in on the shoreline out to the edge of the continental shelf . Most marine life is found in coastal habitats , even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area . Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf .   Alternatively , marine habitats can be divided into pelagic and demersal zones . Pelagic habitats are found near the surface or in the open water column , away from the bottom of the ocean . Demersal habitats are near or on the bottom of the ocean . An organism living in a pelagic habitat is said to be a pelagic organism , as in pelagic fish . Similarly , an organism living in a demersal habitat is said to be a demersal organism , as in demersal fish . Pelagic habitats are intrinsically shifting and ephemeral , depending on what ocean currents are doing .   Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants . Some marine organisms , like corals , kelp , mangroves and seagrasses , are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine environment to the point where they create further habitat for other organisms .  __ TOC __"}
{"_id": "Marine_life", "title": "Marine life", "headings": "", "text": "Marine life , or sea life or ocean life , refers to the plants , animals and other organisms that live in the salt water of the sea or ocean , or the brackish water of coastal estuaries . At a fundamental level , marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet . Marine organisms produce much of the oxygen we breathe . Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life , and some marine organisms even help create new land .   Most life forms evolved initially in marine habitats . Oceans provide about 99 percent of the living space on the planet . The earliest vertebrates appeared in the form of fish , which live exclusively in water . Some of these evolved into amphibians which spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land . Other fish evolved into land mammals and subsequently returned to the ocean as seals , dolphins or whales . Plant forms such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems . Plankton , and particularly phytoplankton , are key primary producers forming the general foundation of the ocean food chain .   Marine vertebrates must obtain oxygen to survive , and they do so in various ways . Fish have gills instead of lungs , although some species of fish , such as the lungfish , have both . Marine mammals , such as dolphins , whales , otters , and seals need to surface periodically to breathe air . Some amphibians are able to absorb oxygen through their skin . Invertebrates exhibit a wide range of modifications to survive in poorly oxygenated waters including breathing tubes ( see insect and mollusc siphons ) and gills ( Carcinus ) . However , as invertebrate life evolved in an aquatic habitat most have little or no specialisation for respiration in water .   Altogether there are 230,000 documented marine species , including over 16,000 species of fish , and it has been estimated that nearly two million marine species are yet to be documented . Marine species range in size from the microscopic , including plankton and phytoplankton which can be as small as 0.02 micrometres , to huge cetaceans ( whales , dolphins and porpoises ) which in the case of the blue whale reach up to 33 metres ( 109 feet ) in length , being the largest known animal ."}
{"_id": "Marine_mammal", "title": "Marine mammal", "headings": "", "text": "Marine mammals are aquatic mammals that rely on the ocean and other marine ecosystems for their existence . They include animals such as seals , whales , manatees , sea otters and polar bears . They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping , but rather have a polyphyletic relation due to convergent evolution . They are also unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding .   Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species . Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers . Seals and sea-lions are semiaquatic ; they spend the majority of their time in the water , but need to return to land for important activities such as mating , breeding and molting . In contrast , both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living . Their diet varies considerably as well ; some may eat zooplankton , others may eat fish , squid , shellfish , sea-grass and a few may eat other mammals . While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land , their roles in various ecosystems are large , especially concerning the maintenance of marine ecosystems , through processes including the regulation of prey populations . This role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern as 23 % of marine mammal species are currently threatened .   Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples for food and other resources . Many were also the target for commercial industry , leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species , such as whales and seals . Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of † Steller 's sea cow and the † Caribbean monk seal . After commercial hunting ended , some species , such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal , have rebounded in numbers ; conversely , other species , such as the North Atlantic right whale , are critically endangered . Other than hunting , marine mammals can be killed as bycatch from fisheries , where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve . Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals . Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food . Noise pollution , for example , may adversely affect echolocating mammals , and the ongoing effects of global warming degrade arctic environments ."}
{"_id": "Marine_pollution", "title": "Marine pollution", "headings": "", "text": "Marine pollution occurs when harmful , or potentially harmful , effects result from the entry into the ocean of chemicals , particles , industrial , agricultural and residential waste , noise , or the spread of invasive organisms . Eighty percent of marine pollution comes from land . Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off pesticides or dirt into the ocean . Land and air pollution have proven to be harmful to marine life and its habitats .   The pollution often comes from non point sources such as agricultural runoff , wind-blown debris and dust . Nutrient pollution , a form of water pollution , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients . It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters , in which excess nutrients , usually nitrogen or phosphorus , stimulate algae growth .   Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthos animals , most of which are either deposit or filter feeders . In this way , the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains . Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen , causing estuaries to become anoxic .   When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem , they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs . Once in the food webs , these pesticides can cause mutations , as well as diseases , which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web .   Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs . These can cause a change to tissue matter , biochemistry , behaviour , reproduction , and suppress growth in marine life . Also , many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content . In this way , marine toxins can be transferred to land animals , and appear later in meat and dairy products ."}
{"_id": "Marine_protected_area", "title": "Marine protected area", "headings": "", "text": "Marine protected areas ( MPA ) are protected areas of seas , oceans , estuaries or large lakes . MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose , typically to protect natural or cultural resources . Such marine resources are protected by local , state , territorial , native , regional , national , or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations . This variation includes different limitations on development , fishing practices , fishing seasons and catch limits , moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life . In some situations ( such as with the Phoenix Islands Protected Area ) , MPAs also provide revenue for countries , potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish .   On 28 October 2016 in Hobart , Australia , the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources agreed to establish the first Antarctic and largest marine park in the world encompassing 1.55 million km2 ( 600,000 sq mi ) in the Ross Sea . Other large MPAs are in the Indian , Pacific , and Atlantic Oceans in certain exclusive economic zones of Australia and overseas territories of France , the United Kingdom and the United States , with major ( 990,000 km2 or larger ) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012 -- such as Natural Park of the Coral Sea , Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area . When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries , as of August 2016 there are more than 13,650 MPAs , encompassing 2.07 % of the world 's oceans , with half of that area -- encompassing 1.03 % of the world 's oceans -- receiving complete `` no-take '' designation ."}
{"_id": "Mark_Begich", "title": "Mark Begich", "headings": "", "text": "Mark Peter Begich ( -LSB- ˈbɛɡɪtʃ -RSB- born March 30 , 1962 ) is an American politician who was a United States Senator from Alaska from 2009 to 2015 . A member of the Democratic Party , he was Mayor of Anchorage from 2003 to 2009 .   Born in Anchorage , Begich is the son of former U.S. Representative Nick Begich Sr. . He was elected to the Anchorage Assembly at the age of 26 . He eventually served as chairman for three years , before leaving the Assembly in 1998 . Begich ran two unsuccessful campaigns for mayor in 1994 and 2000 before being elected in 2003 . In the 2008 Senate election , Begich narrowly defeated incumbent Ted Stevens , the longest-serving Republican member of the Senate of all time .   In the 2014 Senate election , Begich was narrowly defeated in his bid for reelection by former Alaska Attorney General Dan Sullivan . Following completion of his term in the U.S. Senate , he became a policy advisor on Native American affairs in the Washington , D.C.-based law firm of Sonosky , Chambers , Sachse , Endreson & Perry LLP ."}
{"_id": "Market_failure", "title": "Market failure", "headings": "", "text": "In economics , market failure is a situation in which the allocation of goods and services is not efficient . That is , there exists another conceivable outcome where an individual may be made better-off without making someone else worse-off . Market failures can be viewed as scenarios where individuals ' pursuit of pure self-interest leads to results that are not efficient -- that can be improved upon from the societal point of view . The first known use of the term by economists was in 1958 , but the concept has been traced back to the Victorian philosopher Henry Sidgwick .   Market failures are often associated with time-inconsistent preferences , information asymmetries , non-competitive markets , principal -- agent problems , externalities , or public goods , thus existence of a market failure is often the reason that self-regulatory organizations , governments or supra-national institutions intervene in a particular market . Economists , especially microeconomists , are often concerned with the causes of market failure and possible means of correction . Such analysis plays an important role in many types of public policy decisions and studies . However , government policy interventions , such as taxes , subsidies , bailouts , wage and price controls , and regulations ( including poorly implemented attempts to correct market failure ) , may also lead to an inefficient allocation of resources , sometimes called government failure .   Given the tension between , on the one hand , the undeniable costs to society caused by market failure , and on the other hand , the potential that attempts to mitigate these costs could lead to even greater costs from `` government failure '' , there is sometimes a choice between imperfect outcomes , i.e. imperfect market outcomes with or without government interventions . But either way , if a market failure exists the outcome is not Pareto efficient . Most mainstream economists believe that there are circumstances ( like building codes or endangered species ) in which it is possible for government or other organizations to improve the inefficient market outcome . Several heterodox schools of thought disagree with this as a matter of principle .   An ecological market failure exists when human activity in a market economy is exhausting critical non-renewable resources , disrupting fragile ecosystems services , or overloading biospheric waste absorption capacities . In none of these cases does the criterion of Pareto efficiency obtain ."}
{"_id": "Mars", "title": "Mars", "headings": "", "text": "Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System , after Mercury . Named after the Roman god of war , it is often referred to as the `` Red Planet '' because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance . Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere , having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys , deserts , and polar ice caps of Earth .   The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth , as is the tilt that produces the seasons . Mars is the site of Olympus Mons , the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System , and of Valles Marineris , one of the largest canyons in the Solar System . The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40 % of the planet and may be a giant impact feature . Mars has two moons , Phobos and Deimos , which are small and irregularly shaped . These may be captured asteroids , similar to 5261 Eureka , a Mars trojan .   There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars , as well as the possibility of extant life . Future astrobiology missions are planned , including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers . Liquid water can not exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure , which is about that of the Earth 's , except at the lowest elevations for short periods . The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water . The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap , if melted , would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m . In November 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior .   Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye , as can its reddish coloring . Its apparent magnitude reaches − 2.91 , which is surpassed only by Jupiter , Venus , the Moon , and the Sun . Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 km across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth 's atmosphere ."}
{"_id": "Mars_ocean_hypothesis", "title": "Mars ocean hypothesis", "headings": "", "text": "The Mars ocean hypothesis states that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was covered by an ocean of liquid water early in the planet 's geologic history . This primordial ocean , dubbed Paleo-Ocean and Oceanus Borealis , would have filled the basin Vastitas Borealis in the northern hemisphere , a region which lies 4 -- 5 km ( 2.5 -- 3 miles ) below the mean planetary elevation , at a time period of approximately 4.1 -- 3.8 billion years ago . Evidence for this ocean includes geographic features resembling ancient shorelines , and the chemical properties of the Martian soil and atmosphere . Early Mars would have required a denser atmosphere and warmer climate to allow liquid water to remain at the surface ."}
{"_id": "Marshall_Islands", "title": "Marshall Islands", "headings": "", "text": "The Marshall Islands , officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( Aolepān Aorōkin M̧ajeļ ) , Pronunciations : * English : Republic of the Marshall Islands -LSB- ˈmɑrʃəl_ˈaɪləndz -RSB- * Marshallese : Aolepān Aorōkin M̧ajeļ ( -LSB- iconhahawweweylyeyPyayn_hahawwowohrhohKhuyn_mhhahahJyehlh -RSB- ) is an island country located near the equator in the Pacific Ocean , slightly west of the International Date Line . Geographically , the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia . The country 's population of 53,158 people ( at the 2011 Census ) is spread out over 29 coral atolls , comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets .   The islands share maritime boundaries with the Federated States of Micronesia to the west , Wake Island to the north , Wake Island is claimed as a territory of the Marshall Islands , but is also claimed as an unorganized , unincorporated territory of the United States , with de facto control vested in the Office of Insular Affairs ( and all military defenses managed by the United States military ) . Kiribati to the southeast , and Nauru to the south . About 27,797 of the islanders ( at the 2011 Census ) live on Majuro , which contains the capital .   Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC , with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts . Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s , with Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar sighting an atoll in August 1526 . Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed . The islands derive their name from British explorer John Marshall , who visited in 1788 . The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as `` jolet jen Anij '' ( Gifts from God ) .   The European powers recognized Spanish sovereignty over the islands in 1874 . They had been part of the Spanish East Indies formally since 1528 . Later , Spain sold the islands to the German Empire in 1884 , and they became part of German New Guinea in 1885 . In World War I the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands , which in 1919 the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Pacific Mandate . In World War II , the United States conquered the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign . Along with other Pacific Islands , the Marshall Islands were then consolidated into the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands governed by the US . Self-government was achieved in 1979 , and full sovereignty in 1986 , under a Compact of Free Association with the United States . Marshall Islands has been a United Nations member state since 1991 .   Politically , the Marshall Islands is a presidential republic in free association with the United States , with the US providing defense , subsidies , and access to U.S. based agencies such as the FCC and the USPS . With few natural resources , the islands ' wealth is based on a service economy , as well as some fishing and agriculture ; aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands ' gross domestic product . The country uses the United States dollar as its currency .   The majority of the citizens of the Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent , though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States , China , Philippines , and other Pacific islands . The two official languages are Marshallese , which is a member of the Malayo-Polynesian languages , and English . Almost the entire population of the islands practises some religion , with three-quarters of the country either following the United Church of Christ -- Congregational in the Marshall Islands ( UCCCMI ) or the Assemblies of God ."}
{"_id": "Martian", "title": "Martian", "headings": "", "text": "A Martian is a native inhabitant of the planet Mars . Although the search for evidence of life on Mars continues , many science fiction writers have imagined what extraterrestrial life on Mars might be like . Some writers also use the word Martian to describe a human colonist on Mars ."}
{"_id": "Martian_polar_ice_caps", "title": "Martian polar ice caps", "headings": "", "text": "The planet Mars has two permanent polar ice caps . During a pole 's winter , it lies in continuous darkness , chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 25 -- 30 % of the atmosphere into slabs of CO2 ice ( dry ice ) . When the poles are again exposed to sunlight , the frozen CO2 sublimes , creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h . These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor , giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds . Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004 .   The caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice . Frozen carbon dioxide accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only , while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about 8 m thick . The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 km during the northern Mars summer , and contains about 1.6 million cubic km of ice , which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 km thick . ( This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic km ( km3 ) for the Greenland ice sheet . ) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km . The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic km . Both polar caps show spiral troughs , which recent analysis of SHARAD ice penetrating radar has shown are a result of roughly perpendicular katabatic winds that spiral due to the Coriolis Effect .   The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 m thick slabs of dry ice above the ground . With the arrival of spring , sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO2 builds up under a slab , elevating and ultimately rupturing it . This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO2 gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust . This process is rapid , observed happening in the space of a few days , weeks or months , a rate of change rather unusual in geology -- especially for Mars . The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice ."}
{"_id": "Marvel_Universe", "title": "Marvel Universe", "headings": "", "text": "The Marvel Universe is the shared universe where the stories in most American comic book titles and other media published by Marvel Entertainment take place . Marvel superheroes such as the Avengers , the Fantastic Four and the X-Men are from this universe .   The Marvel Universe is further depicted as existing within a `` multiverse '' consisting of thousands of separate universes , all of which are the creations of Marvel Comics and all of which are , in a sense , `` Marvel universes '' . In this context , `` Marvel Universe '' is taken to refer to the mainstream Marvel continuity , which is known as Earth-616 or currently as Earth Prime ."}
{"_id": "Maryland", "title": "Maryland", "headings": "", "text": "Maryland ( -LSB- ˈmɛrᵻlənd -RSB- ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States , bordering Virginia , West Virginia , and Washington , D.C. to its south and west ; Pennsylvania to its north ; and Delaware to its east . The state 's largest city is Baltimore , and its capital is Annapolis . Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State , the Free State , and the Chesapeake Bay State . The state is named after Henrietta Maria of France , the wife of Charles I of England .   One of the original Thirteen Colonies , Maryland is considered to be the birthplace of religious freedom in America , when it was formed by George Calvert in the early 17th century as an intended refuge for persecuted Catholics from England . George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the then-Maryland colonial grant . Maryland was the seventh state to ratify the United States Constitution , and played a pivotal role in the founding of Washington , D.C. , which was established on land donated by the state .   Maryland is one of the smallest U.S. states in terms of area , as well as one of the most densely populated , with around six million residents . , Maryland had the highest median household income of any state , owing in large part to its close proximity to the nation 's capital and a highly diversified economy spanning manufacturing , services , and biotechnology ."}
{"_id": "Master's_degree", "title": "Master's degree", "headings": "", "text": "A master 's degree ( from Latin magister ) is a second-cycle academic degree awarded by universities or colleges upon completion of a course of study demonstrating mastery or a high-order overview of a specific field of study or area of professional practice . A master 's degree normally requires previous study at the bachelor 's level , either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course . Within the area studied , master 's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of theoretical and applied topics ; high order skills in analysis , critical evaluation , or professional application ; and the ability to solve complex problems and think rigorously and independently ."}
{"_id": "Mathematical_model", "title": "Mathematical model", "headings": "", "text": "A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language . The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling . Mathematical models are used in the natural sciences ( such as physics , biology , Earth science , meteorology ) and engineering disciplines ( such as computer science , artificial intelligence ) , as well as in the social sciences ( such as economics , psychology , sociology , political science ) . Physicists , engineers , statisticians , operations research analysts , and economists use mathematical models most extensively . A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components , and to make predictions about behaviour ."}
{"_id": "Mathematics", "title": "Mathematics", "headings": "", "text": "Mathematics ( from Greek μάθημα máthēma , `` knowledge , study , learning '' ) is the study of topics such as quantity ( numbers ) , structure , space , and change . There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and definition of mathematics .   Mathematicians seek out patterns and use them to formulate new conjectures . Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proof . When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena , then mathematical reasoning can provide insight or predictions about nature . Through the use of abstraction and logic , mathematics developed from counting , calculation , measurement , and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects . Practical mathematics has been a human activity from as far back as written records exist . The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry .   Rigorous arguments first appeared in Greek mathematics , most notably in Euclid 's Elements . Since the pioneering work of Giuseppe Peano ( 1858 -- 1932 ) , David Hilbert ( 1862 -- 1943 ) , and others on axiomatic systems in the late 19th century , it has become customary to view mathematical research as establishing truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions . Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance , when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued to the present day .   Galileo Galilei ( 1564 -- 1642 ) said , `` The universe can not be read until we have learned the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is written . It is written in mathematical language , and the letters are triangles , circles and other geometrical figures , without which means it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word . Without these , one is wandering about in a dark labyrinth . '' Carl Friedrich Gauss ( 1777 -- 1855 ) referred to mathematics as `` the Queen of the Sciences '' . Benjamin Peirce ( 1809 -- 1880 ) called mathematics `` the science that draws necessary conclusions '' . David Hilbert said of mathematics : `` We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in any sense . Mathematics is not like a game whose tasks are determined by arbitrarily stipulated rules . Rather , it is a conceptual system possessing internal necessity that can only be so and by no means otherwise . '' Albert Einstein ( 1879 -- 1955 ) stated that `` as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality , they are not certain ; and as far as they are certain , they do not refer to reality . ''   Mathematics is essential in many fields , including natural science , engineering , medicine , finance and the social sciences . Applied mathematics has led to entirely new mathematical disciplines , such as statistics and game theory . Mathematicians also engage in pure mathematics , or mathematics for its own sake , without having any application in mind . There is no clear line separating pure and applied mathematics , and practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often discovered ."}
{"_id": "Mauna_Loa", "title": "Mauna Loa", "headings": "", "text": "Mauna Loa ( -LSB- ˌmɔːnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmaʊnə_ˈloʊ . ə -RSB- Hawaiian : -LSB- - hawˈmɐwnə ˈlowə -RSB- Long Mountain ) is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U.S. state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume , Mauna Loa has historically been considered the largest volcano on Earth . It is an active shield volcano with relatively gentle slopes , with a volume estimated at approximately 18000 mi3 , although its peak is about 120 ft lower than that of its neighbor , Mauna Kea . Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid , and they tend to be non-explosive .   Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years , and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago . The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years . The volcano 's magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot , which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years . The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one million years from now , at which point it will become extinct .   Mauna Loa 's most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15 , 1984 . No recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities , but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages , and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century . Because of the potential hazards it poses to population centers , Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program , which encourages studies of the world 's most dangerous volcanoes . Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912 . Observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory , and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory , both located near the mountain 's summit . Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the southeastern flank of the volcano , and also incorporates Kīlauea , a separate volcano ."}
{"_id": "Mauna_Loa_Observatory", "title": "Mauna Loa Observatory", "headings": "", "text": "The Mauna Loa Observatory ( MLO ) is an atmospheric baseline station on Mauna Loa , on the island of Hawaii ."}
{"_id": "Maunder_Minimum", "title": "Maunder Minimum", "headings": "", "text": "The Maunder Minimum , also known as the `` prolonged sunspot minimum '' , is the name used for the period starting in about 1645 and continuing to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare , as noted by solar observers of the time .   The term was introduced after John A. Eddy published a landmark 1976 paper in Science . Astronomers before Eddy had also named the period after the solar astronomers Annie Russell Maunder ( 1868 -- 1947 ) and E. Walter Maunder ( 1851 -- 1928 ) , who studied how sunspot latitudes changed with time . The period which the husband and wife team examined included the second half of the 17th century .   Two papers were published in Edward Maunder 's name in 1890 and 1894 , and he cited earlier papers written by Gustav Spörer . Because Annie Maunder had not received a university degree ( due to restrictions at the time ) , her contribution was not publicly recognized .   Spörer noted that , during a 28-year period ( 1672 -- 1699 ) within the Maunder Minimum , observations revealed fewer than 50 sunspots . This contrasts with the typical 40,000 -- 50,000 sunspots seen in modern times .   Like the Dalton Minimum and Spörer Minimum , the Maunder Minimum coincided with a period of lower-than-average European temperatures ."}
{"_id": "Meat", "title": "Meat", "headings": "", "text": "Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food . Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times . The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens , sheep , pigs and cattle . This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses .   Meat is mainly composed of water , protein , and fat . It is edible raw , but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways . Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria and fungi .   Most often , meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues , but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal . Meat is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species ( pigs , cattle , lambs , etc. ) raised and prepared for human consumption , to the exclusion of fish , other seafood , poultry , or other animals ."}
{"_id": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "title": "Media coverage of global warming", "headings": "", "text": "Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media.  Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained."}
{"_id": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "title": "Medieval Warm Period", "headings": "", "text": "The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important .   Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures .   Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation ."}
{"_id": "Mediterranean_Sea", "title": "Mediterranean Sea", "headings": "", "text": "The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean , surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land : on the north by Southern Europe and Anatolia , on the south by North Africa , and on the east by the Levant . The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean , although it is usually identified as a separate body of water .   The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus , meaning `` inland '' or `` in the middle of land '' ( from medius , `` middle '' and terra , `` land '' ) . It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2 ( 965,000 sq mi ) , but its connection to the Atlantic ( the Strait of Gibraltar ) is only 14 km wide . The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar and Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa . In oceanography , it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere .   The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1500 m and the deepest recorded point is 5267 m in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea . The sea is bordered on the north by Europe , the east by Asia , and in the south by Africa . It is located between latitudes 30 ° and 46 ° N and longitudes 6 ° W and 36 ° E. Its west-east length , from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun , on the southwestern coast of Turkey , is approximately 4,000 km ( 2,500 miles ) . The sea 's average north-south length , from Croatia 's southern shore to Libya , is approximately 800 km ( 500 miles ) . The Mediterranean Sea , including the Sea of Marmara ( connected by the Dardanelles to the Aegean Sea ) , has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km ( 970,000 square miles ) .   The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region . The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies .   The countries with coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea are Albania , Algeria , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Cyprus , Egypt , France , Greece , Israel , Italy , Lebanon , Libya , Malta , Morocco , Monaco , Montenegro , Slovenia , Spain , Syria , Tunisia and Turkey . In addition , the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia have coastlines on the sea ."}
{"_id": "Mediterranean_climate", "title": "Mediterranean climate", "headings": "", "text": "A Mediterranean climate -LSB- ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən -RSB- or dry summer climate , is the climate typical of areas in the Mediterranean Basin . The Mediterranean climate is usually characterized by rainy winters and dry , warm to hot summers . While the climate receives its name from the Mediterranean Sea , an area where this climate is commonplace , it is also present in other areas of the planet , although with variations in the distribution of temperatures . In addition to the Mediterranean Basin , the climate is also found in most of California , in parts of Western and South Australia , in southwestern South Africa , sections of Western and Central Asia , and in Central Chile .   Outside of the Mediterranean Basin , the Mediterranean climate is usually located geographically on the western coasts of continental masses , typically between oceanic climates towards the poles , and semi-arid and arid climates towards the Equator . In essence , a Mediterranean climate is a combination of the three climates with winters somewhat mimicking winters in oceanic climates and summers imitating dry seasons in semi-arid and arid climates . Additionally , Mediterranean climates tend to be wetter poleward and drier the closer it gets to the Equator .   The resulting vegetation of Mediterranean climates are the garrigue in the Mediterranean Basin , the chaparral in California , the fynbos in South Africa and the Chilean scrubland in Chile . Areas with this climate are where the so-called `` Mediterranean trinity '' has traditionally developed : wheat , vine and olive . The latter is a tree that is only grown in areas that have this climatic pattern ."}
{"_id": "Mediterranean_tropical-like_cyclone", "title": "Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone", "headings": "", "text": "Mediterranean tropical-like cyclones , sometimes referred to as Mediterranean hurricanes or medicanes , are rare meteorological phenomena observed in the Mediterranean Sea . Due to the dry nature of the Mediterranean region , formation of tropical cyclones is infrequent , with only 99 recorded tropical-like storms between 1948 and 2011 . No agency , however , is officially responsible for monitoring the formation and development of medicanes . Tropical cyclogenesis typically occurs within two separate regions of the sea . The first region , encompassing areas of the western Mediterranean , is more conducive for development than the other , the Ionian Sea to the east . The rough mountainous geography of the region raises additional difficulties despite being favorable for the development of severe weather and convective activity in general , and only with abnormal meteorological circumstances can medicanes form . Numerous studies have been conducted on the impact of global warming on Mediterranean tropical cyclone formation , generally concluding that fewer yet more intense storms would form .   The development of tropical cyclones in the Mediterranean Sea can usually only occur under somewhat unusual circumstances . Low wind shear and atmospheric instability induced by incursions of cold air are often required . A majority of medicanes are also accompanied by upper-level troughs , providing energy required for intensifying atmospheric convection -- thunderstorms -- and heavy precipitation . The baroclinic properties of the Mediterranean region , with high temperature gradients , also provides necessary instability for the formation of tropical cyclones . Another factor , rising cool air , provides necessary moisture as well . Warm sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) are mostly unnecessary , however , as most medicanes ' energy is derived from warmer air temperatures . When these favorable circumstances coincide , the genesis of warm-core Mediterranean tropical cyclones , often from within existing cut-off cold-core lows , is possible in a conducive environment for formation .   Several notable and damaging medicanes are known to have occurred . In September 1969 , a north African Mediterranean tropical cyclone produced flooding that killed nearly 600 individuals , left 250,000 homeless , and crippled local economies . A medicane in September 1996 that developed in the Balearic Islands region spawned six tornadoes and inundated parts of the islands . Several medicanes have also been subject to extensive study , such as those of January 1982 , January 1995 , September 2006 , November 2011 , and November 2014 . The January 1995 storm is one of the best-studied Mediterranean tropical cyclones , with its close resemblance to tropical cyclones elsewhere and availability of observations . The medicane of September 2006 , meanwhile , is well-studied due to availability of existing observations and data . In November 2011 , the NOAA 's Satellite Analysis Branch monitored a possible medicane , named Rolf by the Free University of Berlin ( FU Berlin ) , though it ceased doing so the following month . No agency is officially responsible for monitoring the basin ."}
{"_id": "Megadrought", "title": "Megadrought", "headings": "", "text": "A megadrought ( or mega-drought ) is a prolonged drought lasting two decades or longer . Past megadroughts have been associated with persistent multiyear La Niña conditions ( cooler than normal water temperatures in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean ) .   The term megadrought is generally used to describe the length of a drought , and not its acute intensity . In scientific literature the term is used to describe decades-long droughts or multi-decadal droughts . Multiyear droughts of less than a decade , such as the Dust Bowl drought of the 1930s , are generally not described as megadroughts even though they are of a long duration . In popular literature multiyear or even single year droughts are occasionally described as megadroughts based upon their severity , the economic damage they inflict or other criteria , but this is the exception and not the rule ."}
{"_id": "Melbourne", "title": "Melbourne", "headings": "", "text": "Melbourne ( -LSB- ˈmɛlbərn -RSB- ) is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria , and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania . The name `` Melbourne '' refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9900 km2 , which comprises the broader metropolitan area , as well as being the common name for its city centre . The metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges , Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley . Melbourne consists of 31 municipalities . It has a population of 4,641,636 , and its inhabitants are called Melburnians .   Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemen 's Land on 30 August 1835 , in what was then the colony of New South Wales , it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837 . It was named `` Melbourne '' by the Governor of New South Wales , Sir Richard Bourke , in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day , William Lamb , 2nd Viscount Melbourne . It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria , to whom Lord Melbourne was close , in 1847 , after which it became the capital of the newly founded colony of Victoria in 1851 . During the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s , it was transformed into one of the world 's largest and wealthiest cities . After the federation of Australia in 1901 , it served as the nation 's interim seat of government until 1927 .   Melbourne rates highly in education , entertainment , health care , research and development , tourism and sport , making it the world 's most liveable city -- for the sixth year in a row in 2016 , according to the Economist Intelligence Unit . It is a leading financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region , and ranks among the top 30 cities in the world in the Global Financial Centres Index . Referred to as Australia 's `` cultural capital '' , it is the birthplace of Australian impressionism , Australian rules football , the Australian film and television industries , and Australian contemporary dance . It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a major centre for street art , music and theatre . It is home to many of Australia 's largest and oldest cultural institutions such as the Melbourne Cricket Ground , the National Gallery of Victoria , the State Library of Victoria and the UNESCO World Heritage-listed Royal Exhibition Building . It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games .   The main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport ( also called Tullamarine Airport ) , the second busiest in Australia . The Port of Melbourne is Australia 's busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo . Melbourne has an extensive transport network . The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station , and the main regional train and coach terminus is Southern Cross Station . Melbourne is also home to Australia 's most extensive freeway network and has the world 's largest urban tram network ."}
{"_id": "Merchants_of_Doubt", "title": "Merchants of Doubt", "headings": "", "text": "Merchants of Doubt : How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming is a 2010 non-fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case `` keeping the controversy alive '' by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues .   The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book . Other reviewers have been more favorable . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 ."}
{"_id": "Mercury_(planet)", "title": "Mercury (planet)", "headings": "", "text": "Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System . Its orbital period around the Sun of 88 days is the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System . It is named after the Roman deity Mercury , the messenger to the gods .   Like Venus , Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth 's orbit as an inferior planet , so it can only be seen visually in the morning or the evening sky , and never exceeds 28 ° away from the Sun . Also , like Venus and the Moon , the planet displays the complete range of phases as it moves around its orbit relative to Earth . Seen from Earth , this cycle of phases reoccurs  approximately every 116 days , the so-called synodic period . Although Mercury can appear as a bright star-like object when viewed from Earth , its proximity to the Sun often makes it more difficult to see than Venus .   Mercury is tidally or gravitationally locked with the Sun in a 3:2 resonance , and rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar System . As seen relative to the fixed stars , it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun . As seen from the Sun , in a frame of reference that rotates with the orbital motion , it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years . An observer on Mercury would therefore see only one day every two years .   Mercury 's axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System 's planets ( about degree ) , and its orbital eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar System . At aphelion , Mercury is about 1.5 times as far from the Sun as it is at perihelion . Mercury 's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon 's , indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years . Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat , it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than on any other planet in the Solar System , ranging from 100 K at night to 700 K during the day across the equatorial regions . The polar regions are constantly below 180 K . The planet has no known natural satellites .   Two spacecraft have visited Mercury : flew by in 1974 and 1975 ; and MESSENGER , launched in 2004 , orbited Mercury over 4,000 times in four years before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet 's surface on April 30 , 2015 ."}
{"_id": "Mesoamerican_nephropathy", "title": "Mesoamerican nephropathy", "headings": "", "text": "Mesoamerican nephropathy ( MeN ) is a currently unexplained epidemic of chronic kidney disease of unknown origin ( CKDu ) , prevalent in the Pacific ocean coastal low lands of the mesoamerican region , including southern Mexico , Guatemala , El Salvador , Nicaragua , Honduras and Costa Rica . In rural areas of Nicaragua the disease is colloquially called creatinina .   This CKD epidemic in Central America spans along a nearly 1000 kilometer stretch of the Pacific coast . In El Salvador and Nicaragua alone , the reported number of men dying from this painful disease has risen five-fold in the last 20 years , although some researchers believe hidden cases have always been there and this increment in official data could be partially due to the recent increase in reports and improved case search , pushed by the growing social and political interest in the disease . In El Salvador , the disease has become the second leading cause of death among adult men , and according to a recent editorial , it has been estimated that this largely unknown epidemic has caused the premature death of at least 20,000 men in the region . Science Magazine reports : `` In El Salvador alone , PAHO 's latest figures say CKD of all causes kills at least 2,500 people in the country each year '' .   The people affected by the epidemic are mainly young and middle-aged male laborers in the agricultural sector , particularly sugarcane workers . The disease has also been found to be prevalent in other occupations with a high risk of heat stress , implying strenuous work ( miners , construction , port and transportation workers ) in the high temperatures of the coastlands . The epidemic appears to affect particular Pacific coastal regions of Nicaragua , El Salvador , Costa Rica , and Guatemala ."}
{"_id": "Mesopelagic_zone", "title": "Mesopelagic zone", "headings": "", "text": "The mesopelagic ( Greek μέσον , middle ) ( also known as the middle pelagic or twilight zone ) is that part of the pelagic zone that extends from a depth of 200 to 1000 metres ( ~ 660 to 3300 feet ) below the ocean surface . It lies between the photic epipelagic above and the aphotic bathypelagic below , where there is no light at all ."}
{"_id": "Mesozoic", "title": "Mesozoic", "headings": "", "text": "The Mesozoic Era ( -LSB- pronˌmɛsəˈzoʊɪk , _ ˌmiː - , _ - soʊ - -RSB- or -LSB- ˌmɛzəˈzoʊɪk , _ ˌmiː - , _ - soʊ - -RSB- ) is an interval of geological time from about . It is also called the Age of Reptiles , a phrase introduced by the 19th century paleontologist Gideon Mantell who viewed it as dominated by diapsids such as Iguanodon , Megalosaurus , Plesiosaurus and Pterodactylus . This Era is also called from a paleobotanist view the Age of Conifers .   Mesozoic means `` middle life '' , deriving from the Greek prefix meso - / μεσο - for `` between '' and zōon / ζῷον meaning `` animal '' or `` living being '' . It is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon , preceded by the Paleozoic ( `` ancient life '' ) and succeeded by the Cenozoic ( `` new life '' ) . The era is subdivided into three major periods : the Triassic , Jurassic , and Cretaceous , which are further subdivided into a number of epochs and stages .   The era began in the wake of the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , the largest well-documented mass extinction in Earth 's history , and ended with the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event , another mass extinction which is known for having killed off non-avian dinosaurs , as well as other plant and animal species . The Mesozoic was a time of significant tectonic , climate and evolutionary activity . The era witnessed the gradual rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea into separate landmasses that would eventually move into their current positions . The climate of the Mesozoic was varied , alternating between warming and cooling periods . Overall , however , the Earth was hotter than it is today . Dinosaurs appeared in the Late Triassic and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates early in the Jurassic , occupying this position for about 135 million years until their demise at the end of the Cretaceous . Birds first appeared in the Jurassic , having evolved from a branch of theropod dinosaurs . The first mammals also appeared during the Mesozoic , but would remain small -- less than 15 kg ( 33 lb ) -- until the Cenozoic ."}
{"_id": "MetLife_Stadium", "title": "MetLife Stadium", "headings": "", "text": "MetLife Stadium is an American sports stadium located in East Rutherford , New Jersey . It is part of the Meadowlands Sports Complex and serves as the home stadium for two National Football League ( NFL ) franchises : the New York Jets and the New York Giants . The stadium is owned by the MetLife Stadium Company , a joint venture of the Giants and Jets , who jointly built the stadium using private funds on land owned by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority . The stadium opened as New Meadowlands Stadium in 2010 . In 2011 , MetLife , an insurance company based in New York City , acquired the naming rights to the stadium . At a construction cost of approximately $ 1.6 billion , it is the most expensive stadium ever built and is the second-largest stadium in the NFL in terms of seating capacity .   MetLife Stadium is the only NFL stadium shared by two clubs . It and Staples Center in Los Angeles , home of the Los Angeles Clippers and Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , are the only current facilities to house two teams from the same sports league in the United States ."}
{"_id": "Met_Office", "title": "Met Office", "headings": "", "text": "The Met Office ( officially the Meteorological Office until 2000 ) is the United Kingdom 's national weather service . It is an executive agency and trading fund of the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO , Rob Varley and chief scientist , Professor Stephen Belcher . The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change ."}
{"_id": "Meta-analysis", "title": "Meta-analysis", "headings": "", "text": "A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies .   The basic tenet behind meta-analyses is that there is a common truth behind all conceptually similar scientific studies , but which has been measured with a certain error within individual studies . The aim then is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived . In essence , all existing methods yield a weighted average from the results of the individual studies and what differs is the manner in which these weights are allocated and also the manner in which the uncertainty is computed around the point estimate thus generated . In addition to providing an estimate of the unknown common truth , meta-analysis has the capacity to contrast results from different studies and identify patterns among study results , sources of disagreement among those results , or other interesting relationships that may come to light in the context of multiple studies .   A key benefit of this approach is the aggregation of information leading to a higher statistical power and more robust point estimate than is possible from the measure derived from any individual study . However , in performing a meta-analysis , an investigator must make choices which can affect the results , including deciding how to search for studies , selecting studies based on a set of objective criteria , dealing with incomplete data , analyzing the data , and accounting for or choosing not to account for publication bias .   Meta-analyses are often , but not always , important components of a systematic review procedure . For instance , a meta-analysis may be conducted on several clinical trials of a medical treatment , in an effort to obtain a better understanding of how well the treatment works . Here it is convenient to follow the terminology used by the Cochrane Collaboration , and use `` meta-analysis '' to refer to statistical methods of combining evidence , leaving other aspects of ` research synthesis ' or ` evidence synthesis ' , such as combining information from qualitative studies , for the more general context of systematic reviews ."}
{"_id": "Meteorology", "title": "Meteorology", "headings": "", "text": "Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics , with a major focus on weather forecasting . The study of meteorology dates back millennia , though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century . The 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions . Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data . It was n't until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and , more particularly , the development of the computer , allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather , in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved .   Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology . Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of Earth 's atmosphere : temperature , air pressure , water vapor , mass flow , and the variations and interactions of those variables , and how they change over time . Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local , regional , and global levels .   Meteorology , climatology , atmospheric physics , and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences . Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology . The interactions between Earth 's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system . Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military , energy production , transport , agriculture , and construction .   The word `` meteorology '' is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros `` lofty ; high ( in the sky ) '' ( from μετα - meta - `` above '' and ἀείρω aeiro `` I lift up '' ) and - λογία - logia '' - logy '' , i.e. `` the study of things in the air '' ."}
{"_id": "Methane", "title": "Methane", "headings": "", "text": "Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure .   Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) ."}
{"_id": "Miami", "title": "Miami", "headings": "", "text": "Miami ( -LSB- maɪˈæmi -RSB- -LSB- miˈami -RSB- ) is a seaport city at the southeastern corner of the U.S. state of Florida and its Atlantic coast . As the seat of Miami-Dade County , the municipality is the principal , central , and the most populous city of the Miami metropolitan area and part of the second-most populous metropolis in the southeastern United States . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , Miami 's metro area is the eighth-most populous and fourth-largest urban area in the U.S. , with a population of around 5.5 million .   Miami is a major center , and a leader in finance , commerce , culture , media , entertainment , the arts , and international trade . In 2012 , Miami was classified as an Alpha − World City in the World Cities Study Group 's inventory . In 2010 , Miami ranked seventh in the United States in terms of finance , commerce , culture , entertainment , fashion , education , and other sectors . It ranked 33rd among global cities . In 2008 , Forbes magazine ranked Miami `` America 's Cleanest City '' , for its year-round good air quality , vast green spaces , clean drinking water , clean streets , and citywide recycling programs . According to a 2009 UBS study of 73 world cities , Miami was ranked as the richest city in the United States , and the world 's fifth-richest city in terms of purchasing power . Miami is nicknamed the `` Capital of Latin America '' and is the largest city with a Cuban-American plurality .   Miami has the third tallest skyline in the U.S. with over 300 high-rises . Downtown Miami is home to the largest concentration of international banks in the United States , and many large national and international companies . The Civic Center is a major center for hospitals , research institutes , medical centers , and biotechnology industries . For more than two decades , the Port of Miami , known as the `` Cruise Capital of the World '' , has been the number one cruise passenger port in the world . It accommodates some of the world 's largest cruise ships and operations , and is the busiest port in both passenger traffic and cruise lines . Metropolitan Miami is the major tourism hub in the American South , number two in the U.S. after New York City and number 13 in the world , including the popular destination of Miami Beach ."}
{"_id": "Michael_E._Mann", "title": "Michael E. Mann", "headings": "", "text": "Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data .   As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore .   Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences .   Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate ."}
{"_id": "Michael_Gove", "title": "Michael Gove", "headings": "", "text": "Michael Andrew Gove ( -LSB- ` goʊv -RSB- born 26 August 1967 ) is a British Conservative politician , who was Secretary of State for Education from 2010-14 and Secretary of State for Justice from 2015-16 . He has been the Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Surrey Heath since 2005 . He is also an author and a columnist for The Times ."}
{"_id": "Michigan", "title": "Michigan", "headings": "", "text": "Michigan -LSB- ˈmɪʃᵻgən -RSB- is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States . The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa , meaning `` large water '' or `` large lake '' . Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States , with the 11th most extensive total area ( the largest state by total area east of the Mississippi River ) . I.e. , including water that is part of state territory . Georgia is the largest state by land area east of the Mississippi and Michigan the second-largest . Its capital is Lansing , and its largest city is Detroit .   Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas . The Lower Peninsula , to which the name Michigan was originally applied , is often noted to be shaped like a mitten . The Upper Peninsula ( often referred to as `` the U.P. '' ) is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac , a 5 mi channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan . The two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge . The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world , being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes , plus Lake Saint Clair . As a result , it is one of the leading U.S. states for recreational boating . Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds . A person in the state is never more than 6 mi from a natural water source or more than 85 mi from a Great Lakes shoreline .   What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century and becoming a part of New France . After France 's defeat in the French and Indian War in 1762 the region came under British rule , and was ceded to the newly independent United States after the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War . The area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800 , when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory . Eventually , in 1805 , the Michigan Territory was formed , which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26 , 1837 , as the 26th state . The state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination .   Though Michigan has come to develop a diverse economy , it is widely known as the center of the U.S. automotive industry , being home to the country 's three major automobile companies ( whose headquarters are all within the Detroit metropolitan area ) . While sparsely populated , the Upper Peninsula is economically important due to its status as a tourist destination as well as its abundance of natural resources , while the Lower Peninsula is a center of manufacturing , services , and high-tech industry ."}
{"_id": "Micronesia", "title": "Micronesia", "headings": "", "text": "Micronesia ( from μικρός , mikrós , `` small '' + νῆσος , nêsos , `` island '' ) is a subregion of Oceania , comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean . It has a shared cultural history with two other island regions , Polynesia to the east and Melanesia to the south .   The region has a tropical marine climate , and is part of the Oceania ecozone . There are four main archipelagos along with numerous outlying islands .   Micronesia is divided politically among several sovereign countries . One of these is the Federated States of Micronesia , which is often called `` Micronesia '' for short and is not to be confused with the overall region . The Micronesia region encompasses five sovereign , independent nations -- the Federated States of Micronesia , Palau , Kiribati , Marshall Islands , and Nauru -- as well as three U.S. territories in the northern part : Northern Mariana Islands , Guam , and Wake Island .   Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago , although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers . The earliest known contact with Europeans occurred in 1521 , when Ferdinand Magellan reached the Marianas . The coinage of the term `` Micronesia '' is usually attributed to Jules Dumont d'Urville 's usage in 1832 , however Domeny de Rienzi had used the term a year previously ."}
{"_id": "Microphone", "title": "Microphone", "headings": "", "text": "A microphone , colloquially nicknamed mic or mike ( -LSB- ˈmaɪk -RSB- ) , is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal .   Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones , hearing aids , public address systems for concert halls and public events , motion picture production , live and recorded audio engineering , sound recording , two-way radios , megaphones , radio and television broadcasting , and in computers for recording voice , speech recognition , VoIP , and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic sensors or knock sensors .   Several different types of microphone are in use , which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a sound wave to an electrical signal . The most common are the dynamic microphone , which uses a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field ; the condenser microphone , which uses the vibrating diaphragm as a capacitor plate , and the piezoelectric microphone , which uses a crystal of piezoelectric material . Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced ."}
{"_id": "Microwave", "title": "Microwave", "headings": "", "text": "Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter ; with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz . Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves ; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF ( millimeter wave ) bands . A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz ( 300 and 3 mm ) . In all cases , microwaves include the entire SHF band ( 3 to 30 GHz , or 10 to 1 cm ) at minimum . Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations : S , C , X , Ku , K , or Ka band , or by similar NATO or EU designations .   The prefix in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range . It indicates that microwaves are `` small '' , compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave technology , in that they have shorter wavelengths . The boundaries between far infrared , terahertz radiation , microwaves , and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study .   Microwaves travel by line-of-sight ; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not diffract around hills , follow the earth 's surface as ground waves , or reflect from the ionosphere , so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles ( 64 km ) . At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere , limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer . Microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology . They are used for point-to-point communication links , wireless networks , microwave radio relay networks , radar , satellite and spacecraft communication , medical diathermy and cancer treatment , remote sensing , radio astronomy , particle accelerators , spectroscopy , industrial heating , collision avoidance systems , garage door openers and keyless entry systems , and for cooking food in microwave ovens ."}
{"_id": "Microwave_Sounding_Unit_temperature_measurements", "title": "Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements", "headings": "", "text": "Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements refers to temperature measurement using the Microwave Sounding Unit instrument and is one of several methods of measuring Earth atmospheric temperature from satellites. Microwave measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979, when they were included within NOAA weather satellites, starting with TIROS-N.  By comparison, the usable balloon (radiosonde) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform. Microwave brightness measurements do not directly measure temperature.  They measure radiances in various wavelength bands, which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature. The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances. As a result, different groups that have analyzed the satellite data  have obtained different temperature trends. Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH). The satellite series is not fully homogeneous – the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation. The sensors deteriorate over time, and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit. Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites, making intercalibration difficult."}
{"_id": "Microwave_oven", "title": "Microwave oven", "headings": "", "text": "A microwave oven ( commonly referred to as a microwave ) is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum . This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating . Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer of a homogeneous , high water content food item ; food is more evenly heated throughout ( except in heterogeneous , dense objects ) than generally occurs in other cooking techniques .   Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war . Named the `` Radarange '' , it was first sold in 1946 . Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955 , but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use . The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation , and their use has spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world .   Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods . They are also useful for rapid heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items , such as hot butter , fats , and chocolate . Unlike conventional ovens , microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food , since they rarely attain the necessary temperatures to produce Maillard reactions . Exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items ( such as bacon ) , which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water . Microwave ovens have a limited role in professional cooking , because the boiling-range temperatures produced in especially hydrous foods impede flavors produced by the higher temperatures of frying , browning , or baking . However , additional heat sources can be added to microwave ovens , or into combination microwave ovens , to produce these other heating effects , and microwave heating may cut the overall time needed to prepare such dishes . Some modern microwave ovens are part of over-the-range units with built-in extractor hoods ."}
{"_id": "Mike_Hulme", "title": "Mike Hulme", "headings": "", "text": "Michael ` Mike ' Hulme ( born 23 July 1960 ) is Professor of Climate and Culture in the Department of Geography at King 's College London . He was formerly professor of Climate Change in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) ."}
{"_id": "Mike_Pence", "title": "Mike Pence", "headings": "", "text": "Michael Richard Pence ( born June 7 , 1959 ) is an American politician , lawyer , and the 48th and current Vice President of the United States . He previously served as the 50th Governor of Indiana from 2013 to 2017 .   Born and raised in Columbus , Indiana , Pence graduated from Hanover College and earned a law degree from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law before entering private practice . After losing two bids for a U.S. congressional seat in 1988 and 1990 , he became a conservative radio and television talk show host from 1994 to 1999 . Pence was elected to the United States Congress in 2000 and represented and in the United States House of Representatives from 2001 to 2013 . He served as the chairman of the House Republican Conference from 2009 to 2011 . Pence positioned himself as a principled ideologue and supporter of the Tea Party movement , noting he was `` a Christian , a conservative , and a Republican , in that order . ''   Upon becoming Governor of Indiana in January 2013 , Pence initiated the largest tax cut in Indiana 's history , pushed for more funding for education initiatives , and continued to increase the state 's budget surplus . Pence signed bills intended to restrict abortions , including one that prohibited abortions if the reason for the procedure was the fetus 's race , gender , or disability . Pence stirred several high-profile controversies , including with his signature of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act , for which he encountered fierce resistance from moderate members of his party , the business community , and LGBT advocates . He later signed an additional bill acting as an amendment intended to protect LGBT people .   On November 8 , 2016 , Pence was elected as Vice President , after he dropped out of his gubernatorial re-election campaign in July to become the vice presidential running mate for Republican presidential nominee Donald Trump , who went on to win the presidential election ."}
{"_id": "Milankovitch_cycles", "title": "Milankovitch cycles", "headings": "", "text": "Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth .   The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer .   Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important .   Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain ."}
{"_id": "Milk", "title": "Milk", "headings": "", "text": "Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals . It is the primary source of nutrition for infant mammals ( including humans who breastfeed ) before they are able to digest other types of food . Early-lactation milk contains colostrum , which carries the mother 's antibodies to its young and can reduce the risk of many diseases . It contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose .   As an agricultural product , milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy . Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011 , from 260 million dairy cows . India is the world 's largest producer of milk , and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder , yet it exports few other milk products . The ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future . The United States , India , China and Brazil are the world 's largest exporters of milk and milk products . China and Russia were the world 's largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient , contributing to a worldwide glut of milk .   Throughout the world , there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products . Over 750 million people live in dairy farming households ."}
{"_id": "Milwaukee", "title": "Milwaukee", "headings": "", "text": "Milwaukee ( -LSB- mᵻlˈwɔːki -RSB- , -LSB- localˈmwɔːki -RSB- ) is the largest city in the state of Wisconsin and the fifth-largest city in the Midwestern United States . The county seat of Milwaukee County , it is on Lake Michigan 's western shore . Ranked by estimated 2014 population , Milwaukee was the 31st largest city in the United States . The city 's estimated population in 2015 was 600,155 . Milwaukee is the main cultural and economic center of the Milwaukee metropolitan area . It is also part of the larger Milwaukee-Racine-Waukesha , WI combined statistical area , which had an estimated population of 2,026,243 in the 2010 census .   The first Europeans to pass through the area were French Catholic missionaries and fur traders . In 1818 , the French Canadian explorer Solomon Juneau settled in the area , and in 1846 Juneau 's town combined with two neighboring towns to incorporate as the city of Milwaukee . Large numbers of German immigrants helped increase the city 's population during the 1840s , with Poles and other immigrants arriving in the following decades .   Milwaukee is known for its brewing traditions . The city is experiencing its largest construction boom since the 1960s . Major new additions to the city in the past two decades include the Milwaukee Riverwalk , the Wisconsin Center , Miller Park , an expansion to the Milwaukee Art Museum , Milwaukee Repertory Theater , and Pier Wisconsin , as well as major renovations to the UW -- Milwaukee Panther Arena . The under-construction Wisconsin Entertainment and Sports Center is scheduled to open in 2018 ."}
{"_id": "Mind_Meld", "title": "Mind Meld", "headings": "", "text": "Mind Meld : Secrets Behind the Voyage of a Lifetime is a 2001 American documentary film in which actors William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy discuss the Star Trek science fiction franchise and its effects on their lives . Shatner and Nimoy portrayed the characters James T. Kirk and Spock respectively in the 1960s Star Trek television series , the 1970s animated television series , and their film sequels . They talk about differences they had with Gene Roddenberry , the creator of Star Trek , and about the strained relationships between Shatner and some of the other cast members . It was in this film that Nimoy first publicly revealed that he had struggled with alcoholism while he was acting in the original television series . Shatner talks about the death of his third wife , Nerine Kidd , who accidentally drowned in a pool in 1999 after suffering from alcoholism .   Mind Meld was produced to advertise Shatner 's personal website . Filming took place at Nimoy 's home on September 5 , 2001 , and Billy West narrated the title sequence . The film 's title refers to a fictional practice in Star Trek -- a mind meld is a telepathic link that Vulcans are able to create with other organisms . Mind Meld was released for sale on Shatner 's website on November 6 , 2001 , coinciding with the release of the director 's cut of Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Mind Meld attracted some notoriety because of an unintended sound in one scene that became a popular subject of flatulence humor among Star Trek fans and on morning zoo radio programs . Shatner denied being the source of this sound in multiple interviews ; he and Mind Meld '' 's director , Peter Jaysen , attributed it to equipment on set .   The film received mixed reviews from critics . Scott Brown of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an `` F '' , and said that the only people likely to watch the film were extreme Star Trek fans and people interested in hearing Shatner 's supposed flatulence . Laurence Lerman of Video Business praised the film for not `` rehash -LSB- ing -RSB- anecdotes that have long been staples of Star Trek conventions and behind-the-scenes memoirs '' , and instead for dealing with such topics as alcoholism , career difficulties , and conflicts on the set of Star Trek '' ."}
{"_id": "Mind–body_dualism", "title": "Mind–body dualism", "headings": "", "text": "Mind -- body dualism , or mind -- body duality , is a view in the philosophy of mind that mental phenomena are , in some respects , non-physical , or that the mind and body are distinct and separable . Thus , it encompasses a set of views about the relationship between mind and matter , and between subject and object , and is contrasted with other positions , such as physicalism and enactivism , in the mind -- body problem .   Aristotle shared Plato 's view of multiple souls and further elaborated a hierarchical arrangement , corresponding to the distinctive functions of plants , animals , and people : a nutritive soul of growth and metabolism that all three share ; a perceptive soul of pain , pleasure , and desire that only people and other animals share ; and the faculty of reason that is unique to people only . In this view , a soul is the hylomorphic form of a viable organism , wherein each level of the hierarchy formally supervenes upon the substance of the preceding level . Thus , for Aristotle , all three souls perish when the living organism dies . For Plato however , the soul was not dependent on the physical body ; he believed in metempsychosis , the migration of the soul to a new physical body .   Dualism is closely associated with the thought of René Descartes ( 1641 ) , which holds that the mind is a nonphysical -- and therefore , non-spatial -- substance . Descartes clearly identified the mind with consciousness and self-awareness and distinguished this from the brain as the seat of intelligence . Hence , he was the first to formulate the mind -- body problem in the form in which it exists today . Dualism is contrasted with various kinds of monism . Substance dualism is contrasted with all forms of materialism , but property dualism may be considered a form of emergent materialism or non-reductive physicalism in some sense ."}
{"_id": "Mineral_industry_of_Africa", "title": "Mineral industry of Africa", "headings": "", "text": "The mineral industry of Africa is the largest mineral industries in the world . Africa is the second largest continent , with 30 million km ² of land , which implies large quantities of resources . For many African countries , mineral exploration and production constitute significant parts of their economies and remain keys to economic growth . Africa is richly endowed with mineral reserves and ranks first or second in quantity of world reserves of bauxite , cobalt , industrial diamond , phosphate rock , platinum-group metals ( PGM ) , vermiculite , and zirconium . Gold mining is Africa 's main mining resource .   The Central African Mining and Exploration Company ( CAMEC ) , one of Africa 's primary mining enterprises , is criticized for its unregulated environmental impact and minimal social stewardship . In the spring of 2009 , retired British cricket player Phil Edmonds ' assets were seized by the United Kingdom 's government due to CAMEC 's illicit association with self-appointed Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe .  CAMEC recently sold 95.4 % of its shares to the Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation . It is under restructuring and is no longer trading under the CAMEC brand .   African mineral reserves rank first or second for bauxite , cobalt , diamonds , phosphate rocks , platinum-group metals ( PGM ) , vermiculite and zirconium . Many other minerals are present in quantity . The 2012 share of world production from African soil was bauxite 7 % ; aluminium 5 % ; chromite 38 % ; cobalt 60 % ; copper 9 % ; gold 20 % ; iron ore 2 % ; steel 1 % ; lead ( Pb ) 2 % ; manganese 38 % ; zinc 1 % ; cement 4 % ; natural diamond 56 % ; graphite 2 % ; phosphate rock 21 % ; coal 4 % ; mineral fuels ( including coal ) & petroleum 12 % ; uranium 18 % ."}
{"_id": "Minimum_wage", "title": "Minimum wage", "headings": "", "text": "A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers must legally pay their workers . Equivalently , it is the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor . Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions , differences of opinion exist about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage . Supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers , reduces poverty , reduces inequality , and boosts morale . In contrast , opponents of the minimum wage say it increases poverty , increases unemployment ( particularly among unskilled or inexperienced workers ) and is damaging to businesses , because excessively high minimum wages require businesses to raise the prices of their product or service to accommodate the extra expense of paying a higher wage ."}
{"_id": "Miocene", "title": "Miocene", "headings": "", "text": "The Miocene ( -LSB- pronˈmaɪəˌsiːn -RSB- ) is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about ( Ma ) . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell . Its name comes from the Greek words μείων ( meiōn , `` less '' ) and καινός ( kainos , `` new '' ) and means `` less recent '' because it has 18 % fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene . The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch .   The earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene , with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages . The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch .   The apes arose and diversified during the Miocene , becoming widespread in the Old World . By the end of this epoch , the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path . As in the Oligocene before it , grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent . In the Miocene seas , kelp forests made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth 's most productive ecosystems .  The plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern . Mammals and birds were well-established . Whales , seals , and kelp spread . The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the Himalayan orogeny had occurred during the Miocene , affecting monsoonal patterns in Asia , which were interlinked with glaciations in the northern hemisphere ."}
{"_id": "Mire", "title": "Mire", "headings": "", "text": "A mire or quagmire , sometimes called a peatland , is a wetland terrain without forest cover , dominated by living , peat-forming plants . For botanists and ecologists , the term peatland is a more general term for any terrain dominated by peat to a depth of at least 30 cm , even if it has been completely drained ( i.e. , a peatland can be dry , but a mire by definition must be wet ) .   There are two types of mire : bogs and fens . A bog is a landform that due to its location relative to the surrounding landscape obtains most of its water from rainfall ( i.e. , is ombrotrophic ) , while a fen is located on a slope , flat , or depression and gets its water from both rainfall and surface water . Also , while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor , a fen may be slightly acidic , neutral , or alkaline , and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich .   A mire is distinguished from a swamp by its lack of a forest canopy ; although some bogs may support limited tree or bush growth , mires are dominated by grass and mosses . A mire is distinguished from a marsh by its water nutrients and distribution : marshes are characterized by nutrient-rich stagnant or slow-moving waters while mire waters are located mostly below the soil surface level . A mire is also distinguished from a marsh by its plant life : marsh plants are generally submerged or floating-leaved while those in a mire are not .   Relying on rainwater for nutrient input , mires are usually deficient in both nitrogen and phosphorus and may vary widely with regard to nitrogen . These characteristics mean that mires are a kind of '' ... living relic ... -LSB- A -RSB- living skin on an ancient body '' in which successive layers of regular plant growth and decay are preserved stratigraphically with a quality of preservation unknown in other wetland environments ."}
{"_id": "Miscanthus_giganteus", "title": "Miscanthus giganteus", "headings": "", "text": "Miscanthus × giganteus , giant miscanthus , is a large , perennial grass hybrid of Miscanthus sinensis and Miscanthus sacchariflorus . This full sun plant grows 8-12 ft ( 240 -- 360 cm ) tall each year and is best suited for hardiness Zones 5 - 9 ."}
{"_id": "Mississippi", "title": "Mississippi", "headings": "", "text": "Mississippi -LSB- mɪsᵻˈsɪpi -RSB- is a state in the southern region of the United States , with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico . Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River .   The state has a population of approximately 3 million . It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States . Located in the center of the state , Jackson is the state capital and largest city , with a population of approximately 175,000 people .   The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area , between the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers . Before the American Civil War , most development in the state was along riverfronts , where slaves worked on cotton plantations . After the war , the bottomlands to the interior were cleared , mostly by freedmen . By the end of the 19th century , African Americans made up two-thirds of the Delta 's property owners , but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis .   Clearing altered the Delta 's ecology , increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi . Much land is now held by agribusinesses . A largely rural state with agricultural areas dominated by industrial farms , Mississippi is ranked low or last among the states in such measures as health , educational attainment , and median household income . The state 's catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States .   Since the 1930s and the Great Migration , Mississippi has been majority white , albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. state . From the early 19th century to the 1930s , its residents were mostly black , a population that before the American Civil War was composed largely of African slaves . Whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws . In the first half of the 20th century , nearly 400,000 rural blacks left the state for work and opportunities in northern and midwestern cities , with another wave of migration around World War II to West Coast cities . In 2010 , 37 % of Mississippians were African Americans , the highest percentage of African Americans in any U.S. state . Since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s , most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local , state and national elections . Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party . African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta , an area of historic settlement during the plantation era . Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country ."}
{"_id": "Mississippi_River–Gulf_Outlet_Canal", "title": "Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet Canal", "headings": "", "text": "The Mississippi River -- Gulf Outlet Canal ( abbreviated as MRGO or MR-GO ) is a 76 mi channel constructed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers at the direction of Congress in the mid-20th century that provided a shorter route between the Gulf of Mexico and New Orleans ' inner harbor Industrial Canal via the Intracoastal Waterway . In 2005 , although disputed by the Corps of Engineers , the MRGO channeled Hurricane Katrina 's storm surge into the heart of Greater New Orleans , contributing significantly to the subsequent multiple engineering failures experienced by the region 's hurricane protection network . In the aftermath the channel was closed . A permanent storm surge barrier was constructed in the MRGO in 2009 , and the channel has been closed to maritime shipping .   The MRGO begins just east of I-510 's crossing of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway in New Orleans East and takes a path SSE through St. Bernard Parish wetlands just west of Lake Borgne to the Gulf of Mexico near Gardner Island . Much criticized for its negative environmental effects , such as saltwater intrusion , wetlands erosion and storm surge amplification during Hurricane Katrina , the MRGO was closed in 2009 . Maritime traffic was barred on April 22 , 2009 ."}
{"_id": "Mitigation_(law)", "title": "Mitigation (law)", "headings": "", "text": "Mitigation in law is the principle that a party who has suffered loss ( from a tort or breach of contract ) has to take reasonable action to minimize the amount of the loss suffered . As stated by the Canadian Federal Court of Appeal in Redpath Industries Ltd. v.Cisco ( The ) , `` It is well established that a party who suffers damages as a result of a breach of contract has a duty to mitigate those damages , that is to say that the wrongdoer can not be called upon to pay for avoidable losses which would result in an increase in the quantum of damages payable to the injured party . '' The onus on showing a failure to mitigate damages is on the defendant .   For example , consider a tenant who signs an agreement to rent a house for a year , but moves out ( and stops paying rent ) after only one month . The landlord may be able to sue the tenant for breach of contract : however the landlord must mitigate damages by making a reasonable attempt to find a replacement tenant for the remainder of the year . The landlord may not simply let the house lie empty for eleven months and then sue the tenant for eleven months ' rent .   The actions of the defendant may also result in the mitigation of damages which would otherwise have been due to the successful plaintiff . For example , the Civil Law ( Wrongs ) Act 2002 ( ACT ) provides that mitigation of damages for the publication of defamatory matter may result from any apology made by a defendant and any correction published ( s. 139I ) .   The issue of what is reasonable is especially contentious in personal injury cases where the plaintiff refuses medical advice . This can be seen in cases such as Janiak v. Ippolito .  The antonym of mitigation is aggravation ."}
{"_id": "Models_of_communication", "title": "Models of communication", "headings": "", "text": "Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the human communication process . The first major model for communication came in 1948 by Claude Elwood Shannon and published with an introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories . Following the basic concept , communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part ( sender ) to another ( receiver ) ."}
{"_id": "Models_of_scientific_inquiry", "title": "Models of scientific inquiry", "headings": "", "text": "In the philosophy of science , models of scientific inquiry have two functions : first , to provide a descriptive account of how scientific inquiry is carried out in practice , and second , to provide an explanatory account of why scientific inquiry succeeds as well as it appears to do in arriving at genuine knowledge .  The search for scientific knowledge extends far back into antiquity . At some point in the past , at least by the time of Aristotle , philosophers recognized that a fundamental distinction should be drawn between two kinds of scientific knowledge -- roughly , knowledge that and knowledge why . It is one thing to know that each planet periodically reverses the direction of its motion with respect to the background of fixed stars ; it is quite a different matter to know why . Knowledge of the former type is descriptive ; knowledge of the latter type is explanatory . It is explanatory knowledge that provides scientific understanding of the world . ( Salmon , 1990 )  `` Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work ."}
{"_id": "Modular_multiplicative_inverse", "title": "Modular multiplicative inverse", "headings": "", "text": "In mathematics , in particular , the area of number theory , a modular multiplicative inverse of an integer is an integer such that the product is congruent to 1 with respect to the modulus . In the standard notation of modular arithmetic this congruence is written as   which is the shorthand way of writing the statement that divides ( evenly ) the quantity , or , put another way , the remainder after dividing by the integer is 1 . If does have an inverse modulo there are an infinite number of solutions of this congruence which form a congruence class with respect to this modulus . Furthermore , any integer that is congruent to ( i.e. , in 's congruence class ) will have any element of 's congruence class as a modular multiplicative inverse . Using the notation of to indicate the congruence class containing , this can be expressed by saying that the modulo multiplicative inverse of the congruence class is the congruence class such that :   where the symbol denotes the multiplication of equivalence classes modulo .  Written in this way the analogy with the usual concept of a multiplicative inverse in the set of rational or real numbers is clearly represented , replacing the numbers by congruence classes and altering the binary operation appropriately .   As with the analogous operation on the real numbers , a fundamental use of this operation is in solving , when possible , linear congruences of the form ,   Finding modular multiplicative inverses also has practical applications in the field of cryptography , i.e. public-key cryptography and the RSA Algorithm . A benefit for the computer implementation of these applications is that there exists a very fast algorithm ( the extended Euclidean algorithm ) that can be used for the calculation of modular multiplicative inverses .   In mathematical theory , assumptions about the properties of binary operators ( for example the associative property and the commutative property ) are often used as axioms in fields of study such as number theory and also two sub-disciplines of abstract algebra , group theory and ring theory ."}
{"_id": "Monsoon", "title": "Monsoon", "headings": "", "text": "Monsoon ( UK : -LSB- mɒnˈsuːn -RSB- US : -LSB- mɑːnˈsuːn -RSB- ) is traditionally defined as a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation , but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric heating of land and sea . Usually , the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern , although technically there is also a dry phase . The term is sometimes incorrectly used for locally heavy but short-term rains , although these rains meet the dictionary definition of monsoon .   The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons . The inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated .   The term was first used in English in British India ( now India , Bangladesh and Pakistan ) and neighbouring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area ."}
{"_id": "Monsoon_of_South_Asia", "title": "Monsoon of South Asia", "headings": "", "text": "The monsoon of South Asia is among several geographically distributed global monsoons . It affects the Indian subcontinent , where it is one of the oldest and most anticipated weather phenomena and an economically important pattern every year from June through September . Yet it is only partly understood and notoriously difficult to predict . Several theories have been proposed to explain the origin , process , strength , variability , distribution , and general vagaries of the monsoon , but understanding and predictability are still evolving .   The unique geographical features of the Indian subcontinent , along with associated atmospheric , oceanic , and geophysical factors , influence the behavior of the monsoon . Because of its effect on agriculture , on flora and fauna , and on the climates of nations such as Nepal , India , Bangladesh , Bhutan , Pakistan , and Sri Lanka -- among other economic , social , and environmental effects -- the monsoon is one of the most anticipated , tracked , and studied weather phenomena in the region . It has a significant effect on the overall well-being of residents and has even been dubbed the `` real finance minister of India . ''"}
{"_id": "Montclair,_New_Jersey", "title": "Montclair, New Jersey", "headings": "", "text": "Montclair ( -LSB- mɒntˈklɛər -RSB- or -LSB- mɒŋˈklɛər -RSB- ) is a township in Essex County , New Jersey , United States . As of the 2010 United States Census , the township 's population was 37,669 , reflecting a decline of 1,308 ( -3.4 % ) from the 38,977 counted in the 2000 Census , which had in turn increased by 1,248 ( +3.3 % ) from the 37,729 counted in the 1990 Census . , it was the 60th-most-populous municipality in New Jersey .   Montclair was first formed as a township on April 15 , 1868 , from portions of Bloomfield Township , so that a second railroad could be built to Montclair . After a referendum held on February 21 , 1894 , Montclair was reincorporated as a town , effective February 24 , 1894 . It derives its name from the French mont clair , meaning `` clear mountain '' or `` bright mountain . ''   In 1980 , after multiple protests filed by Montclair officials regarding the inequities built into the federal revenue sharing system , Montclair passed a referendum changing its name to the `` Township of Montclair , '' becoming the third of more than a dozen Essex County municipalities to reclassify themselves as townships to take advantage of federal revenue sharing policies that allocated townships a greater share of government aid to municipalities on a per capita basis ."}
{"_id": "Month", "title": "Month", "headings": "", "text": "A month is a unit of time , used with calendars , which is approximately as long as a natural period related to the motion of the Moon ; month and Moon are cognates . The traditional concept arose with the cycle of moon phases ; such months ( lunations ) are synodic months and last approximately 29.53 days . From excavated tally sticks , researchers have deduced that people counted days in relation to the Moon 's phases as early as the Paleolithic age . Synodic months , based on the Moon 's orbital period with respect to the Earth-Sun line , are still the basis of many calendars today , and are used to divide the year ."}
{"_id": "Montreal", "title": "Montreal", "headings": "", "text": "Montreal ( -LSB- audio = Montreal-English-pronunciation . ogaˌmʌntriːˈɒl -RSB- ) , officially Montréal ( -LSB- mɔ̃ʁeal -RSB- ) , is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada , after Toronto . Originally called Ville-Marie , or `` City of Mary , '' it is believed to be named after Mount Royal , though there is some debate about this . The city has a distinct four-season continental climate , with warm-to-hot summers and cold , snowy winters .   In 2016 , Montreal had a population of 1,704,694 . Montreal 's metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration , with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included . Legally a French-speaking city , 60.5 % of Montrealers speak French at home , 21.2 % speak English and 19.8 % speak neither . Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada , with 56 % of the population able to speak both official languages . Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris .   Historically the commercial capital of Canada , it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s . It remains an important centre of commerce , aerospace , finance , pharmaceuticals , technology , design , education , culture , tourism , gaming , film and world affairs . Being the location of the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization , Montreal is one of three North American cities home to organizations of the United Nations ( along with New York and Washington ) and also has the 2nd-highest number of consulates in the continent . Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design . In 2009 , Montreal was named North America 's leading host city for international association events , according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress and Convention Association ( ICCA ) . According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit , Montreal ranked 14th out of 140 cities .   In the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking , Quacquarelli Symonds ( QS ) ranked Montreal as the world 's best city to study abroad . Also , Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled . The Greater Montreal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America . It even ranks higher than Boston , the intellectual capital of the U.S.   Montreal has hosted multiple international conferences and events throughout its history , including the 1967 International and Universal Exposition and the 1976 Summer Olympic Games . It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics . Currently , the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One , the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival . In 2012 , Montreal was ranked as a Beta + world city ."}
{"_id": "Montreal_Protocol", "title": "Montreal Protocol", "headings": "", "text": "The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ( a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer ) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion . It was agreed on 16 September 1987 , and entered into force on 01 January 1989 , followed by a first meeting in Helsinki , May 1989 . Since then , it has undergone eight revisions , in 1990 ( London ) , 1991 ( Nairobi ) , 1992 ( Copenhagen ) , 1993 ( Bangkok ) , 1995 ( Vienna ) , 1997 ( Montreal ) , 1998 ( Australia ) , 1999 ( Beijing ) and 2016 ( Kigali , adopted , but not in force ) . As a result of the international agreement , the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering . Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070 . Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation , with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that `` perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol '' . In comparison , effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge , where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so . In this case of the ozone depletion challenge , there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established . Also , overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks .   The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties , which includes 196 states and the European Union , making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history .   These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy making process at the global scale , where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research discovery ( 1973 ) and the international agreement signed ( 1985 & 1987 ) ."}
{"_id": "Moon", "title": "Moon", "headings": "", "text": "The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth , being Earth 's only permanent natural satellite . It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System , and the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits ( its primary ) . Following Jupiter 's satellite Io , the Moon is second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known .   The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 384400 km , or 1.28 light-seconds .   The Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago , not long after Earth . There are several hypotheses for its origin ; the most widely accepted explanation is that the Moon formed from the debris left over after a giant impact between Earth and a Mars-sized body called Theia .   The Moon is in synchronous rotation with Earth , always showing the same face , with its near side marked by dark volcanic maria that fill the spaces between the bright ancient crustal highlands and the prominent impact craters . It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earth 's sky , after the Sun , as measured by illuminance on Earth 's surface . Its surface is actually dark , although compared to the night sky it appears very bright , with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt . Its prominence in the sky and its regular cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language , calendars , art , and mythology .   The Moon 's gravitational influence produces the ocean tides , body tides , and the slight lengthening of the day . The Moon 's current orbital distance is about thirty times the diameter of Earth , with its apparent size in the sky almost the same as that of the Sun , resulting in the Moon covering the Sun nearly precisely in total solar eclipse . This matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future . The Moon 's linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3.82 ± per year , but this rate is not constant .   The Soviet Union 's Luna programme was the first to reach the Moon with uncrewed spacecraft in 1959 ; the United States ' NASA Apollo program achieved the only crewed missions to date , beginning with the first crewed lunar orbiting mission by Apollo 8 in 1968 , and six crewed lunar landings between 1969 and 1972 , with the first being Apollo 11 . These missions returned over 380 kg of lunar rocks , which have been used to develop a geological understanding of the Moon 's origin , the formation of its internal structure , and its subsequent history . Since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972 , the Moon has been visited only by uncrewed spacecraft ."}
{"_id": "Morocco", "title": "Morocco", "headings": "", "text": "Morocco ( -LSB- məˈrɒkoʊ -RSB- المغرب , lit . `` The West '' ; ; Maroc ) , officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco ( المملكة المغربية , lit . `` The Western Kingdom '' ; ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ ) , is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa . Geographically , Morocco is characterized by a rugged mountainous interior , large tracts of desert , and a lengthy coastline along the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea .   Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 . Its capital is Rabat , and the largest city is Casablanca . Other major cities include Marrakesh , Tangier , Tetouan , Salé , Fes , Agadir , Meknes , Oujda , Kenitra , and Nador . A historically prominent regional power , Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours . Since the foundation of the first Moroccan state by Idris I in 789 , the country has been ruled by a series of independent dynasties , reaching its zenith under the Almoravid and Almohad dynasty , spanning parts of Iberia and Northwestern Africa . Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination , and Morocco remained the only North African country to avoid Ottoman occupation . The Alaouite dynasty , the current ruling dynasty , seized power in 1666 . In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates , with an international zone in Tangier , and regained its independence in 1956 . Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab , indigenous Berber , Sub-Saharan African , and European influences .   Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces . Morocco annexed the territory in 1975 , leading to a guerrilla war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991 . Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock .   Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament . The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers , especially over the military , foreign policy and religious affairs . Executive power is exercised by the government , while legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament , the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors . The king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law . He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister and the president of the Constitutional court .   Morocco 's predominant religion is Islam , and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight . The Moroccan dialect , referred to as Darija , and French are also widely spoken . Morocco is a member of the Arab League , the Union for the Mediterranean , and the African Union . It has the fifth largest economy of Africa ."}
{"_id": "Moscow", "title": "Moscow", "headings": "", "text": "Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia , with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area . Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city .   Moscow is a major political , economic , cultural , and scientific centre of Russia and Eastern Europe , as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent . By broader definitions Moscow is among the world 's largest cities , being the 14th largest metro area , the 18th largest agglomeration , the 15th largest urban area , and the 11th largest by population within city limits worldwide . According to Forbes 2013 , Moscow has been ranked as the ninth most expensive city in the world by Mercer and has one of the world 's largest urban economies , being ranked as an alpha global city according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , and is also one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world according to the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index . Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth . It is home to the Ostankino Tower , the tallest free standing structure in Europe ; the Federation Tower , the tallest skyscraper in Europe ; and the Moscow International Business Center . By its territorial expansion on July 1 , 2012 southwest into the Moscow Oblast , the area of the capital more than doubled , going from 1091 to , and it gained an additional population of 233,000 people .  Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia , making it the world 's most populated inland city . The city is well known for its architecture , particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basil 's Cathedral with its brightly coloured domes . With over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery , it is one of the greenest capitals and major cities in Europe and the world , having the largest forest in an urban area within its borders -- more than any other major city -- even before its expansion in 2012 .  The city has served as the capital of a progression of states , from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Russian Empire to the Soviet Union and the contemporary Russian Federation . Moscow is considered the centre of Russian culture , having served as the home of Russian artists , scientists and sports figures and because of the presence of museums , academic and political institutions and theatres .   Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia , being the site of the Moscow Kremlin , a medieval city-fortress that is today the residence for work of the President of Russia . The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city . Both chambers of the Russian parliament ( the State Duma and the Federation Council ) also sit in the city .   The city is served by a transit network , which includes four international airports , nine railway terminals , numerous trams , a monorail system and one of the deepest underground rapid transit systems in the world , the Moscow Metro , the fourth-largest in the world and largest outside of Asia in terms of passenger numbers , and the busiest in Europe . It is recognised as one of the city 's landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations .   Moscow has acquired a number of epithets , most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation : The Third Rome , The Whitestone One , The First Throne , The Forty Forties , and The Hero City . In old Russian the word '' Сорок '' ( forty ) also meant a church administrative district , which consisted of about forty churches . The demonym for a Moscow resident is '' москвич '' ( moskvich ) for male or '' москвичка '' ( moskvichka ) for female , rendered in English as Muscovite ."}
{"_id": "Mother_goddess", "title": "Mother goddess", "headings": "", "text": "For | the mountain with native name Chomolungma ( `` Goddess Mother of the World/Earth '' ) | Mount Everest -RCB- h -RCB-  A mother goddess is a goddess who represents , or is a personification of nature , motherhood , fertility , creation , destruction or who embodies the bounty of the Earth . When equated with the Earth or the natural world , such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother .   There is difference of opinion between the academic and the popular conception of the term . The popular view is mainly driven by the Goddess movement and reads that primitive societies initially were matriarchal , worshipping a sovereign , nurturing , motherly earth goddess . This was based upon the nineteenth-century ideas of unilineal evolution of Johann Jakob Bachofen . According to the academic view , however , both Bachofen and the modern Goddess theories are a projection of contemporary world views on ancient myths , rather than attempting to understand the mentalité of that time . Often this is accompanied by a desire for a lost civilization from a bygone era that would have been just , peaceful and wise . However , it is highly unlikely that such a civilization ever existed .   For a long time , feminist authors advocated that these peaceful , matriarchal agrarian societies were exterminated or subjugated by nomadic , patriarchal warrior tribes . An important contribution to this was that of archaeologist Marija Gimbutas . Her work in this field is now however largely rejected . Also with feminist archaeologists this vision is nowadays considered highly controversial .   Since the sixties of the twentieth century , especially in popular culture , the alleged worship of the mother goddess and the social position that women in prehistoric societies supposedly assumed , were linked . This made the debate a political one . According to the goddess movement , the current male-dominated society should return to the egalitarian matriarchy of earlier times . That this form of society ever existed was supposedly supported by many figurines that were found .  In academic circles , this prehistoric matriarchy is considered unlikely . Firstly , worshiping a mother goddess does not necessarily mean that women ruled society . In addition , the figurines can also portray ordinary women or goddesses , and it is unclear whether there really ever was a mother goddess ."}
{"_id": "Mount_Kenya", "title": "Mount Kenya", "headings": "", "text": "Mount Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya and the second-highest in Africa , after Kilimanjaro . The highest peaks of the mountain are Batian ( 5199 m ) , Nelion ( 5188 m ) and Point Lenana ( 4985 m ) . Mount Kenya is located in central Kenya , the heart of Kenya , about 16.5 km south of the equator , around 150 km north-northeast of the capital Nairobi . Mount Kenya is the source of the name of the Republic of Kenya .   Mount Kenya is a stratovolcano created approximately 3 million years after the opening of the East African rift .  Before glaciation , it was 7000 m high . It was covered by an ice cap for thousands of years . This has resulted in very eroded slopes and numerous valleys radiating from the centre . There are currently 11 small glaciers . The forested slopes are an important source of water for much of Kenya .   There are several vegetation bands from the base to the summit . The lower slopes are covered by different types of forest . Many alpine species are endemic to Mount Kenya , such as the giant lobelias and senecios and a local subspecies of rock hyrax . An area of 715 km2 around the centre of the mountain was designated a National Park  and listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997 . The park receives over 16,000 visitors per year ."}
{"_id": "Mount_Kilimanjaro", "title": "Mount Kilimanjaro", "headings": "", "text": "Mount Kilimanjaro ( -LSB- pronˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ -RSB- ) , with its three volcanic cones , `` Kibo '' , `` Mawenzi '' , and `` Shira '' , is a dormant volcano in Tanzania . It is the highest mountain in Africa , and rises approximately 4900 m from its base to 5895 m above sea level.The first persons proven to have reached the summit of the mountain were Hans Meyer , and Ludwig Purtscheller in 1889 . The mountain is part of the Kilimanjaro National Park and is a major climbing destination . The mountain has been the subject of many scientific studies because of its shrinking glaciers and disappearing ice fields ."}
{"_id": "Mountain_pine_beetle", "title": "Mountain pine beetle", "headings": "", "text": "The mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae , is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America from Mexico to central British Columbia . It has a hard black exoskeleton , and measures approximately 5 mm , about the size of a grain of rice .   In western North America , the current outbreak of the mountain pine beetle and its microbial associates has destroyed wide areas of lodgepole pine forest , including more than 16 million of the 55 million hectares of forest in British Columbia . The current outbreak in the Rocky Mountain National Park began in 1996 and has caused the destruction of millions of acres of ponderosa and lodgepole pine trees . According to an annual assessment by the state 's forest service , 264,000 acres of trees in Colorado were infested by the mountain pine beetle at the beginning of 2013 . This was much smaller than the 1.15 million acres that were affected in 2008 because the beetle has already killed off most of the vulnerable trees ( Ward ) .   Mountain pine beetles inhabit ponderosa , whitebark , lodgepole , Scotch , jack pine , and limber pine trees . Normally , these insects play an important role in the life of a forest , attacking old or weakened trees , and speeding development of a younger forest . However , unusually hot , dry summers and mild winters throughout the region during the last few years , along with forests filled with mature lodgepole pine , have led to an unprecedented epidemic .   It may be the largest forest insect blight ever seen in North America . Climate change , monocultural replanting , and a century of forest fire suppresion have contributed to the size and severity of the outbreak , and the outbreak itself may , with similar infestations , have significant effects on the capability of northern forests to remove greenhouse gas ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere .   Because of its impact on forestry , the transcriptome and the genome have been sequenced . This is only the second beetle genome to be sequenced as of 2013 ."}
{"_id": "Murmansk", "title": "Murmansk", "headings": "", "text": "Murmansk ( -LSB- Му́рманск , p = ˈmurmənsk -RSB- -LSB- Incubator : Wp/sjd / Мурман ланнҍ , Мурман ланнҍ -RSB- Murmánska Muurman ) is a port city and the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast , Russia , located in the extreme northwest part of Russia , on the Kola Bay , an inlet of the Barents Sea on the northern shore of the Kola Peninsula , close to Russia 's borders with Norway and Finland . The city is named for the Murman Coast ; Murman is an older Russian term for Norwegians .   Despite its extremely-northern latitude of 68 ° 58 'N ( just 2 ° north of the Arctic Circle at approximately 66 ° 33 ` N ) , Murmansk is in many ways similar to other Russian cities of its size at far-lower latitudes , with highway and railway access to the rest of Europe , and the northernmost trolleybus system on Earth . This is in stark contrast to the isolation of other major Arctic maritime cities such as Dikson , Krasnoyarsk Krai ( 73 ° 30 ` N ) in the far-north of Siberia on the shores of the Kara Sea or Iqaluit , Nunavut in Canada on Baffin Island 's Frobisher Bay off the Labrador Sea ( actually further south at 63 ° 44 ` N ) . While still having long , harsh winters , Murmansk enjoys somewhat warmer temperatures , relatively speaking , than other regions at similarly high latitudes due to the moderating effects of the Gulf Stream on the Barents Sea .   Although Murmansk 's population is in decline -- 299,148 ( 2014 est. ) ; -- it remains by far the largest city north of the Arctic Circle and is a major port on the Arctic Ocean ."}
{"_id": "Mutation", "title": "Mutation", "headings": "", "text": "In biology , a mutation is the permanent alteration of the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an organism , virus , or extrachromosomal DNA or other genetic elements .   Mutations result from errors during DNA replication or other types of damage to DNA , which then may undergo error-prone repair ( especially microhomology-mediated end joining ) , or cause an error during other forms of repair , or else may cause an error during replication ( translesion synthesis ) . Mutations may also result from insertion or deletion of segments of DNA due to mobile genetic elements . Mutations may or may not produce discernible changes in the observable characteristics ( phenotype ) of an organism . Mutations play a part in both normal and abnormal biological processes including : evolution , cancer , and the development of the immune system , including junctional diversity .   The genomes of RNA viruses are based on RNA rather than DNA . The RNA viral genome can be double stranded ( as in DNA ) or single stranded . In some of these viruses ( such as the single stranded human immunodeficiency virus ) replication occurs quickly and there are no mechanisms to check the genome for accuracy . This error-prone process often results in mutations .   Mutation can result in many different types of change in sequences . Mutations in genes can either have no effect , alter the product of a gene , or prevent the gene from functioning properly or completely . Mutations can also occur in nongenic regions . One study on genetic variations between different species of Drosophila suggests that , if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene , the result is likely to be harmful , with an estimated 70 percent of amino acid polymorphisms that have damaging effects , and the remainder being either neutral or marginally beneficial . Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on genes , organisms have mechanisms such as DNA repair to prevent or correct mutations by reverting the mutated sequence back to its original state ."}
{"_id": "Myocardial_infarction", "title": "Myocardial infarction", "headings": "", "text": "Myocardial infarction ( MI ) , commonly known as a heart attack , occurs when blood flow stops to a part of the heart causing damage to the heart muscle . The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder , arm , back , neck , or jaw . Often it is in the center or left side of the chest and lasts for more than a few minutes . The discomfort may occasionally feel like heartburn . Other symptoms may include shortness of breath , nausea , feeling faint , a cold sweat , or feeling tired . About 30 % of people have atypical symptoms . Women more often have atypical symptoms than men . Among those over 75 years old , about 5 % have had an MI with little or no history of symptoms . An MI may cause heart failure , an irregular heartbeat , cardiogenic shock , or cardiac arrest .   Most MIs occur due to coronary artery disease . Risk factors include high blood pressure , smoking , diabetes , lack of exercise , obesity , high blood cholesterol , poor diet , and excessive alcohol intake , among others . The mechanism of an MI often involves the complete blockage of a coronary artery caused by a rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque . MIs are less commonly caused by coronary artery spasms , which may be due to cocaine , significant emotional stress , and extreme cold , among others . A number of tests are useful to help with diagnosis , including electrocardiograms ( ECGs ) , blood tests , and coronary angiography . An ECG , which is a recording of the heart 's electrical activity , may confirm an ST elevation MI ( STEMI ) if a change known as ST elevation is present . Commonly used blood tests include troponin and less often creatine kinase MB .   Treatment of an MI is time critical . Aspirin is an appropriate immediate treatment for a suspected MI . Nitroglycerin or opioids may be used to help with chest pain ; however , they do not improve overall outcomes . Supplemental oxygen should be used in those with low oxygen levels or shortness of breath . In ST elevation MIs treatments which attempt to restore blood flow to the heart are typically recommended and include percutaneous coronary intervention ( PCI ) , where the arteries are pushed open and may be stented , or thrombolysis , where the blockage is removed using medications . People who have a non-ST elevation myocardial infarction ( NSTEMI ) are often managed with the blood thinner heparin , with the additional use of PCI in those at high risk . In people with blockages of multiple coronary arteries and diabetes , coronary artery bypass surgery ( CABG ) may be recommended rather than angioplasty . After an MI , lifestyle modifications , along with long term treatment with aspirin , beta blockers , and statins , are typically recommended .   Worldwide , about 15.9 million myocardial infarctions occurred in 2015 . More than 3 million people had an ST elevation MI and more than 4 million had an NSTEMI . STEMIs occur about twice as often in men as women . About one million people have an MI each year in the United States . In the developed world the risk of death in those who have had an STEMI is about 10 % . Rates of MI for a given age have decreased globally between 1990 and 2010 . In 2011 , AMI was one of the top five most expensive conditions during inpatient hospitalizations in the US , with a cost of about $ 11.5 billion for 612,000 hospital stays ."}
{"_id": "NASA", "title": "NASA", "headings": "", "text": "The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA -LSB- ˈnæsə -RSB- ) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program , as well as aeronautics and aerospace research .   President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian ( rather than military ) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science . The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29 , 1958 , disestablishing NASA 's predecessor , the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics ( NACA ) . The new agency became operational on October 1 , 1958 .   Since that time , most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA , including the Apollo Moon landing missions , the Skylab space station , and later the Space Shuttle . Currently , NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle , the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles . The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program ( LSP ) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches .   NASA science is focused on better understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System , advancing heliophysics through the efforts of the Science Mission Directorate 's Heliophysics Research Program , exploring bodies throughout the Solar System with advanced robotic spacecraft missions such as New Horizons , and researching astrophysics topics , such as the Big Bang , through the Great Observatories and associated programs . NASA shares data with various national and international organizations such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite . Since 2011 , NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency , achieving little results in return for high development costs ."}
{"_id": "NASA_Deep_Space_Network", "title": "NASA Deep Space Network", "headings": "", "text": "The NASA Deep Space Network ( DSN ) is a worldwide network of US spacecraft communication facilities , located in the United States ( California ) , Spain ( Madrid ) , and Australia ( Canberra ) , that supports NASA 's interplanetary spacecraft missions . It also performs radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system and the universe , and supports selected Earth-orbiting missions . DSN is part of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) . Similar networks are run by Europe , Russia , China , India , and Japan ."}
{"_id": "NW_Rota-1", "title": "NW Rota-1", "headings": "", "text": "NW Rota-1 is a seamount in the Mariana Islands, northwest of Rota, which was discovered through its hydrothermal activity in 2003. The volcano has been observed to be erupting underwater, the first time that submarine explosive eruptions have been directly witnessed. The summit of the seamount lies at 517 m (1,696 ft) below sea level, with a ridge capping off the seamount. It has several craters, the most active of which is located south of the summit ridge and is called \"Brimstone Pit\". Eruptions have been recorded in 2008–2010 and took the form of Strombolian eruptions with the emission of lava and large amounts of tephra. The erupted material is unstable and forms sediment flows and landslides; one large landslide occurred on 14 August 2009 and stripped part of the southern flank of NW Rota-1. Such landslides generate ash plumes underwater and are similar to large landslides at other active submarine volcanoes. The activity gives rise to intense hydrothermal plumes, which contain droplets of molten sulfur and bubbles of carbon dioxide, among other compounds. It is estimated that NW Rota-1 releases 400,000 ± 100,000 tonne/year of carbon dioxide. The hydrothermal activity nourishes microbial mats and these in turn many animals, although the unstable environment from the frequent eruptions limits animal diversity."}
{"_id": "Nancy_Pelosi", "title": "Nancy Pelosi", "headings": "", "text": "Nancy Patricia D'Alesandro Pelosi ( -LSB- pəˈloʊsi -RSB- born March 26 , 1940 ) is an American politician who currently serves as the Minority Leader of the United States House of Representatives , representing California 's 12th congressional district . She previously served as the 52nd House Speaker from 2007 to 2011 , the only woman to do so . She is also , to date , the highest-ranking female politician in American history .   A member of the Democratic Party , Pelosi represents California 's 12th congressional district , which consists of four-fifths of the city and county of San Francisco . The district was numbered as the 5th during her first three terms in the House , and as the 8th from 1993 to 2013 . She served as the House Minority Whip from 2002 to 2003 , and was House Minority Leader from 2003 to 2007 , holding the post during the 108th and 109th Congresses alongside President George W. Bush . Pelosi is the first woman , the first Californian , and first Italian-American to lead a major party in Congress . After the Democrats took control of the House in 2007 and increased their majority in 2009 , Pelosi was elected Speaker of the House for the 110th and 111th Congresses alongside Presidents Bush and Barack Obama .   On November 17 , 2010 , Pelosi was elected as the Democratic Leader by House Democrats and therefore the Minority Leader in the Republican-controlled House for the 112th Congress ."}
{"_id": "Naomi_Oreskes", "title": "Naomi Oreskes", "headings": "", "text": "Naomi Oreskes ( born November 25 , 1958 ) is an American historian of science . She became Professor of the History of Science and Affiliated Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Harvard University in 2013 , after 15 years as Professor of History and Science Studies at the University of California , San Diego . She has worked on studies of geophysics , environmental issues such as global warming , and the history of science . In 2010 , Oreskes co-authored Merchants of Doubt which identified some parallels between the climate change debate and earlier public controversies ."}
{"_id": "Narrative", "title": "Narrative", "headings": "", "text": "A narrative or story is a report of connected events , real or imaginary , presented in a sequence of written or spoken words , or still or moving images , or both . The word derives from the Latin verb narrare , `` to tell '' , which is derived from the adjective gnarus , `` knowing '' or `` skilled '' .   Narrative can be organized in a number of thematic or formal categories : non-fiction ( such as definitively including creative non-fiction , biography , journalism , transcript poetry , and historiography ) ; fictionalization of historical events ( such as anecdote , myth , legend , and historical fiction ) ; and fiction proper ( such as literature in prose and sometimes poetry , such as short stories , novels , and narrative poems and songs , and imaginary narratives as portrayed in other textual forms , games , or live or recorded performances ) .   Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity , art , and entertainment , including speech , literature , theatre , music and song , comics , journalism , film , television and video , radio , gameplay , unstructured recreation , and performance in general , as well as some painting , sculpture , drawing , photography , and other visual arts ( though several modern art movements refuse the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual ) , as long as a sequence of events is presented .   Oral storytelling is the earliest method for sharing narratives . During most people 's childhoods , narratives are used to guide them on proper behavior , cultural history , formation of a communal identity , and values , as especially studied in anthropology today among traditional indigenous peoples .   Narratives may also be nested within other narratives , such as narratives told by an unreliable narrator ( a character ) typically found in noir fiction genre . An important part of narration is the narrative mode , the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process narration ( see also `` Narrative Aesthetics '' below ) .   Along with exposition , argumentation , and description , narration , broadly defined , is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse . More narrowly defined , it is the fiction-writing mode in which the narrator communicates directly to the reader ."}
{"_id": "National_Electricity_Market", "title": "National Electricity Market", "headings": "", "text": "The National Electricity Market ( NEM ) is the Australian wholesale electricity market that covers the electrically connected states and territories of eastern and southern Australia , and the associated synchronous electricity transmission grid . The Australian Energy Market Commission develops and maintains the Australian National Electricity Rules , which have the force of law for the NEM in the participating states and territories . The Rules are enforced by the Australian Energy Regulator .   The NEM began operation on 13 December 1998 and operations currently cover the electrically connected states and territories of eastern and southern Australia of Queensland , New South Wales , Australian Capital Territory , Victoria , Tasmania and South Australia . Western Australia and the Northern Territory are not connected to the NEM . The NEM comprises five regions , with the ACT being in the NSW region . Tasmania joined the NEM in May 2005 and became fully operational on 29 April 2006 when the Basslink interconnector was fully activated . The Snowy region was abolished as a region on 1 July 2008 and the components split between New South Wales and Victoria . The Northern Territory has adopted parts of the National Electricity Law , with the Australian Energy Market Commission becoming the rule maker for the Territory for parts of the National Electricity Rules from 1 July 2016 . Western Australia is also considering adopting parts of the NER .   The NEM operates the world 's longest interconnected power systems between Port Douglas , Queensland and Port Lincoln , South Australia with an end-to-end distance of more than 5000 kilometres , and 40,000 circuit kilometres . Over A$ 11 billion of electricity is traded annually in the NEM to meet the demand of almost 19 million end-use consumers ."}
{"_id": "National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration", "title": "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration", "headings": "", "text": "The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ; pronounced -LSB- ˈnoʊ.ə -RSB- , like `` Noah '' ) is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere . NOAA warns of dangerous weather , charts seas , guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources , and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment . In addition to its civilian employees , over 11,000 as of 2015 , NOAA research and operations are supported by 379 uniformed service members who make up the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps . NOAA traces its history to the Coast Survey established by President Thomas Jefferson in 1807 . In its present form , it combined several scientific agencies in 1970 . The Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere at the Department of Commerce and the agency 's interim administrator has been Benjamin Friedman since the end of the Obama administration on January 20 , 2017 ."}
{"_id": "National_Park_Service", "title": "National Park Service", "headings": "", "text": "The National Park Service ( NPS ) is an agency of the United States federal government that manages all national parks , many national monuments , and other conservation and historical properties with various title designations . It was created on August 25 , 1916 , by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior . The NPS is charged with a dual role of preserving the ecological and historical integrity of the places entrusted to its management while also making them available and accessible for public use and enjoyment .   , the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee units , of which 59 are designated national parks ."}
{"_id": "National_security", "title": "National security", "headings": "", "text": "National Security is a concept that a government , along with its parliaments , should protect the state and its citizens against all kind of `` national '' crises through a variety of power projections , such as political power , diplomacy , economic power , military might , and so on .   The concept developed all in the United States after World War II . Initially focusing on military might , it now encompasses a broad range of facets , all of which impinge on the non-military or economic security of the nation and the values espoused by the national society . Accordingly , in order to possess national security , a nation needs to possess economic security , energy security , environmental security , etc. . Security threats involve not only conventional foes such as other nation-states but also non-state actors such as violent non-state actors , narcotic cartels , multinational corporations and non-governmental organisations ; some authorities include natural disasters and events causing severe environmental damage in this category .   Measures taken to ensure national security include :  using diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats  marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation  maintaining effective armed forces  implementing civil defense and emergency preparedness measures ( including anti-terrorism legislation )  ensuring the resilience and redundancy of critical infrastructure  using intelligence services to detect and defeat or avoid threats and espionage , and to protect classified information  using counterintelligence services or secret police to protect the nation from internal threats   There is no single universally accepted definition of national security . The variety of definitions provide an overview of the many usages of this concept . The concept still remains ambiguous , having originated from simpler definitions which initially emphasised the freedom from military threat and political coercion to later increase in sophistication and include other forms of non-military security as suited the circumstances of the time .   A typical dictionary definition , in this case from the Macmillan Dictionary ( online version ) , defines the term as `` the protection or the safety of a country 's secrets and its citizens '' emphasising the overall security of a nation and a nation state . Walter Lippmann , in 1943 , defined it in terms of war saying that `` a nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate ínterests to avoid war , and is able , if challenged , to maintain them by war '' . A later definition by Harold Lasswell , a political scientist , in 1950 , looks at national security from almost the same aspect , that of external coercion : `` The distinctive meaning of national security means freedom from foreign dictation . ''   In 1960 , Arnold Wolfers , while recognising the need to segregate the subjectivity of the conceptual idea from the objectivity , talks of threats to acquired values : `` An ambiguous symbol meaning different things to different people . National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively , the absence of fear that such values will be attacked . '' The 1996 definition propagated by the National Defence College of India accretes the elements of national power : `` National security is an appropriate and aggressive blend of political resilience and maturity , human resources , economic structure and capacity , technological competence , industrial base and availability of natural resources and finally the military might . ''   Harold Brown , U.S. Secretary of Defense from 1977 to 1981 in the Carter administration , enlarged the definition of national security by including elements such as economic and environmental security : National security then is the ability to preserve the nation 's physical integrity and territory ; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms ; to preserve its nature , institution , and governance from disruption from outside ; and to control its borders.In 1990 , Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power : `` National security ... is best described as a capacity to control those domestic and foreign conditions that the public opinion of a given community believes necessary to enjoy its own self-determination or autonomy , prosperity and wellbeing . '' According to Prabhakaran Paleri , author of National Security , Imperatives and Challenges , national security may be defined as : The measurable state of the capability of a nation to overcome the multi-dimensional threats to the apparent well-being of its people and its survival as a nation-state at any given time , by balancing all instruments of state policy through governance , that can be indexed by computation , empirically or otherwise , and is extendable to global security by variables external to it .  A concise working definition by Premaratne that paraphrases the aspects of the definitions of Brown , Romm and Paleri defines national security as  Safeguarding the sovereignty , territorial integrity , citizenry and socioeconomic functionality of a nation from an aggressor intent on undermining a particular valued aspect of a nation through violent or unjust means"}
{"_id": "Natural_disaster", "title": "Natural disaster", "headings": "", "text": "A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth ; examples include floods , hurricanes , tornadoes , volcanic eruptions , earthquakes , tsunamis , and other geologic processes . A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage , and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake , the severity of which depends on the affected population 's resilience , or ability to recover and also on the infrastructure available .   An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population . In a vulnerable area , however , such as Nepal during the 2015 earthquake , an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage , requiring years to repair ."}
{"_id": "Natural_environment", "title": "Natural environment", "headings": "", "text": "The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally , meaning in this case not artificial . The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth . This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species , climate , weather , and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity .   The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by components :  Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention , including all vegetation , microorganisms , soil , rocks , atmosphere , and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature  Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries , such as air , water , and climate , as well as energy , radiation , electric charge , and magnetism , not originating from civilized human activity   In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment . In such areas where man has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion , the natural environment is greatly modified into a simplified human environment . Even acts which seem less extreme , such as building a mud hut or a photovoltaic system in the desert , modify the natural environment into an artificial one . Though many animals build things to provide a better environment for themselves , they are not human , hence beaver dams and the works of Mound-building termites are thought of as natural .   People seldom find absolutely natural environments on Earth , and naturalness usually varies in a continuum , from 100 % natural in one extreme to 0 % natural in the other . More precisely , we can consider the different aspects or components of an environment , and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform . If , for instance , in an agricultural field , the mineralogic composition and the structure of its soil are similar to those of an undisturbed forest soil , but the structure is quite different .   Natural environment is often used as a synonym for habitat . For instance , when we say that the natural environment of giraffes is the savanna ."}
{"_id": "Natural_gas", "title": "Natural gas", "headings": "", "text": "Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane , but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes , and sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide , nitrogen , hydrogen sulfide , or helium . It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years . The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in the gas .   Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating , cooking , and electricity generation . It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals . Fossil fuel based natural gas is a non-renewable resource .   Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates . Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to and with natural gas . Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms : biogenic and thermogenic . Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes , bogs , landfills , and shallow sediments . Deeper in the earth , at greater temperature and pressure , thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material .   In petroleum production gas is often burnt as flare gas . The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of natural gas are flared or vented annually . Before natural gas can be used as a fuel , most , but not all , must be processed to remove impurities , including water , to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas . The by-products of this processing include : ethane , propane , butanes , pentanes , and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons , hydrogen sulfide ( which may be converted into pure sulfur ) , carbon dioxide , water vapor , and sometimes helium and nitrogen .   Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as `` gas '' , especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal . However , it is not to be confused with gasoline , especially in North America , where the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas .   Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE ( possibly even 1000 BCE ) . They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt , in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan . The world 's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia , New York , United States in 1825 . By 2009 , 66 000 km ³ ( or 8 % ) had been used out of the total 850 000 km ³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas . Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km ³ of gas per year , the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates . An annual increase in usage of 2 -- 3 % could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less , perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years ."}
{"_id": "Nature", "title": "Nature", "headings": "", "text": "Nature , in the broadest sense , is the natural , physical , or material world or universe . `` Nature '' can refer to the phenomena of the physical world , and also to life in general . The study of nature is a large part of science . Although humans are part of nature , human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena .   The word nature is derived from the Latin word natura , or `` essential qualities , innate disposition '' , and in ancient times , literally meant `` birth '' . Natura is a Latin translation of the Greek word physis , which originally related to the intrinsic characteristics that plants , animals , and other features of the world develop of their own accord . The concept of nature as a whole , the physical universe , is one of several expansions of the original notion ; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers , and has steadily gained currency ever since . This usage continued during the advent of modern scientific method in the last several centuries .   Within the various uses of the word today , `` nature '' often refers to geology and wildlife . Nature can refer to the general realm of living plants and animals , and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects -- the way that particular types of things exist and change of their own accord , such as the weather and geology of the Earth . It is often taken to mean the `` natural environment '' or wilderness -- wild animals , rocks , forest , and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention , or which persist despite human intervention . For example , manufactured objects and human interaction generally are not considered part of nature , unless qualified as , for example , `` human nature '' or `` the whole of nature '' . This more traditional concept of natural things which can still be found today implies a distinction between the natural and the artificial , with the artificial being understood as that which has been brought into being by a human consciousness or a human mind . Depending on the particular context , the term `` natural '' might also be distinguished from the unnatural or the supernatural ."}
{"_id": "Neanderthal", "title": "Neanderthal", "headings": "", "text": "Neanderthals , or more rarely Neandertals , ( -LSB- niˈændərˌtɑːl -RSB- , also -LSB- neɪ -RSB- - , - -LSB- ˈɑːndər -RSB- - , - -LSB- ˌtɔːl -RSB- , - -LSB- ˌθɔːl -RSB- named for the Neandertal region in Germany ) were a species or subspecies of archaic humans in the genus Homo that went extinct about 40,000 years ago . Neanderthals and modern humans share 99.7 % of their DNA and are hence closely related . ( By comparison , both modern humans and Neanderthals share 98.8 % of their DNA with their closest non-human living relatives , the chimpanzees . ) Neanderthals left bones and stone tools in Eurasia , from Western Europe to Central and Northern Asia . Fossil evidence suggests Neanderthals evolved in Europe , separate from modern humans in Africa for more than 400,000 years . They are considered either a distinct species , Homo neanderthalensis , or as a subspecies of Homo sapiens ( H. s. neanderthalensis ) .   Hundreds of lithic assemblages were created by Neanderthals in Europe and Asia . Almost all of them are of the so-called Mousterian techno-complex , which begins c. 160,000 years ago when the makers started making fewer hand axes , and instead started to make tools out of flakes .   Compared to modern humans , Neanderthals had a lower surface-to-volume ratio , with shorter legs and a bigger body , in conformance with Bergmann 's rule , as an energy-loss reduction adaptation to life in a high-latitude ( i.e. seasonally cold ) climate . Male Neanderthals had cranial capacities averaging 1600 cm3 , females 1300 cm3 , extending to 1736 cm3 in Amud 1 . This is notably larger than the 1250 to typical of modern humans . Males stood 164 to and females 152 to tall .   The Neanderthal genome project published papers in 2010 and 2014 stating that Neanderthals contributed to the DNA of modern humans , including most humans outside sub-Saharan Africa , as well as a few populations in sub-Saharan Africa , through interbreeding , likely between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago . Recent studies also show that some Neanderthals mated with ancestors of modern humans long before the `` out of Africa migration '' of present day non-Africans , as early as 100,000 years ago . In 2016 , research indicated that there were three distinct episodes of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals : the first encounter involved the ancestors of non-African modern humans , probably soon after leaving Africa ; the second , after the ancestral Melanesian group had branched off ( and subsequently had a unique episode of interbreeding with Denisovans ) ; and the third , involving the ancestors of East Asians only .   Claims that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead , and if they did , whether such burials had any symbolic meaning , are heavily contested . The debate on deliberate Neanderthal burials has been active since the 1908 discovery of the well-preserved Chapelle-aux-Saints 1 skeleton in a small hole in a cave in southwestern France . In this controversy 's most recent installment , a team of French researchers reinvestigated the Chapelle-aux-Saints cave and in January 2014 reasserted the century-old claim that the 1908 Neanderthal specimen had been deliberately buried , and this has in turn been heavily criticised .   In 2013 , scientists sequenced the entire genome of a Neanderthal for the first time . The genome was extracted from the phalanx bone of a 50,000-year-old Neanderthal found in a Siberian cave ."}
{"_id": "Negative_feedback", "title": "Negative feedback", "headings": "", "text": "Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances .   Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive .   Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering ."}
{"_id": "Neoliberalism", "title": "Neoliberalism", "headings": "", "text": "Neoliberalism ( neo-liberalism ) refers primarily to the 20th-century resurgence of 19th-century ideas associated with laissez-faire economic liberalism . These include extensive economic liberalization policies such as privatization , fiscal austerity , deregulation , free trade , and reductions in government spending in order to increase the role of the private sector in the economy and society . These market-based ideas and the policies they inspired constitute a paradigm shift away from the post-war Keynesian consensus which lasted from 1945 to 1980 .   The term has been used in English since the start of the 20th century with different meanings , but became more prevalent in its current meaning in the 1970s and 1980s by scholars in a wide variety of social sciences , as well as being used by critics . Modern advocates of free market policies avoid the term `` neoliberal '' and some scholars have described the term as meaning different things to different people , as neoliberalism `` mutated '' into geopolitically distinct hybrids as it travelled around the world . As such , neoliberalism shares many attributes with other contested concepts , including democracy .   The definition and usage of the term have changed over time . It was originally an economic philosophy that emerged among European liberal scholars in the 1930s in an attempt to trace a so-called `` third '' or `` middle '' way between the conflicting philosophies of classical liberalism and socialist planning . The impetus for this development arose from a desire to avoid repeating the economic failures of the early 1930s , which were mostly blamed by neoliberals on the economic policy of classical liberalism . In the decades that followed , the use of the term neoliberal tended to refer to theories at variance with the more laissez-faire doctrine of classical liberalism , and promoted instead a market economy under the guidance and rules of a strong state , a model which came to be known as the social market economy .   In the 1960s , usage of the term `` neoliberal '' heavily declined . When the term was reintroduced in the 1980s in connection with Augusto Pinochet 's economic reforms in Chile , the usage of the term had shifted . It had not only become a term with negative connotations employed principally by critics of market reform , but it also had shifted in meaning from a moderate form of liberalism to a more radical and laissez-faire capitalist set of ideas . Scholars now tended to associate it with the theories of economists Friedrich Hayek , Milton Friedman and James M. Buchanan , along with politicians and policy-makers such as Margaret Thatcher , Ronald Reagan and Alan Greenspan . Once the new meaning of neoliberalism was established as a common usage among Spanish-speaking scholars , it diffused into the English-language study of political economy . By 1994 , with the passage of NAFTA and the Zapatistas ' reaction to this development in Chiapas , the term entered global circulation . Scholarship on the phenomenon of neoliberalism has been growing . The impact of the global 2008 -- 2009 crisis has also given rise to new scholarship that critiques neoliberalism and seeks developmental alternatives ."}
{"_id": "Neotropical_realm", "title": "Neotropical realm", "headings": "", "text": "The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting the Earth 's land surface . Physically , it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone ."}
{"_id": "Nepal", "title": "Nepal", "headings": "", "text": "fi     Nepal ( -LSB- Nepālhelp = no -RSB- -RCB- -RCB- -LSB- neˈpal -RSB- ) , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal , is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia . Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises , 13 sub-metropolises , 246 municipal councils and 481 villages . It has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area . Bordering China in the north and India in the south , east , and west , it is the largest sovereign Himalayan state . Nepal does not border Bangladesh , which is located within only 27 km ( 17 mi ) of its southeastern tip . Neither does it border Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between . Nepal has a diverse geography , including fertile plains , subalpine forested hills , and eight of the world 's ten tallest mountains , including Mount Everest , the highest point on Earth . Kathmandu is the nation 's capital and largest city . It is a multiethnic nation with Nepali as the official language .   The territory of Nepal has a recorded history since the Neolithic age . The name `` Nepal '' is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age , the era which founded Hinduism , the predominant religion of the country . In the middle of the first millennium BCE , Gautama Buddha , the founder of Buddhism , was born in southern Nepal . Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet . The Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilisation . It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala . The Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valley 's traders . The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture . By the 18th century , the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal . The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire , under its Rana dynasty of premiers . The country was never colonised but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India . In the 20th century , Nepal ended its isolation and forged strong ties with regional powers . Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951 , but was twice suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005 . The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008 , ending the reign of the world 's last Hindu monarchy .   Modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic . It has seven states . Nepal is a developing nation , ranking 144th on the Human Development Index ( HDI ) in 2016 . The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic . It also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty . Despite these challenges , Nepal is making steady progress , with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022 . Nepal also has a vast potential to generate hydropower for export .   Nepal 's foreign relations expanded after the Anglo-Nepal Treaty of 1923 , which was recognised by the League of Nations . After a Soviet veto in 1949 , Nepal was admitted to the United Nations in 1955 . Friendship treaties were signed with the Dominion of India in 1950 and the People 's Republic of China in 1960 . Nepal hosts the permanent secretariat of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) , of which it is a founding member . Nepal is also a member of the Non Aligned Movement and the Bay of Bengal Initiative . The military of Nepal is the fifth largest in South Asia and is notable for its Gurkha history , particularly during the world wars , and has been a significant contributor to United Nations peacekeeping operations ."}
{"_id": "Neptune", "title": "Neptune", "headings": "", "text": "Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System . In the Solar System , it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter , the third-most-massive planet , and the densest giant planet . Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and is slightly more massive than its near-twin Uranus , which is 15 times the mass of Earth and slightly larger than Neptune.Neptune is denser and physically smaller than Uranus because Neptune 's greater mass gravitationally compresses the atmosphere more . Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 AU . It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has the astronomical symbol ♆ , a stylised version of the god Neptune 's trident .   Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System found by mathematical prediction rather than by empirical observation . Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet . Neptune was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Urbain Le Verrier . Its largest moon , Triton , was discovered shortly thereafter , though none of the planet 's remaining known 14 moons were located telescopically until the 20th century . The planet 's distance from Earth gives it a very small apparent size , making it challenging to study with Earth-based telescopes . Neptune was visited by Voyager 2 , when it flew by the planet on 25 August 1989 . The advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics has recently allowed for additional detailed observations from afar .   Neptune 's composition can be compared and contrasted with the Solar System 's other giant planets . Like Jupiter and Saturn , Neptune 's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium , along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen , but it contains a higher proportion of `` ices '' such as water , ammonia , and methane . However , its interior , like that of Uranus , is primarily composed of ices and rock , which is why Uranus and Neptune are normally considered `` ice giants '' to emphasise this distinction . Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet 's blue appearance .   In contrast to the hazy , relatively featureless atmosphere of Uranus , Neptune 's atmosphere has active and visible weather patterns . For example , at the time of the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989 , the planet 's southern hemisphere had a Great Dark Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter . These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System , with recorded wind speeds as high as 2100 km/h . Because of its great distance from the Sun , Neptune 's outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System , with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching 55 K. Temperatures at the planet 's centre are approximately 5400 K. Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system ( labelled `` arcs '' ) , which was first detected during the 1960s and confirmed by Voyager 2 ."}
{"_id": "Net_metering", "title": "Net metering", "headings": "", "text": "Net metering ( or net energy metering , NEM ) allows consumers who generate some or all of their own electricity to use that electricity anytime , instead of when it is generated . This is particularly important with wind and solar , which are non-dispatchable . Monthly net metering allows consumers to use solar power generated during the day at night , or wind from a windy day later in the month . Annual net metering rolls over a net kilowatt credit to the following month , allowing solar power that was generated in July to be used in December , or wind power from March in August .   Net metering policies can vary significantly by country and by state or province : if net metering is available , if and how long banked credits can be retained , and how much the credits are worth ( retail/wholesale ) . Most net metering laws involve monthly roll over of kWh credits , a small monthly connection fee , require monthly payment of deficits ( i.e. normal electric bill ) , and annual settlement of any residual credit . Unlike a feed-in tariff ( FIT ) , which requires two meters , net metering uses a single , bi-directional meter and can measure current flowing in two directions .  Net metering can be implemented solely as an accounting procedure , and requires no special metering , or even any prior arrangement or notification .   Net metering is an enabling policy designed to foster private investment in renewable energy ."}
{"_id": "Network_effect", "title": "Network effect", "headings": "", "text": "In economics and business , a network effect ( also called network externality or demand-side economies of scale ) is the effect that one user of a good or service has on the value of that product to other people . When a network effect is present , the value of a product or service is dependent on the number of others using it .   The classic example is the telephone . The more people who own telephones , the more valuable the telephone is to each owner . This creates a positive externality because a user may purchase a telephone without intending to create value for other users , but does so in any case . Online social networks work in the same way , with sites like Twitter and Facebook becoming more attractive as more users join .   The expression `` network effect '' is applied most commonly to positive network externalities as in the case of the telephone . Negative network externalities can also occur , where more users make a product less valuable , but are more commonly referred to as `` congestion '' ( as in traffic congestion or network congestion ) .   Over time , positive network effects can create a bandwagon effect as the network becomes more valuable and more people join , in a positive feedback loop ."}
{"_id": "New_Deal", "title": "New Deal", "headings": "", "text": "The New Deal was a series of programs , including , most notably , Social Security , that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938 , and a few that came later . They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term ( 1933 -- 37 ) of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt . The programs were in response to the Great Depression , and they focused on what historians refer to as the `` 3 Rs '' , Relief , Recovery , and Reform : relief for the unemployed and poor , recovery of the economy to normal levels , and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression .   The New Deal produced a political realignment , making the Democratic Party the majority ( as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of nine Presidential terms from 1933 to 1969 ) , with its base in liberal ideas , the South , traditional Democrats , big city machines , and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities . The Republicans were split , with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth , and liberals accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient . The realignment crystallized into the New Deal Coalition that dominated most presidential elections into the 1960s , while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress from 1939 to 1964 . By 1936 the term `` liberal '' typically was used for supporters of the New Deal , and `` conservative '' for its opponents . From 1934 to 1938 , Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a `` pro-spender '' majority in Congress ( drawn from two-party , competitive , non-machine , Progressive , and Left party districts ) . As noted by Alexander Hicks , `` Roosevelt , backed by rare , non-Southern Democrat majorities -- 270 non-Southern Democrat representatives and 71 non-Southern Democrat senators -- spelled Second New Deal reform . '' In the 1938 midterm elections , however , Roosevelt and his liberal supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition .   Many historians distinguish between a `` First New Deal '' ( 1933 -- 34 ) and a `` Second New Deal '' ( 1935 -- 38 ) , with the second one more liberal and more controversial . The `` First New Deal '' ( 1933 -- 34 ) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act . The Federal Emergency Relief Administration provided $ 500 million ( $ today ) for relief operations by states and cities , while the short-lived Civil Works Administration ( CWA ) gave localities money to operate make-work projects in 1933 -- 34 . The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash . The controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal .   The `` Second New Deal '' in 1935 -- 38 included the Wagner Act to protect labor organizing , the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) relief program ( which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation ) , the Social Security Act , and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers . The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm Security Administration ( FSA ) , both in 1937 , and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 , which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers . The FSA was also one of the oversight authorities of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration which administered relief efforts to Puerto Rican citizens affected by the Great Depression .   The economic downturn of 1937 -- 38 , and the bitter split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938 . Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition . By 1942 -- 43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) and blocked major liberal proposals . Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort , and won reelection in 1940 and 1944 . The Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act ( AAA ) unconstitutional , however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld . As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt , Dwight D. Eisenhower ( 1953 -- 61 ) left the New Deal largely intact , even expanding it in some areas . In the 1960s , Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs , which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained . After 1974 , however , the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support . The New Deal regulation of banking ( Glass -- Steagall Act ) was suspended in the 1990s .   Many New Deal programs remain active , with some still operating under the original names , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ( FDIC ) , the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation ( FCIC ) , the Federal Housing Administration ( FHA ) , and the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) . The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) ."}
{"_id": "New_Jersey", "title": "New Jersey", "headings": "", "text": "New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States . It is bordered on the north and east by New York , on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean , on the west by Pennsylvania , and on the southwest by Delaware . New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States . New Jersey lies entirely within the combined statistical areas of New York City and Philadelphia and is the second-wealthiest U.S. state by per capita income as of 2014 .   New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years , with historical tribes such as the Lenape along the coast . In the early 17th century , the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements . The English later seized control of the region , naming it the Province of New Jersey after the largest of the Channel Islands , Jersey , and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley , 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton . New Jersey was the site of several decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century .   In the 19th century , factories in cities such as Camden , Paterson , Newark , Trenton , and Elizabeth helped to drive the Industrial Revolution . New Jersey 's geographic location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis , between Boston and New York City to the northeast , and Philadelphia , Baltimore , and Washington , D.C. , to the southwest , fueled its rapid growth through the process of suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century . In the first decades of the 21st century , this suburbanization began reverting to consolidation of New Jersey 's culturally diverse populace toward more urban settings within the state , with towns home to commuter rail stations outpacing the population growth of more automobile-oriented suburbs since 2008 ."}
{"_id": "New_Orleans", "title": "New Orleans", "headings": "", "text": "New Orleans ( -LSB- nuː_ˈɔːrlᵻnz , _ - ˈɔːrli.ənz , _ - ɔːrˈliːnz -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈnɔːrlᵻnz -RSB- La Nouvelle-Orléans -LSB- la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃ -RSB- ) is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana . The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U.S. Census . The New Orleans metropolitan area ( New Orleans -- Metairie -- Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area ) had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States . The New Orleans -- Metairie -- Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area , a larger trading area , had a 2010 population of 1,452,502 .   It is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture , as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage . New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine , music ( particularly as the birthplace of jazz ) , and its annual celebrations and festivals , most notably Mardi Gras , dating to French colonial times . The city is often referred to as the `` most unique '' in the United States .   New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana , straddling the Mississippi River . The city and Orleans Parish ( paroisse d'Orléans ) are coterminous . The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north , St. Bernard to the east , Plaquemines to the south , and Jefferson to the south and west . Lake Pontchartrain , part of which is included in the city limits , lies to the north and Lake Borgne lies to the east .   Before Hurricane Katrina , Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana . As of 2015 , it ranks third in population , trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish , and East Baton Rouge Parish ."}
{"_id": "New_Year", "title": "New Year", "headings": "", "text": "New Year is the time at which a new calendar year begins and the calendar 's year count increments by one .   Many cultures celebrate the event in some manner and the 1st day of January is often marked as a national holiday .   In the Gregorian calendar , the most widely used calendar system today , New Year occurs on 1 January ( New Year 's Day ) . This was also the case both in the old Roman calendar ( at least after about 713 BCE ) and in the Julian calendar that succeeded it .   Other calendars have been used historically in different parts of the world ; some calendars count years numerically , while others do not .   During the Middle Ages in western Europe , while the Julian calendar was still in use , authorities moved New Year 's Day variously , depending upon locale , to one of several other days , among them : 1 March , 25 March , Easter , 1 September , and 25 December . Beginning in 1582 , the adoptions of the Gregorian calendar and changes to the Old Style and New Style dates meant the various local dates for New Year 's Day changed to using one fixed date , January 1 .   The widespread official adoption of the Gregorian calendar and marking January 1 as the beginning of a new year is almost global now . Regional or local use of other calendars continue , along with the cultural and religious practices that accompany them . In Latin America , various native cultures continue the observation of traditions according to their own calendars . Israel , China , India and other countries , continue to celebrate New Year on different dates .   The most common dates of modern New Year 's celebrations are listed below , ordered and grouped by their alignment relative to the Gregorian calendar ."}
{"_id": "New_York_City", "title": "New York City", "headings": "", "text": "The City of New York , often called New York City or simply New York , is the most populous city in the United States . With an estimated 2016 population of 8,537,673 distributed over a land area of about 302.6 sqmi , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the United States . Located at the southern tip of the state of New York , the city is the center of the New York metropolitan area , one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world . A global power city , New York City exerts a significant impact upon commerce , finance , media , art , fashion , research , technology , education , and entertainment , its fast pace defining the term New York minute . Home to the headquarters of the United Nations , New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has been described as the cultural , financial , and media capital of the world .   Situated on one of the world 's largest natural harbors , New York City consists of five boroughs , each of which is a separate county of New York State . The five boroughs -- Brooklyn , Queens , Manhattan , The Bronx , and Staten Island -- were consolidated into a single city in 1898 . The city and its metropolitan area constitute the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States , and as many as 800 languages are spoken in New York , making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world . New York City is home to more than 3.2 million residents born outside the United States , the world 's largest foreign-born population of any city . By 2016 estimates , the New York City metropolitan region remains by a significant margin the most populous in the United States , as defined by both the Metropolitan Statistical Area ( MSA ) , 20.2 million residents , and the Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) , 23.7 million residents . In 2013 , the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product ( GMP ) of nearly US$ 1.39 trillion . In 2012 , the CSA generated a GMP of over US$ 1.55 trillion . NYC 's MSA and CSA GDP are higher than the GDPs of all but 11 and 12 countries , respectively .   New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626 . The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother , the Duke of York . New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790 . It has been the country 's largest city since 1790 . The Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy . In the 21st century , New York has emerged as a global node of creativity and entrepreneurship , social tolerance , and environmental sustainability .   Many districts and landmarks in New York City have become well known , and the city received a record of nearly 60 million tourists in 2015 , hosting three of the world 's ten most visited tourist attractions in 2013 . Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world . Times Square , iconic as the world 's `` heart '' and its `` Crossroads '' , is the brightly illuminated hub of the Broadway Theater District , one of the world 's busiest pedestrian intersections , and a major center of the world 's entertainment industry . The names of many of the city 's bridges , tapered skyscrapers , and parks are known around the world . Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan , New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world , and the city is home to the world 's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization , the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ . Manhattan 's real estate market is among the most expensive in the world . Manhattan 's Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere , with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city . Providing continuous 24/7 service , the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide , with stations in operation . Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City , including Columbia University , New York University , and Rockefeller University , which have been ranked among the top 35 in the world ."}
{"_id": "New_York_Harbor_Storm-Surge_Barrier", "title": "New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier", "headings": "", "text": "The New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier is a proposed flood barrier system to protect New York-New Jersey harbor estuary shores from storm surges . The proposed system would consist of one barrier located across the mouth of Lower New York Bay between Sandy Hook ( N.J. ) and Far Rockaway ( N.Y. ) and second on the upper East River to provide a ring of protection to most of the bi-state region .   To address the problem of sea-level rise , smaller scale projects to increase seawall heights or otherwise raise vulnerable coastlines would be necessary . Thus a storm-surge barrier system combined with coastline adjustments would form a two-tiered , or bifurcated , strategy to protect the region . The barrier system could also be extended eastward , filling in the gaps between barrier islands , to protect the various communities lining the south shore of Long Island .   The proposal was developed in the wake of Hurricane Sandy by the New York/New Jersey Metropolitan Storm Surge Working Group , composed of prominent entrepreneurs , civic leaders , social scientists , oceanographers , marine ecologists , meteorologists , engineers , architects , economists , attorneys and media experts . The group is chaired by Malcolm Bowman , a professor of physical oceanography at the State University of New York at Stony Brook . Within the barrier system lies crucial infrastructure such a sthe seaports and maritime facilities ; ground level and underground transportation terminals ; three major international airports ; subway and roadway tunnels ; hospitals ; communication centers ; the industrial complex of northern New Jersey ; as well as the millions of residents at risk in New York City and coastal New Jersey north of Sandy Hook ."}
{"_id": "Newt_Gingrich", "title": "Newt Gingrich", "headings": "", "text": "Newton Leroy Gingrich ( -LSB- ˈnuːt_ˈɡɪŋgɹɪtʃ -RSB- born Newton Leroy McPherson ; June 17 , 1943 ) is an American author and politician from Georgia who served as the 50th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1995 to 1999 . He represented Georgia 's 6th congressional district as a Republican from 1979 until his resignation in 1999 . In 2012 , Gingrich was a candidate for the Republican Party presidential nomination .   A teacher of history and geography at the University of West Georgia in the 1970s , Gingrich won election to the United States House of Representatives before winning in November 1978 . He served as House Minority Whip from 1989 -- 95 , and Speaker of the House from 1995 -- 99 . A co-author and architect of the `` Contract with America '' , Gingrich was a major leader in the Republican victory in the 1994 congressional election . In 1995 , Time named him `` Man of the Year '' for `` his role in ending the four-decades-long Democratic majority in the House '' .   As House Speaker , Gingrich oversaw passage by the House of welfare reform and a capital gains tax cut in 1997 . The poor showing by Republicans in the 1998 Congressional elections , a reprimand from the House for Gingrich 's ethics violation , and pressure from Republican colleagues , resulted in Gingrich 's resignation from the speakership on November 6 , 1998 . He resigned altogether from the House on January 3 , 1999 .   Since leaving the House , Gingrich has remained active in public policy debates and worked as a political consultant . He founded and chaired several policy think tanks , including American Solutions for Winning the Future and the Center for Health Transformation . He has written or co-authored 27 books . In May 2011 , he announced his campaign for the Republican presidential nomination . On May 2 , 2012 , Gingrich ended his presidential campaign and endorsed front runner Mitt Romney , who won the nomination ."}
{"_id": "Nick_Bostrom", "title": "Nick Bostrom", "headings": "", "text": "Nick Bostrom ( -LSB- langˈbɒstrəm -RSB- Niklas Boström , -LSB- ˈbuːˌstrœm -RSB- ; born 10 March 1973 ) is a Swedish philosopher at the University of Oxford known for his work on existential risk , the anthropic principle , human enhancement ethics , superintelligence risks , the reversal test , and consequentialism . In 2011 , he founded the Oxford Martin Programme on the Impacts of Future Technology , and he is currently the founding director of the Future of Humanity Institute at Oxford University .   He is the author of over 200 publications , including Superintelligence : Paths , Dangers , Strategies ( 2014 ) , a New York Times bestseller and Anthropic Bias : Observation Selection Effects in Science and Philosophy ( 2002 ) . In 2009 and 2015 , he was included in Foreign Policys Top 100 Global Thinkers list . Bostrom 's work on superintelligence -- and his concern for its existential risk to humanity over the coming century -- has brought both Elon Musk and Bill Gates to similar thinking ."}
{"_id": "Nicola_Scafetta", "title": "Nicola Scafetta", "headings": "", "text": "Nicola Scafetta is a research scientist at the University of Napoli Federico II , and formerly at the ACRIM Lab group and an adjunct assistant professor in the physics department at Duke University . His research interests are in theoretical and applied statistics and nonlinear models of complex processes . He has published peer-reviewed papers in journals covering a wide variety of disciplines , including astronomy , biology , climatology , economics , medicine , physics and sociology ."}
{"_id": "Nitrogen", "title": "Nitrogen", "headings": "", "text": "Nitrogen is a chemical element with symbol N and atomic number 7 . It was first discovered and isolated by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772 . Although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Henry Cavendish had independently done so at about the same time , Rutherford is generally accorded the credit because his work was published first . The name nitrogen was suggested by Jean-Antoine-Claude Chaptal in 1790 , when it was found that nitrogen was present in nitric acid and nitrates ; this name derives from the Greek roots νἰτρον `` nitre '' and - γεννᾶν `` to form '' . Antoine Lavoisier suggested instead the name azote , from the Greek άζωτικός `` no life '' , as it is an asphyxiant gas ; his name is instead used in many languages , such as French , Russian , and Turkish , and appears in the English names of some nitrogen compounds such as hydrazine , azides and azo compounds .   Nitrogen is the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table , often called the pnictogens . The name comes from the Greek πνίγειν `` to choke '' , directly referencing nitrogen 's asphyxiating properties . It is a common element in the universe , estimated at about seventh in total abundance in the Milky Way and the Solar System . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the element bind to form dinitrogen , a colourless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula N2 . Dinitrogen forms about 78 % of Earth 's atmosphere , making it the most abundant uncombined element . Nitrogen occurs in all organisms , primarily in amino acids ( and thus proteins ) , in the nucleic acids ( DNA and RNA ) and in the energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate . The human body contains about 3 % nitrogen by mass , the fourth most abundant element in the body after oxygen , carbon , and hydrogen . The nitrogen cycle describes movement of the element from the air , into the biosphere and organic compounds , then back into the atmosphere .   Many industrially important compounds , such as ammonia , nitric acid , organic nitrates ( propellants and explosives ) , and cyanides , contain nitrogen . The extremely strong triple bond in elemental nitrogen ( N ≡ N ) , the second strongest bond in any diatomic molecule , dominates nitrogen chemistry . This causes difficulty for both organisms and industry in converting N2 into useful compounds , but at the same time means that burning , exploding , or decomposing nitrogen compounds to form nitrogen gas releases large amounts of often useful energy . Synthetically produced ammonia and nitrates are key industrial fertilisers , and fertiliser nitrates are key pollutants in the eutrophication of water systems .   Apart from its use in fertilisers and energy-stores , nitrogen is a constituent of organic compounds as diverse as Kevlar used in high-strength fabric and cyanoacrylate used in superglue . Nitrogen is a constituent of every major pharmacological drug class , including antibiotics . Many drugs are mimics or prodrugs of natural nitrogen-containing signal molecules : for example , the organic nitrates nitroglycerin and nitroprusside control blood pressure by metabolizing into nitric oxide . Many notable nitrogen-containing drugs , such as the natural caffeine and morphine or the synthetic amphetamines , act on receptors of animal neurotransmitters ."}
{"_id": "Nitrogen_fixation", "title": "Nitrogen fixation", "headings": "", "text": "Nitrogen fixation is a process by which nitrogen in the Earth 's atmosphere is converted into ammonia ( NH3 ) or other molecules available to living organisms . Atmospheric nitrogen or molecular dinitrogen ( N2 ) is relatively inert : it does not easily react with other chemicals to form new compounds . The fixation process frees nitrogen atoms from their triply bonded diatomic form , N ≡ N , to be used in other ways .   Nitrogen fixation is essential for all forms of life because inorganic nitrogen compounds are required for the biosynthesis of the basic building blocks of plants , animals and other life forms , e.g. , nucleotides for DNA and RNA , the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide for its role in metabolism ( transferring electrons between molecules ) , and amino acids for proteins . Therefore , as part of the nitrogen cycle , it is essential for agriculture and the manufacture of fertilizer . It is also , indirectly , relevant to the manufacture of all chemical compounds that contain nitrogen , which includes explosives , most pharmaceuticals , dyes , etc. . Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in the soil by nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter . Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria have symbiotic relationships with some plant groups , especially legumes . Looser relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants are often referred to as associative or non-symbiotic , as seen in nitrogen fixation occurring on rice roots . It also occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning .   All biological nitrogen fixation is done by way of metalloenzymes called nitrogenases . These enzymes contain iron , often with a second metal , usually molybdenum but sometimes vanadium . Microorganisms that can fix nitrogen are prokaryotes ( both bacteria and archaea , distributed throughout their respective Domains ) called diazotrophs . Some higher plants , and some animals ( termites ) , have formed associations ( symbiosis ) with diazotrophs ."}
{"_id": "Non-renewable_resource", "title": "Non-renewable resource", "headings": "", "text": "A non-renewable resource ( also called a finite resource ) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames . An example is carbon-based , organically-derived fuel . The original organic material , with the aid of heat and pressure , becomes a fuel such as oil or gas . Earth minerals and metal ores , fossil fuels ( coal , petroleum , natural gas ) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources , though individual elements are almost always conserved .   In contrast , resources such as timber ( when harvested sustainably ) and wind ( used to power energy conversion systems ) are considered renewable resources , largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans ."}
{"_id": "Nordland", "title": "Nordland", "headings": "", "text": "Nordland ( -LSB- ² nuːrlɑn -RSB- ; Nordlándda ) is a county in Norway in the Northern Norway region , bordering Troms in the north , Nord-Trøndelag in the south , Norrbotten County in Sweden to the east , Västerbotten County to the southeast , and the Atlantic Ocean ( Norwegian Sea ) to the west . The county was formerly known as Nordlandene amt . The county administration is in Bodø . The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen has been administered from Nordland since 1995 .   In the southern part is Vega , listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list . The history of Nordland is a tale about the gifts from the sea : One of the most productive seas in the world providing food all year since ancient times , the same sea creates a climate more moderate than any other place in the arctic ; even the bedrock itself enriched by sea living organisms millions of years ago in the geological past ."}
{"_id": "North_America", "title": "North America", "headings": "", "text": "North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere . It can also be considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas . It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean , to the east by the Atlantic Ocean , to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean , and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea .   North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers ( 9,540,000 square miles ) , about 16.5 % of the earth 's land area and about 4.8 % of its total surface .  North America is the third largest continent by area , following Asia and Africa , and the fourth by population after Asia , Africa , and Europe .   In 2013 , its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states , or about 7.5 % of the world 's population , if nearby islands ( most notably the Caribbean ) are included .   North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period , via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 40,000 to 17,000 years ago . The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago ( the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period ) . The Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries . The Pre-Columbian era ended with the transatlantic migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the Early Modern period . Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists , indigenous peoples , African slaves and their descendants . European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south . Because of the history of colonialism , most North Americans speak English , Spanish or French and societies and states commonly reflect Western traditions ."}
{"_id": "North_Atlantic_oscillation", "title": "North Atlantic oscillation", "headings": "", "text": "The North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) is a weather phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level ( SLP ) between the Icelandic low and the Azores high . Through fluctuations in the strength of the Icelandic low and the Azores high , it controls the strength and direction of westerly winds and location of storm tracks across the North Atlantic . It is part of the Arctic oscillation , and varies over time with no particular periodicity .   The NAO was discovered through several studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Unlike the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean , the NAO is a largely atmospheric mode . It is one of the most important manifestations of climate fluctuations in the North Atlantic and surrounding humid climates .   The North Atlantic Oscillation is closely related to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) , but should not be confused with the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) ."}
{"_id": "North_Carolina", "title": "North Carolina", "headings": "", "text": "North Carolina ( -LSB- nɔrθ_kærəˈlaɪnə -RSB- ) is a state in the southeastern region of the United States . The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south , Tennessee to the west , Virginia to the north , and the Atlantic Ocean to the east . North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U.S. states . The state is divided into 100 counties . The capital is Raleigh . The most populous municipality is Charlotte , which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City .   The state has a wide range of elevations , from sea level on the coast to 6684 ft at Mount Mitchell , the highest point in North America east of the Mississippi River . The climate of the coastal plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean . Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical climate zone . More than 300 mi from the coast , the western , mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate ."}
{"_id": "North_Pole", "title": "North Pole", "headings": "", "text": "The North Pole , also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole , is ( subject to the caveats explained below ) defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface .   The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth , lying diametrically opposite the South Pole . It defines geodetic latitude 90 ° North , as well as the direction of true north . At the North Pole all directions point south ; all lines of longitude converge there , so its longitude can be defined as any degree value . Along tight latitude circles , counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west . The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere .   While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass , the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice . This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole ( unlike the South Pole ) . However , the Soviet Union , and later Russia , constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937 , some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole . Since 2002 , the Russians have also annually established a base , Barneo , close to the Pole . This operates for a few weeks during early spring . Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage , with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later .   The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m ( 13,410 ft ) by USS Nautilus in 1958 . The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island , off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away , though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer . The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada , which is located 817 km from the Pole ."}
{"_id": "North_Report", "title": "North Report", "headings": "", "text": "The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science .   These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report .   The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results ."}
{"_id": "Northwest_Passage", "title": "Northwest Passage", "headings": "", "text": "The Northwest Passage is a sea route connecting the northern Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Arctic Ocean , along the northern coast of North America via waterways through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . The various islands of the archipelago are separated from one another and from the Canadian mainland by a series of Arctic waterways collectively known as the Northwest Passages or Northwestern Passages .   For centuries , European explorers sought a navigable passage as a possible trade route to Asia . An ice-bound northern route was discovered in 1850 by the Irish explorer Robert McClure ; however , it was through a more southerly opening in an area explored by the Scotsman John Rae in 1854 that Norwegian Roald Amundsen made the first complete passage in 1903 -- 1906 . Until 2009 , the Arctic pack ice prevented regular marine shipping throughout most of the year . Arctic sea ice decline has rendered the waterways more navigable .   The contested sovereignty claims over the waters may complicate future shipping through the region : the Canadian government considers the Northwestern Passages part of Canadian Internal Waters , but the United States and various European countries maintain they are an international strait and transit passage , allowing free and unencumbered passage . If , as has been claimed , parts of the eastern end of the Passage are barely 15 m deep , the route 's viability as a Euro-Asian shipping route is reduced . However , a Chinese shipping line is planning regular voyages of cargo ships using the passage to the eastern United States and Europe , after a successful passage by Nordic Orion of 73,500 tonnes deadweight tonnage in September 2013 . Fully loaded , Nordic Orion was too large to sail through the Panama Canal ."}
{"_id": "Norway", "title": "Norway", "headings": "", "text": "Norway ( -LSB- Norgehelp = no -RSB- ( Bokmål ) or ( Nynorsk ) ) , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a sovereign state and unitary monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula plus the island Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard . The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom . Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land . Until 1814 , the kingdom included the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Iceland . It also included Bohuslän until 1658 , Jämtland and Härjedalen until 1645 , Shetland and Orkney until 1468 , and the Hebrides and Isle of Man until 1266 .   Norway has a total area of 385252 km2 and a population of 5,258,317 ( as of January 2017 ) . The country shares a long eastern border with Sweden ( 1,619 km or 1,006 mi long ) . Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east , and the Skagerrak Strait to the south , with Denmark on the other side . Norway has an extensive coastline , facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea .   King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway . Erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013 , replacing Jens Stoltenberg . A constitutional monarchy , Norway divides state power between the Parliament , the Cabinet and the Supreme Court , as determined by the 1814 Constitution . The kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms . By the traditional count from the year 872 , the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years and the list of Norwegian monarchs includes over sixty kings and earls .   Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels : counties and municipalities . The Sámi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament and the Finnmark Act . Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States . Norway is a founding member of the United Nations , NATO , the Council of Europe , the Antarctic Treaty and the Nordic Council ; a member of the European Economic Area , the WTO and the OECD ; and is also a part of the Schengen Area .   The country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system . Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum , natural gas , minerals , lumber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . The petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) . On a per-capita basis , Norway is the world 's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East .   The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists . On the CIA 's GDP ( PPP ) per capita list ( 2015 estimate ) which includes territories and some regions , Norway ranks as number eleven . From 2001 to 2006 , and then again from 2009 to 2017 , Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world . It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking . Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report , the OECD Better Life Index , the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index ."}
{"_id": "Norwegian_Sea", "title": "Norwegian Sea", "headings": "", "text": "The Norwegian Sea ( Norskehavet ) is a marginal sea in the North Atlantic Ocean , northwest of Norway . It is located between the North Sea ( i.e. north of the United Kingdom ) and the Greenland Sea and adjoins the North Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Barents Sea to the northeast . In the southwest , it is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a submarine ridge running between Iceland and the Faroe Islands . To the North , the Jan Mayen Ridge separates it from the Greenland Sea .   Unlike many other seas , most of the bottom of the Norwegian Sea is not part of a continental shelf and therefore lies at a great depth of about two kilometres on average . Rich deposits of oil and natural gas are found under the sea bottom and are being explored commercially , in the areas with sea depths of up to about one kilometre . The coastal zones are rich in fish that visit the Norwegian Sea from the North Atlantic or from the Barents Sea ( cod ) for spawning . The warm North Atlantic Current ensures relatively stable and high water temperatures , so that unlike the Arctic seas , the Norwegian Sea is ice-free throughout the year . Recent research has concluded that the large volume of water in the Norwegian Sea with its large heat absorption capacity is more important as a source of Norway 's mild winters than the Gulf Stream and its extensions ."}
{"_id": "Nuclear_holocaust", "title": "Nuclear holocaust", "headings": "", "text": "A nuclear holocaust or nuclear apocalypse is a theoretical scenario involving widespread destruction and radioactive fallout causing the collapse of civilization , through the use of nuclear weapons . Under such a scenario , some of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear warfare in future world wars .   Besides the obvious direct destruction of cities by nuclear blasts , the potential aftermath of a nuclear war could involve firestorms , a nuclear winter , widespread radiation sickness from fallout , and/or the temporary loss of much modern technology due to electromagnetic pulses . Some scientists , such as Alan Robock , have speculated that a thermonuclear war could result in the end of modern civilization on Earth , in part due to a long-lasting nuclear winter . In one model , temperatures following a full thermonuclear war fall for several years by 7 to 8 degrees Celsius on average . The accuracy of such models are often the subject of partisan dispute .   Early Cold War-era studies suggested that billions of humans would nonetheless survive the immediate effects of nuclear blasts and radiation following a global thermonuclear war . Some scholars argue that nuclear war could indirectly contribute to human extinction via secondary effects , including environmental consequences , societal breakdown , and economic collapse . Additionally , it has been argued that even a relatively small-scale nuclear exchange between India and Pakistan involving 100 Hiroshima yield weapons , could cause a nuclear winter and kill more than a billion people .   Since 1947 , the Doomsday Clock of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists has visualized how close the world is from a nuclear war .   The threat of a nuclear holocaust plays an important role in the popular perception of nuclear weapons . It features in the security concept of mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) and is a common scenario in survivalism . Nuclear holocaust is a common feature in literature and film , especially in speculative genres such as science fiction , dystopian and post-apocalyptic fiction ."}
{"_id": "Nuclear_power", "title": "Nuclear power", "headings": "", "text": "Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions that release nuclear energy to generate heat , which most frequently is then used in steam turbines to produce electricity in a nuclear power plant . The term includes nuclear fission , nuclear decay and nuclear fusion . Presently , the nuclear fission of elements in the actinide series of the periodic table produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind , with nuclear decay processes , primarily in the form of geothermal energy , and radioisotope thermoelectric generators , in niche uses making up the rest .   Owing , fundamentally , to the delayed critical fission process , Fission-electric power stations are one of the leading low carbon power generation methods of producing electricity , and in terms of total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated , has emission values lower than `` renewable energy '' when the latter is taken as a single energy source . Since all electricity supplying technologies use cement , etc. , during construction , emissions are yet to be brought to zero . A 2014 analysis of the carbon footprint literature by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reported that the embodied total life-cycle emission intensity of fission electricity has a median value of 12 g eq/kWh which is the lowest out of all commercial baseload energy sources , and second lowest out of all commercial electricity technologies known , after wind power which is an Intermittent energy source with embodied greenhouse gas emissions , per unit of energy generated of 11 g eq/kWh . Each result is contrasted with coal and fossil gas at 820 and 490 g eq/kWh . With this translating into , from the beginning of fission-electric power station commercialization in the 1970s , having prevented the emission of about 64 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , greenhouse gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of fossil fuels in thermal power stations .   There is a social debate about nuclear power . Proponents , such as the World Nuclear Association and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy , contend that nuclear power is a safe , sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions . Opponents , such as Greenpeace International and NIRS , contend that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment .   Far-reaching fission power reactor accidents , or accidents that resulted in medium to long-lived fission product contamination of inhabited areas , have occurred in Generation I and II reactor designs , blueprinted between 1950 and 1980 . These include the Chernobyl disaster which occurred in 1986 , the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster ( 2011 ) , and the more contained Three Mile Island accident ( 1979 ) . There have also been some nuclear submarine accidents . In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated , analysis has determined that fission-electric reactors have caused fewer fatalities per unit of energy generated than the other major sources of energy generation . Energy production from coal , petroleum , natural gas and hydroelectricity has caused a greater number of fatalities per unit of energy generated due to air pollution and energy accident effects . Four years after the Fukushima-Daiichi accident , there have been no fatalities due to exposure to radiation , and no discernible increased incidence of radiation-related health effects are expected among exposed members of the public and their descendants . The Japan Times estimated 1,600 deaths were the result of evacuation , due to physical and mental stress stemming from long stays at shelters , a lack of initial care as a result of hospitals being disabled by the tsunami , and suicides .   In 2015 :  Ten new reactors were connected to the grid .  Seven reactors were permanently shut down .  441 reactors had a worldwide net capacity of 382,855 megawatts of electricity .  67 new nuclear reactors were under construction .  Most of the new activity is in China where there is an urgent need to control pollution from coal plants .   In October 2016 , Watts Bar 2 became the first new United States reactor to enter commercial operation since 1996 ."}
{"_id": "Nuclear_power_debate", "title": "Nuclear power debate", "headings": "", "text": "The nuclear power debate is a controversy about the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes . The debate about nuclear power peaked during the 1970s and 1980s , when it `` reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies '' , in some countries . Observers attribute the nuclear controversy to the impossibility of generating a shared perception between social actors over the use of this technology as well as systemic mismatches between expectations and experience .   Proponents of nuclear energy argue that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source which reduces carbon emissions and can increase energy security if its use supplants a dependence on imported fuels . Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution , in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel . Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries . They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors , and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants .   Opponents say that nuclear power poses numerous threats to people and the environment and point to studies in the literature that question if it will ever be a sustainable energy source . These threats include health risks and environmental damage from uranium mining , processing and transport , the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation or sabotage , and the unsolved problem of radioactive nuclear waste . They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong , and there have been many serious nuclear accidents . Critics do not believe that these risks can be reduced through new technology . They argue that when all the energy-intensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered , from uranium mining to nuclear decommissioning , nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source .   Three of the world 's four largest economies now generate more electricity from non-hydro renewable energy than from nuclear sources . New power generation using solar power was 33 % of the global total added in 2015 , wind power over 17 % , and 1.3 % for nuclear power , mostly due to development in China ."}
{"_id": "Nuclear_winter", "title": "Nuclear winter", "headings": "", "text": "Nuclear winter is the severe global-climatic-cooling-effect , hypothesized to occur after the ignition of a number of firestorms , from nuclear bomb detonations , or wide spread bombardments . Such fires , which can inject soot into the stratosphere , have historically occurred in a number of cities , with nuclear winter researchers using both Hamburg and the less ferocious Hiroshima firestorms as the principal examples . However , as firestorms are most frequently encountered in much larger area wildfires , these latter fires are the most significant today in assessing both the initial and present-day `` nuclear winter '' computer models ."}
{"_id": "OSTM/Jason-2", "title": "OSTM/Jason-2", "headings": "", "text": "OSTM/Jason-2, or Ocean Surface Topography Mission/Jason-2 satellite, was an international Earth observation satellite altimeter joint mission for sea surface height measurements between NASA and CNES. It was the third satellite in a series started in 1992 by the NASA/CNES TOPEX/Poseidon mission  and continued by the NASA/CNES Jason-1 mission launched in 2001."}
{"_id": "Occam's_razor", "title": "Occam's razor", "headings": "", "text": "Occam 's razor ( also Ockham 's razor ; Latin : lex parsimoniae `` law of parsimony '' ) is a problem-solving principle attributed to William of Ockham ( c. 1287 -- 1347 ) , who was an English Franciscan friar , scholastic philosopher , and theologian . His principle can be interpreted as stating Among competing hypotheses , the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected .   In science , Occam 's razor is used as a heuristic guide in the development of theoretical models , rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models . In the scientific method , Occam 's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result ; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion . For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon , there may be an extremely large , perhaps even incomprehensible , number of possible and more complex alternatives , because one can always burden failing explanations with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified ; therefore , simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable ."}
{"_id": "Ocean", "title": "Ocean", "headings": "", "text": "An ocean ( , the sea of classical antiquity ) is a body of saline water that composes much of a planet 's hydrosphere . On Earth , an ocean is one of the major conventional divisions of the World Ocean , which covers almost 71 % of its surface . These are , in descending order by area , the Pacific , Atlantic , Indian , Southern ( Antarctic ) , and Arctic Oceans . The word sea is often used interchangeably with `` ocean '' in American English but , strictly speaking , a sea is a body of saline water ( generally a division of the world ocean ) partly or fully enclosed by land .   Saline water covers approximately 72 % of the planet 's surface ( ~ 3.6 km2 ) and is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas , with the ocean covering approximately 71 % of Earth 's surface and 90 % of the Earth 's biosphere . The ocean contains 97 % of Earth 's water , and oceanographers have stated that less than 5 % of the World Ocean has been explored . The total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers ( 320 million cu mi ) with an average depth of nearly 3700 m.   As the world ocean is the principal component of Earth 's hydrosphere , it is integral to all known life , forms part of the carbon cycle , and influences climate and weather patterns . The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species , but because much of it is unexplored , the number of species that exist is much larger , possibly over two million . The origin of Earth 's oceans remains unknown ; oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life .   Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds . The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan , although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System . Early in their geologic histories , Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans . The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water , and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus . Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice . Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites ; notably , the ocean of Europa is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth . The Solar System 's giant planets are also thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions . Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons , including surface oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone . Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid ."}
{"_id": "Ocean_acidification", "title": "Ocean acidification", "headings": "", "text": "Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean .   Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level .   While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins .   Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' ."}
{"_id": "Ocean_heat_content", "title": "Ocean heat content", "headings": "", "text": "Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 ."}
{"_id": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle", "title": "Oceanic carbon cycle", "headings": "", "text": "The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) .   At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) .  Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean .  In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) .  The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink .  The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 .  The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide .  Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers .  The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere .  Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them .  The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump ."}
{"_id": "Oceanic_climate", "title": "Oceanic climate", "headings": "", "text": "An oceanic climate ( also known as marine , west coast and maritime ) is the Köppen classification of the climate typical of west coasts in higher middle latitudes of continents , and generally features cool summers ( relative to their latitude ) and cool but not cold winters , with a relatively narrow annual temperature range and few extremes of temperature , with the exception for transitional areas to continental , subarctic and highland climates . Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 C in the warmest month , and above 0 C in the coldest month .   It typically lacks a dry season , as precipitation is more evenly dispersed throughout the year . It is the predominant climate type across much of North Western Europe , the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada , portions of southwestern South America and small areas of southeast Australia , and New Zealand as well as isolated locations elsewhere . Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and cool ( but not cold ) winters . They are characterised by a narrower annual range of temperatures than are encountered in other places at a comparable latitude , and generally do not have the extremely dry summers of Mediterranean climates or the hot summers of humid subtropical . Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe , where they spread much farther inland than in other continents .   Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies . Many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them . The annual range of temperatures is smaller than typical climates at these latitudes due to the constant stable marine air masses that pass through oceanic climates , which lack both very warm and very cool fronts ."}
{"_id": "Operant_conditioning", "title": "Operant conditioning", "headings": "", "text": "Operant conditioning ( also called `` instrumental conditioning '' ) is a type of learning in which the strength of a behavior is modified by the behavior 's consequences , such as reward or punishment .   Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled by environmental stimuli , they differ in nature . In operant conditioning , stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to control that behavior . For example , a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside , or learn to avoid touching a hot stove ; the box and the stove are discriminative stimuli . However , in classical conditioning , stimuli that signal significant events produce reflexive behavior . For example , the sound of a door slam comes to signal an angry parent , causing a child to tremble .   The study of animal learning in the 20th century was dominated by the analysis of these two sorts of learning , and they are still at the core of behavior analysis ."}
{"_id": "Opinion_polling_on_the_Donald_Trump_administration", "title": "Opinion polling on the Donald Trump administration", "headings": "", "text": "Opinion polling on the Donald Trump administration has been regularly taken by universities , media outlets , and survey companies since the start of the Donald Trump presidency . Public sentiment on a number of Donald Trump 's key actions and proposals has also been tracked .   Presidential approval ratings have revealed Trump to be the least popular US president in modern history as of the first few months of the term . However , polls also reveal that he is the most popular US president in modern history among Republican voters , gathering larger approval rating than George W. Bush , George H.W. Bush and Ronald Reagan in their first months . In his first month , Donald Trump has an approval rating among Republican voters of 84 % , compared to 82 % , 82 % and 78 % in the first months of Bush Jr. , Bush Sr. and Reagan respectively in the same demographic . This is dramatically negated by his approval ratings among Democrat voters , where he has 8 % approval rating , compared to 30 % , 46 % and 39 % for Bush Jr. , Bush Sr. and Reagan respectively ."}
{"_id": "Orbital_resonance", "title": "Orbital resonance", "headings": "", "text": "In celestial mechanics , an orbital resonance occurs when orbiting bodies exert a regular , periodic gravitational influence on each other , usually because their orbital periods are related by a ratio of small integers . Most commonly this relationship is found for a pair of objects . The physics principle behind orbital resonance is similar in concept to pushing a child on a swing , where the orbit and the swing both have a natural frequency , and the other body doing the `` pushing '' will act in periodic repetition to have a cumulative effect on the motion . Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies , i.e. , their ability to alter or constrain each other 's orbits . In most cases , this results in an unstable interaction , in which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists . Under some circumstances , a resonant system can be stable and self-correcting , so that the bodies remain in resonance . Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter 's moons Ganymede , Europa and Io , and the 2:3 resonance between Pluto and Neptune . Unstable resonances with Saturn 's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn . The special case of 1:1 resonance ( between bodies with similar orbital radii ) causes large Solar System bodies to eject most other bodies sharing their orbits ; this is part of the much more extensive process of clearing the neighbourhood , an effect that is used in the current definition of a planet .   A binary resonance ratio in this article should be interpreted as the completed in the same time interval , rather than as the , which would be the inverse ratio . Thus the 2:3 ratio above means Pluto completes two orbits in the time it takes Neptune to complete three . In the case of resonance relationships between three or more bodies , either type of ratio may be used ( in such cases the smallest whole-integer ratio sequences are not necessarily reversals of each other ) and the type of ratio will be specified ."}
{"_id": "Orbital_ring", "title": "Orbital ring", "headings": "", "text": "An orbital ring is a concept for a space elevator that consists of an artificial ring placed around the Earth that rotates at an angular rate that is faster than the rotation of the Earth . It is a giant formation of astroengineering proportions .   The structure is intended to be used as a space station or as a planetary vehicle for very high speed transportation or space launch .   The original orbital ring concept is related to the space fountain and launch loop ."}
{"_id": "Ordovician", "title": "Ordovician", "headings": "", "text": "The Ordovician ( -LSB- pronɔrdəˈvɪʃən -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system , the second of six periods of the Paleozoic Era . The Ordovician spans 41.2 million years from the end of the Cambrian Period million years ago ( Mya ) to the start of the Silurian Period Mya . The Ordovician , named after the Celtic tribe of the Ordovices , was defined by Charles Lapworth in 1879 to resolve a dispute between followers of Adam Sedgwick and Roderick Murchison , who were placing the same rock beds in northern Wales into the Cambrian and Silurian periods , respectively . Lapworth recognized that the fossil fauna in the disputed strata were different from those of either the Cambrian or the Silurian periods , and placed them in a period of their own . It received international sanction in 1960 , when it was adopted as an official period of the Paleozoic Era by the International Geological Congress .   Life continued to flourish during the Ordovician as it did in the earlier Cambrian period , although the end of the period was marked by the Ordovician -- Silurian extinction event . Invertebrates , namely molluscs and arthropods , dominated the oceans . The Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event considerably increased the diversity of life . Fish , the world 's first true vertebrates , continued to evolve , and those with jaws may have first appeared late in the period . Life had yet to diversify on land . About 100 times as many meteorites struck the Earth during the Ordovician compared with today ."}
{"_id": "Oregon", "title": "Oregon", "headings": "", "text": "Oregon ( -LSB- ˈɒrᵻɡən -RSB- ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region on the West coast of the United States . The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon 's northern boundary along Washington state , while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary along Idaho . The parallel 42 ° north delineates the southern boundary with California and Nevada . It is one of only three states of the contiguous United States to have a coastline on the Pacific Ocean .   Oregon was inhabited by many indigenous tribes before Western traders , explorers , and settlers arrived . An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848 . Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14 , 1859 . Today , at 98,000 square miles ( 255,000 km ² ) , Oregon is the ninth largest and , with a population of 4 million , 27th most populous U.S. state . The state capital , Salem , is the second most populous of its cities , with 164,549 residents , while Portland , with 632,309 residents , is the most populous , ranking as the 26th most populous city in the United States . Portland 's metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation .   Oregon is one of the most geographically diverse states in the United States , marked by volcanoes , abundant bodies of water , dense evergreen and mixed forests , as well as high deserts and semi-arid shrublands . At 11249 ft , Mount Hood is the state 's highest point . Oregon 's only national park , Crater Lake National Park , comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake , the deepest lake in the United States . The state is also home to the single largest organism in the world , Armillaria ostoyae , a fungus that runs beneath 8.9 km2 of the Malheur National Forest .   Because of its diverse landscapes and waterways , Oregon 's economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture , fishing , and hydroelectric power . It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states . Technology is another one of the state 's major economic forces , which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel . Sportswear company Nike , Inc. , headquartered in Beaverton , is the state 's largest public corporation with an annual revenue of $ 30.6 billion ."}
{"_id": "Oregon_Petition", "title": "Oregon Petition", "headings": "", "text": "The Global Warming Petition Project , also known as the Oregon Petition , is a petition urging the United States government to reject the global warming Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and similar policies ."}
{"_id": "Orlando,_Florida", "title": "Orlando, Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Orlando ( -LSB- ɔrˈlændoʊ -RSB- ) is a city in the U.S. state of Florida and the county seat of Orange County . Located in Central Florida , it is the center of the Orlando metropolitan area , which had a population of 2,387,138 , according to U.S. Census Bureau figures released in March 2016 , making it the 24th-largest metropolitan area in the United States , the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the Southern United States , and the third-largest metropolitan area in Florida . As of 2015 , Orlando had an estimated city-proper population of 2,270,934 , making it the 73rd-largest city in the United States , the fourth-largest city in Florida , and the state 's largest inland city .   The City of Orlando is nicknamed `` The City Beautiful , '' and its symbol is the fountain at Lake Eola . Orlando is also known as `` The Theme Park Capital of the World '' and in 2014 its tourist attractions and events drew more than 62 million visitors . The Orlando International Airport ( MCO ) is the thirteenth-busiest airport in the United States and the 29th-busiest in the world . Buddy Dyer is Orlando 's mayor .   As one of the world 's most visited tourist destinations , Orlando 's famous attractions form the backbone of its tourism industry : Walt Disney World , located approximately 21 mi southwest of Downtown Orlando in Bay Lake , opened by the Walt Disney Company in 1971 ; the Universal Orlando Resort , opened in 1999 as a major expansion of Universal Studios Florida . With the exception of Walt Disney World , most major attractions are located along International Drive . The city is also one of the busiest American cities for conferences and conventions ; the Orange County Convention Center is the second-largest convention facility in the United States .   Like other major cities in the Sun Belt , Orlando grew rapidly during the 1980s and into the first decade of the 21st century , mostly due to the success of Walt Disney World , which was opened on October 1 , 1971 . Orlando is home to the University of Central Florida , which is the largest university campus in the United States in terms of enrollment . In 2010 , Orlando was listed as a `` Gamma − '' level of world-city in the World Cities Study Group 's inventory . Orlando ranks as the fourth-most popular American city based on where people want to live according to a 2009 Pew Research Center study ."}
{"_id": "Overdeepening", "title": "Overdeepening", "headings": "", "text": "Overdeepening is a characteristic of basins and valleys eroded by glaciers . An overdeepened valley profile is often eroded to depths which are hundreds of metres below the deepest continuous line ( the thalweg ) along a valley or watercourse . This phenomenon is observed under modern day glaciers , in salt-water fjords and fresh-water lakes remaining after glaciers melt , as well as in tunnel valleys which are partially or totally filled with sediment . When the channel produced by a glacier is filled with debris , the subsurface geomorphic structure is found to be erosionally cut into bedrock and subsequently filled by sediments . These overdeepened cuts into bedrock structures can reach a depth of several hundred metres below the valley floor .   Overdeepened fjords and lakes have significant economic value as harbours and fisheries . Overdeepened basins and valleys filled with sediment ( termed tunnel valleys ) are of particular interest to engineers , petroleum geologists , and hydrologists ; engineers apply the information for developing foundations and tunnel construction , petroleum geologists use tunnel valley locations to identify potential oil fields , while hydrologists apply this knowledge for groundwater resource management ."}
{"_id": "Ovid", "title": "Ovid", "headings": "", "text": "Publius Ovidius Naso ( -LSB- ˈpʊ.blɪ.ʊs ɔˈwɪ.dɪ.ʊs ˈnaː.soː -RSB- ; 20 March 43 BC -- AD 17/18 ) , known as Ovid ( -LSB- ˈɒvɪd -RSB- ) in the English-speaking world , was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus . He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace , with whom he is often ranked as one of the three canonical poets of Latin literature . The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin love elegists . He enjoyed enormous popularity , but , in one of the mysteries of literary history , was sent by Augustus into exile in a remote province on the Black Sea , where he remained until his death . Ovid himself attributes his exile to carmen et error , `` a poem and a mistake '' , but his discretion in discussing the causes has resulted in much speculation among scholars .   The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus , Ovid is today best known for the Metamorphoses , a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic , and for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ( `` The Art of Love '' ) and Fasti . His poetry was much imitated during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages , and greatly influenced Western art and literature . The Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology ."}
{"_id": "Oxford", "title": "Oxford", "headings": "", "text": "Oxford ( -LSB- ˈɒksfərd -RSB- ) is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire . With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270 , it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom , and one of the fastest growing and most ethnically diverse . The city is situated 57 mi from London , 69 mi from Bristol , 65 mi from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 mi from Reading .   The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford , the oldest university in the English-speaking world . Buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period . Oxford is known as the `` city of dreaming spires '' , a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold . Oxford has a broad economic base . Its industries include motor manufacturing , education , publishing and a large number of information technology and science-based businesses , some being academic offshoots ."}
{"_id": "Oxygen", "title": "Oxygen", "headings": "", "text": "Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8 . It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as other compounds . By mass , oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe , after hydrogen and helium . At standard temperature and pressure , two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen , a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula . This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.8 % of the Earth 's atmosphere . Additionally , as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earth 's crust .   Dioxygen is used in cellular respiration and many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen , such as proteins , nucleic acids , carbohydrates , and fats , as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells , teeth , and bone . Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water , the major constituent of lifeforms . Conversely , oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis , which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide . Oxygen is too chemically reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms . Another form ( allotrope ) of oxygen , ozone , strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation and the high-altitude ozone layer helps protect the biosphere from ultraviolet radiation . But ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog . At low earth orbit altitudes , sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft .   Oxygen was discovered independently by Carl Wilhelm Scheele , in Uppsala , in 1773 or earlier , and Joseph Priestley in Wiltshire , in 1774 , but Priestley is often given priority because his work was published first . The name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier , whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion . Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς oxys , `` acid '' , literally `` sharp '' , referring to the sour taste of acids and - γενής - genes , `` producer '' , literally `` begetter '' , because at the time of naming , it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition .   Common use of oxygen includes residential heating , internal combustion engines , production of steel , plastics and textiles , brazing , welding and cutting of steels and other metals , rocket propellant , oxygen therapy , and life support systems in aircraft , submarines , spaceflight and diving ."}
{"_id": "Ozone", "title": "Ozone", "headings": "", "text": "Ozone -LSB- ˈoʊzoʊn -RSB- ( systematically named 1λ1 ,3 λ1-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen ) , or trioxygen , is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell . It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to or dioxygen . Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges , and is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth 's atmosphere ( stratosphere ) . In total , ozone makes up only of the atmosphere .   Ozone 's odour is sharp , reminiscent of chlorine , and detectable by many people at concentrations of as little as in air . Ozone 's O3 structure was determined in 1865 . The molecule was later proven to have a bent structure and to be diamagnetic . In standard conditions , ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at progressively cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black solid . Ozone 's instability with regard to more common dioxygen is such that both concentrated gas and liquid ozone may decompose explosively at elevated temperatures or fast warming to the boiling point .  It is therefore used commercially only in low concentrations .   Ozone is a powerful oxidant ( far more so than dioxygen ) and has many industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation . This same high oxidising potential , however , causes ozone to damage mucous and respiratory tissues in animals , and also tissues in plants , above concentrations of about . This makes ozone a potent respiratory hazard and pollutant near ground level . However , the ozone layer ( a portion of the stratosphere with a higher concentration of ozone , from two to eight ppm ) is beneficial , preventing damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth 's surface , to the benefit of both plants and animals ."}
{"_id": "Ozone_depletion", "title": "Ozone depletion", "headings": "", "text": "Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s : a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere ( the ozone layer ) , and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions . The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole . In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena , there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events .   The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens . The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants , solvents , propellants , and foam-blowing agents ( chlorofluorocarbon ( CFCs ) , HCFCs , freons , halons ) . These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface . Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased .   CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) . Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths ( 280 -- 315 nm ) of ultraviolet light ( UV light ) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern , leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs , halons , and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn , skin cancer , cataracts , damage to plants , and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion ."}
{"_id": "Ozone_layer", "title": "Ozone layer", "headings": "", "text": "The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth 's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun 's ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation . It contains high concentrations of ozone ( O3 ) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere , although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere . The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone , while the average ozone concentration in Earth 's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million . The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere , from approximately 20 to above Earth , although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically .   The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson . Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500 -- 6,000 K ( 5,227 to 5,727 ° C ) , except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum . It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere . Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical , ozone . Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson , who developed a simple spectrophotometer ( the Dobsonmeter ) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground . Between 1928 and 1958 , Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations , which continue to operate to this day . The `` Dobson unit '' , a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead , is named in his honor .   The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun 's medium-frequency ultraviolet light ( from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength ) , which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface .   The United Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer .   Venus also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers from the planet 's surface ."}
{"_id": "PH", "title": "PH", "headings": "", "text": "In chemistry , pH ( -LSB- piːˈeɪtʃ -RSB- ) ( potential of hydrogen ) is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution . It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration , measured in units of moles per liter , of hydrogen ions . More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic . Pure water is neutral , at pH 7 , being neither an acid nor a base . Contrary to popular belief , the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively .   pH measurements are important in agronomy , medicine , biology , chemistry , agriculture , forestry , food science , environmental science , oceanography , civil engineering , chemical engineering , nutrition , water treatment and water purification , as well as many other applications .   The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement .  Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference , by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode .  The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter , or an indicator ."}
{"_id": "Pacific_Ocean", "title": "Pacific Ocean", "headings": "", "text": "The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earth 's oceanic divisions . It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean ( or , depending on definition , to Antarctica ) in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east .   At 63,800,000 sqmi in area , this largest division of the World Ocean -- and , in turn , the hydrosphere -- covers about 46 % of the Earth 's water surface and about one-third of its total surface area , making it larger than all of the Earth 's land area combined .   The equator subdivides it into the North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean , with two exceptions : the Galápagos and Gilbert Islands , while straddling the equator , are deemed wholly within the South Pacific . The Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world , reaching a depth of 35797 ft.   Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean .   Though the peoples of Asia and Oceania have traveled the Pacific Ocean since prehistoric times , the eastern Pacific was first sighted by Europeans in the early 16th century when Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and discovered the great `` southern sea '' which he named Mar del Sur ( in Spanish ) . The ocean 's current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521 , as he encountered favorable winds on reaching the ocean . He called it Mar Pacífico , which in both Portuguese and Spanish means `` peaceful sea '' ."}
{"_id": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation", "title": "Pacific decadal oscillation", "headings": "", "text": "The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California .   During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 .   The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area ."}
{"_id": "Pago_Pago", "title": "Pago Pago", "headings": "", "text": "Pago Pago ( -LSB- ˈpɑːŋɡoʊˈpɑːŋɡoʊ -RSB- Samoan : -LSB- ˈpaŋo ˈpaŋo -RSB- ) is the territorial capital of American Samoa . It is on the main island of American Samoa , Tutuila . The territory is served by Pago Pago International Airport at Tafuna , some 8 miles south west of Pago Pago . Tourism , entertainment , food , and tuna canning are its main industries .   The area commonly referred to as Pago Pago consists of a string of villages , each with its own village council , on the shores of Pago Pago Harbor . One of the villages is itself named Pago Pago , and in 2010 had a population of 3,656 . Pago Pago may refer to the village , to the bay area or to American Samoa as a whole . The constituent villages are , in order , Utulei , Fagatogo , Malaloa , Pago Pago , Satala and Atu'u . Fagatogo is the area referred to as Town and was the seat of government until a new Executive Office Building was opened in Utulei . In Fagatoto is the Fono ( Legislature ) , the Police Department , the Port of Pago Pago , many shops and hotels ."}
{"_id": "Pale_Blue_Dot", "title": "Pale Blue Dot", "headings": "", "text": "Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of planet Earth taken on February 14 , 1990 , by the Voyager 1 space probe from a record distance of about kilometers ( miles , 40.5 AU ) , as part of the Family Portrait series of images of the Solar System .   In the photograph , Earth 's apparent size is less than a pixel ; the planet appears as a tiny dot against the vastness of space , among bands of sunlight scattered by the camera 's optics .   Voyager 1 , which had completed its primary mission and was leaving the Solar System , was commanded by NASA to turn its camera around and take one last photograph of Earth across a great expanse of space , at the request of astronomer and author Carl Sagan ."}
{"_id": "Paleocene", "title": "Paleocene", "headings": "", "text": "The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain .   The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling .   The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch ."}
{"_id": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "title": "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum", "headings": "", "text": "The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago .   The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free .   The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon .   Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval .   At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing ."}
{"_id": "Paleoclimatology", "title": "Paleoclimatology", "headings": "", "text": "Paleoclimatology ( in British spelling , palaeoclimatology ) is the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth . It uses a variety of proxy methods from the Earth and life sciences to obtain data previously preserved within things such as rocks , sediments , ice sheets , tree rings , corals , shells and microfossils . It then uses the records to determine the past states of the Earth 's various climate regions and its atmospheric system . Studies of past changes in the environment and biodiversity often reflect on the current situation , specifically the impact of climate on mass extinctions and biotic recovery ."}
{"_id": "Paleolithic", "title": "Paleolithic", "headings": "", "text": "The Paleolithic -LSB- ˌpæliːəˈlɪθᵻk -RSB- age is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools and covers roughly 95 % of human technological prehistory . It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools , probably by Homo habilis initially , 2.6 million years ago , to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BP .   The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic . The date of the Paleolithic -- Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years .   During the Paleolithic period , humans grouped together in small societies such as bands , and subsisted by gathering plants and fishing , hunting or scavenging wild animals . The Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools , although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools . Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools , including leather and vegetable fibers ; however , due to their nature , these have not been preserved to any great degree . Surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as paleoliths .   About 50,000 years ago , there was a marked increase in the diversity of artifacts . For the first time in Africa , bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record . The first evidence of human fishing is also noted , from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa . Firstly among the artifacts of Africa , archaeologists found they could differentiate and classify those of less than 50,000 years into many different categories , such as projectile points , engraving tools , knife blades , and drilling and piercing tools . The new technology generated a population explosion of modern humans which is believed to have led to the extinction of the Neanderthals .   Humankind gradually evolved from early members of the genus Homo -- such as Homo habilis , who used simple stone tools -- into fully behaviorally and anatomically modern humans ( Homo sapiens sapiens ) during the Paleolithic era . During the end of the Paleolithic , specifically the Middle and or Upper Paleolithic , humans began to produce the earliest works of art and engage in religious and spiritual behavior such as burial and ritual . The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures . Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic humans survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover .   By BP , the first humans set foot in Australia . By BP , humans lived at 61 ° N latitude in Europe . By BP , Japan was reached , and by BP humans were present in Siberia , above the Arctic Circle . At the end of the Upper Paleolithic , a group of humans crossed Beringia and quickly expanded throughout the Americas .   The term `` Paleolithic '' was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865 . It derives from Greek : παλαιός , palaios , `` old '' ; and λίθος , lithos , `` stone '' , meaning `` old age of the stone '' or `` Old Stone Age '' ."}
{"_id": "Paleontology", "title": "Paleontology", "headings": "", "text": "Paleontology or palaeontology ( -LSB- pronˌpeɪliɒnˈtɒlədʒi -RSB- , -LSB- ˌpeɪliənˈtɒlədʒi -RSB- or -LSB- ˌpæliɒnˈtɒlədʒi -RSB- , -LSB- ˌpæliənˈtɒlədʒi -RSB- ) is the scientific study of life that existed prior to , and sometimes including , the start of the Holocene Epoch ( roughly 11,700 years before present ) . It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms ' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments ( their paleoecology ) . Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC . The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier 's work on comparative anatomy , and developed rapidly in the 19th century . The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός , palaios , i.e. `` old , ancient '' , ὄν , on ( gen. ontos ) , i.e. `` being , creature '' and λόγος , logos , i.e. `` speech , thought , study '' .   Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology , but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern humans . It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences , including biochemistry , mathematics , and engineering . Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life , almost all the way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life , about . As knowledge has increased , paleontology has developed specialised sub-divisions , some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecology and environmental history , such as ancient climates .   Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life , and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils . Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult : sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating , which provides absolute dates that are accurate to within 0.5 % , but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the `` jigsaw puzzles '' of biostratigraphy . Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult , as many do not fit well into the Linnaean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms , and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary `` family trees '' . The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics , which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes . Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged , but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend ."}
{"_id": "Paleotempestology", "title": "Paleotempestology", "headings": "", "text": "Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records . The term was coined by Kerry Emanuel ."}
{"_id": "Paleothermometer", "title": "Paleothermometer", "headings": "", "text": "A paleothermometer is a methodology for determining past temperatures using a proxy found in a natural record such as a sediment , ice core , tree rings or TEX86 ."}
{"_id": "Palm_Beach_County,_Florida", "title": "Palm Beach County, Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Palm Beach County is a county located in the state of Florida , directly north of Broward County . As of the 2010 census , the population was 1,320,134 , making it the third-most populous county in Florida . The largest city and county seat is West Palm Beach . Named after one of its oldest settlements , Palm Beach , the county was established in 1909 , after being split from Dade County . The county 's modern-day boundaries were established in 1963 . Palm Beach County is one of the three counties in South Florida which make up the Miami metropolitan area , which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people at the 2015 census .   The area had been increasing in population since the late 19th century , with the incorporation of West Palm Beach in 1894 and after Henry Flagler extended the Florida East Coast Railway and built the Royal Poinciana Hotel , The Breakers , and Whitehall . In 1928 , the Okeechobee hurricane struck West Palm Beach and caused thousands of deaths . Since then , a number of other tropical cyclones have impacted the area . More recently , the county acquired national attention during the 2000 presidential election , when a controversial recount occurred .   As of 2004 , Palm Beach County is Florida 's wealthiest county , with a per capita personal income of $ 44,518 . It leads the state in agricultural productivity , agriculture is Palm Beach County 's 2nd largest industry ."}
{"_id": "Palm_oil", "title": "Palm oil", "headings": "", "text": "Palm oil ( also known as dendê oil , from Portuguese -LSB- ˈdɛnde -RSB- ) is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp ( reddish pulp ) of the fruit of the oil palms , primarily the African oil palm Elaeis guineensis , and to a lesser extent from the American oil palm Elaeis oleifera and the maripa palm Attalea maripa .   Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content . It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit , or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera ) . The differences are in color ( raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and is not red ) , and in saturated fat content : palm mesocarp oil is 49 % saturated , while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81 % and 86 % saturated fats , respectively . However , crude red palm oil that has been refined , bleached and deodorized , a common commodity called RBD palm oil , does not contain carotenoids .   Along with coconut oil , palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature . Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa , Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil . Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost and the high oxidative stability ( saturation ) of the refined product when used for frying . One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 lb of palm oil per person in 2015 .   The use of palm oil in food products has attracted the concern of environmental activist groups ; the high oil yield of the trees has encouraged wider cultivation , leading to the clearing of forests in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture . This has resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the orangutan , of which both species are endangered ; one species in particular , the Sumatran orangutan , has been listed as critically endangered . In 2004 , an industry group called the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil was formed to work with the palm oil industry to address these concerns . Additionally , in 1992 , in response to concerns about deforestation , the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation 's land as forest cover ."}
{"_id": "Palo_Alto,_California", "title": "Palo Alto, California", "headings": "", "text": "Palo Alto ( -LSB- ˌpæloʊ_ˈæltoʊ -RSB- ; -LSB- ˈpalo ˈalto -RSB- ; from palo , literally `` stick '' , colloquially `` tree '' , and alto `` tall '' ; meaning : `` tall tree '' ) is a charter city located in the northwest corner of Santa Clara County , California , in the San Francisco Bay Area of the United States . The city shares its borders with East Palo Alto , Mountain View , Los Altos , Los Altos Hills , Stanford , Portola Valley , and Menlo Park . It is named after a coast redwood tree called El Palo Alto .   Palo Alto was established by Leland Stanford Sr. when he founded Stanford University , following the death of his son , Leland Stanford Jr. . The city includes portions of Stanford and is headquarters to a number of high-technology companies , including Hewlett-Packard ( HP ) , Space Systems/Loral , VMware , Tesla Motors , Ford Research and Innovation Center , PARC , IDEO , Skype , Palantir Technologies , and Houzz . It has also served as an incubator to several other high-technology companies such as Google , Facebook , Logitech , Intuit , Pinterest , and PayPal .   As of the 2010 census , the city 's total resident population is 64,403 . Palo Alto is one of the most expensive cities in the United States and its residents are amongst the highest educated in the country ."}
{"_id": "Pandemic", "title": "Pandemic", "headings": "", "text": "A pandemic ( from Greek πᾶν pan `` all '' and δῆμος demos `` people '' ) is an epidemic of infectious disease that has spread through human populations across a large region ; for instance multiple continents , or even worldwide . A widespread endemic disease that is stable in terms of how many people are getting sick from it is not a pandemic . Further , flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu . Throughout history , there have been a number of pandemics , such as smallpox and tuberculosis . One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death , killing over 75 million people in 1350 . The most recent pandemics include the HIV pandemic as well as the 1918 and 2009 H1N1 pandemics ."}
{"_id": "Parinacota_(volcano)", "title": "Parinacota (volcano)", "headings": "", "text": "Parinacota ( in Hispanicized spelling ) , Parina Quta or Parinaquta is a dormant stratovolcano on the border of Chile and Bolivia . Together with Pomerape it forms the Nevados de Payachata volcanic chain . Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes , its summit reaches an elevation of 6380 m above sea level . The symmetrical cone is capped off by a summit crater with widths of 1 km or 500 m. Farther down on the southern slopes lie three parasitic centres known as the Ajata cones . These cones have generated lava flows . The volcano overlies a platform formed by lava domes and andesitic lava flows .   The volcano started growing during the Pleistocene and formed a large cone . At some point between the Pleistocene and the Holocene , the western flank of the volcano collapsed , generating a giant landslide that spread west and formed a large , hummocky landslide deposit . The avalanche crossed and dammed a previously existing drainage , impounding or enlarging Lake Chungará ; numerous other lakes now forming the headwaters of the Rio Lauca sprung up within the deposit . Volcanic activity rebuilt the cone after the collapse , cancelling out the collapse scar .   Parinacota had numerous effusive and explosive eruptions during the Holocene , the latest about 200 years ago . While there are no recorded eruptions , legends of the local Aymara people imply that they may have witnessed one eruption .   Renewed activity at Parinacota is possible in the future , although the relatively low population density in the region acts to limit the amount of damage that could occur . Some towns and a regional highway between Bolivia and Chile are potentially exposed to the effects of a new eruption ."}
{"_id": "Paris", "title": "Paris", "headings": "", "text": "Paris ( French pronunciation : -LSB- pɑʁi -RSB- , -LSB- paʁi -RSB- ) is the capital and most populous city of France . It has an area of 105 km2 and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits . The city is both a commune and department and forms the centre and headquarters of the Île-de-France , or Paris Region , which has an area of 12,012 km2 and a population in 2016 of 12,142,802 , comprising roughly 18 percent of the population of France . By the 17th century , Paris was one of Europe 's major centres of finance , commerce , fashion , science , and the arts , and it retains that position still today . The Paris Region had a GDP of $ 624 billion ( US $ 687 billion ) in 2012 , accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe .   The City of Paris is but the core of a built-up area that extends well beyond its administrative limits . Commonly referred to as the agglomération Parisienne , and statistically as a unité urbaine ( a measure of urban area ) , the agglomeration has a 2013 population of 10,601,122 , which makes it the largest in the European Union . City-influenced commuter activity reaches well beyond even this in a statistical aire urbaine de Paris ( a measure of metropolitan area ) , that had a 2013 population of 12,405,426 , a number one-fifth the population of France , and one that makes it , after London , the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union . Although joined in a single urban tissue , Paris ' lack of administrative and economic cohesion with its suburbs has been a longstanding problem , but a 2016 ` Metropole of Grand Paris ' economic and environmental initiative covering an 814 km2 area and a population of 7 million , exists since 2016 .   The city is also a major rail , highway , and air-transport hub served by two international airports : Paris-Charles de Gaulle ( the second busiest airport in Europe after London Heathrow Airport with 63.8 million passengers in 2014 ) and Paris-Orly . Opened in 1900 , the city 's subway system , the Paris Métro , serves 5.23 million passengers daily . It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro . Notably , Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan , with 262 millions passengers in 2015 .   Paris has many important cultural institutions : its Louvre museum is the most visited in the world ; its Musée d'Orsay is noted for its collection of French Impressionist art , and its Pompidou-center Musée National d'Art Moderne has the largest collection of modern and contemporary art in Europe . The central area of the city along the Seine River is classified as a UNESCO Heritage Site and includes many notable monuments , including Notre Dame Cathedral , the Sainte-Chapelle , the former Universal Exposition Grand Palais , Petit Palais and Eiffel Tower , and the Basilica of Sacré-Cœur in Montmartre . In 2015 , Paris received 22.2 million visitors , making it one of the world 's top tourist destinations .   The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris . The 80,000-seat Stade de France , built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup , is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis . Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros . Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics . The 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups , the 2007 Rugby World Cup , and the 1960 , 1984 , and 2016 UEFA European Championships were also held in the city , and every July , the Tour de France bicycle race finishes in the city ."}
{"_id": "Paris_Agreement", "title": "Paris Agreement", "headings": "", "text": "The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 .   The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming .   One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green ."}
{"_id": "Particulates", "title": "Particulates", "headings": "", "text": "Atmospheric particulate matter -- also known as particulate matter ( PM ) or particulates -- are microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth 's atmosphere . The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture , as opposed to the particulate matter alone . Sources of particulate matter can be man-made or natural . They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely affect human health .   Subtypes of atmospheric particulate matter include suspended particulate matter ( SPM ) , thoracic and respirable particles , inhalable coarse particles , which are -LSB- coarse -RSB- particles with a diameter between 2.5 and 10 micrometers ( μm ) ( PM10 ) , fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less ( PM2 .5 ) , ultrafine particles , and soot   The IARC and WHO designate airborne particulates a Group 1 carcinogen . Particulates are the deadliest form of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood streams unfiltered , causing permanent DNA mutations , heart attacks , and premature death . In 2013 , a study involving 312,944 people in nine European countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates and that for every increase of 10 μg / m3 in PM10 , the lung cancer rate rose 22 % . The smaller PM2 .5 were particularly deadly , with a 36 % increase in lung cancer per 10 μg / m3 as it can penetrate deeper into the lungs ."}
{"_id": "Passive_solar_building_design", "title": "Passive solar building design", "headings": "", "text": "In passive solar building design , windows , walls , and floors are made to collect , store , and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer . This is called passive solar design because , unlike active solar heating systems , it does not involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices .   The key to design a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate performing an accurate site analysis . Elements to be considered include window placement and size , and glazing type , thermal insulation , thermal mass , and shading . Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings , but existing buildings can be adapted or `` retrofitted '' ."}
{"_id": "Past_sea_level", "title": "Past sea level", "headings": "", "text": "Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence .   Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago .   Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today ."}
{"_id": "Patrick_Michaels", "title": "Patrick Michaels", "headings": "", "text": "Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 .   A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) ."}
{"_id": "Paul_Samuelson", "title": "Paul Samuelson", "headings": "", "text": "Paul Anthony Samuelson ( May 15 , 1915 -- December 13 , 2009 ) was an American economist and the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences . The Swedish Royal Academies stated , when awarding the prize in 1970 , that he `` has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory '' . Economic historian Randall E. Parker calls him the `` Father of Modern Economics '' , and The New York Times considered him to be the `` foremost academic economist of the 20th century '' .   Samuelson was likely the most influential economist of the later 20th century . In 1996 , when he was awarded the National Medal of Science , considered America 's top science honor , President Bill Clinton commended Samuelson for his `` fundamental contributions to economic science '' for over 60 years . Samuelson considered Mathematics to be the natural language for economists and contributed significantly to the mathematical foundations of economics with his book Foundations of Economic Analysis . He was author of the best-selling economics textbook of all time : Economics : An Introductory Analysis , first published in 1948 . It was the second American textbook to explain the principles of Keynesian economics and how to think about economics , and the first one to be successful , and is now in its 19th edition , having sold nearly 4 million copies in 40 languages , including Russian , French , Greek , Slovak , Chinese , Portuguese , German , Spanish , Polish , Japanese , Czech , Vietnamese , Hungarian , Indonesian , Swedish , Croatian , Dutch , Turkish , Hebrew , Italian , and Arabic . James Poterba , former head of MIT 's Department of Economics , noted that by his book , Samuelson `` leaves an immense legacy , as a researcher and a teacher , as one of the giants on whose shoulders every contemporary economist stands '' .   He entered the University of Chicago at age 16 , during the depths of the Great Depression , and received his PhD in economics from Harvard . After graduating , he became an assistant professor of economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) when he was 25 years of age and a full professor at age 32 . In 1966 , he was named Institute Professor , MIT 's highest faculty honor . He spent his career at MIT where he was instrumental in turning its Department of Economics into a world-renowned institution by attracting other noted economists to join the faculty , including Robert M. Solow , Franco Modigliani , Robert C. Merton , Joseph E. Stiglitz , and Paul Krugman , all of whom went on to win Nobel Prizes .   He served as an advisor to Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson , and was a consultant to the United States Treasury , the Bureau of the Budget and the President 's Council of Economic Advisers . Samuelson wrote a weekly column for Newsweek magazine along with Chicago School economist Milton Friedman , where they represented opposing sides : Samuelson , as a self described `` Cafeteria Keynesian '' , took the Keynesian perspective but adapted it accepting what he felt was good . By contrast Friedman represented the monetarist perspective . Samuelson died on December 13 , 2009 , at the age of 94 ."}
{"_id": "Pavel_Banya", "title": "Pavel Banya", "headings": "", "text": "Pavel Banya is a small town in Stara Zagora Province , South-central Bulgaria , located between the towns of Kalofer and Kazanlak . It is the administrative centre of the homonymous Pavel Banya Municipality . As of December 2009 , the town has a population of 2,918 inhabitants . The place is famous for its mineral springs ."}
{"_id": "Peak_oil", "title": "Peak oil", "headings": "", "text": "Peak oil , an event based on M. King Hubbert 's theory , is the point in time when the maximum rate of extraction of petroleum is reached , after which it is expected to enter terminal decline . Peak oil theory is based on the observed rise , peak , fall , and depletion of aggregate production rate in oil fields over time . It is often confused with oil depletion ; however , peak oil is the point of maximum production , while depletion refers to a period of falling reserves and supply .   Some observers , such as petroleum industry experts Kenneth S. Deffeyes and Matthew Simmons , predict negative global economy implications following a post-peak production decline and subsequent oil price increase because of the high dependence of most modern industrial transport , agricultural , and industrial systems on the low cost and high availability of oil . Predictions vary greatly as to what exactly these negative effects would be .   Oil production forecasts on which predictions of peak oil are based are often made within a range which includes optimistic ( higher production ) and pessimistic ( lower production ) scenarios . Optimistic estimations of peak production forecast the global decline will begin after 2020 , and assume major investments in alternatives will occur before a crisis , without requiring major changes in the lifestyle of heavily oil-consuming nations . Pessimistic predictions of future oil production made after 2007 stated either that the peak had already occurred , that oil production was on the cusp of the peak , or that it would occur shortly .   Hubbert 's original prediction that US peak oil would be in about 1970 seemed accurate for a time , as US average annual production peaked in 1970 at 9.6 million barrels per day . However , the successful application of massive hydraulic fracturing to additional tight reservoirs caused US production to rebound , challenging the inevitability of post-peak decline for the US oil production . In addition , Hubbert 's original predictions for world peak oil production proved premature ."}
{"_id": "Pearson_correlation_coefficient", "title": "Pearson correlation coefficient", "headings": "", "text": "In statistics , the Pearson correlation coefficient ( PCC , pronounced -LSB- ˈpɪərsən -RSB- ) , also referred to as the Pearson 's r , Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient ( PPMCC ) or bivariate correlation , is a measure of the linear correlation between two variables X and Y . It has a value between +1 and − 1 , where 1 is total positive linear correlation , 0 is no linear correlation , and − 1 is total negative linear correlation . It is widely used in the sciences . It was developed by Karl Pearson from a related idea introduced by Francis Galton in the 1880s ."}
{"_id": "Peat", "title": "Peat", "headings": "", "text": "Peat ( -LSB- piːt -RSB- ) , also called turf ( -LSB- tɜːrf -RSB- ) , is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that is unique to natural areas called peatlands , bogs , mires , moors , or muskegs . The peatland ecosystem is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet because peatland plants capture the CO2 which is naturally released from the peat ; this maintains an equilibrium . In natural peatlands , the `` annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition '' , but it takes `` thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of , which is the average depth of the boreal -LSB- northern -RSB- peatlands '' . Sphagnum moss ( peat moss ) is one of the most common components in peat , although many other plants can contribute . Soils that contain mostly peat are known as histosols . Peat forms in wetland conditions , where flooding obstructs flows of oxygen from the atmosphere . This slows rates of decomposition .   Peatlands , particularly bogs , are the most important source of peat . That said , other less common wetland types , including fens , pocosins , and peat swamp forests , also deposit peat . Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss , ericaceous shrubs , and sedges ( see bog for more information on this aspect of peat ) . Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years , peat deposits also provide records of past vegetation and climates stored in plant remains like pollen . This allows humans to reconstruct past environments and study changes in human land use .   Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world . By volume , there are about 4 e12m3 of peat in the world , covering a total of around 2 % of the global land area ( about 3 e6km2 ) , containing about 8 billion terajoules of energy . Over time , the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of other fossil fuels such as coal , particularly low-grade coal such as lignite ."}
{"_id": "Peer_review", "title": "Peer review", "headings": "", "text": "Peer review is the evaluation of work by one or more people of similar competence to the producers of the work ( peers ) . It constitutes a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field . Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality , improve performance , and provide credibility . In academia , scholarly peer review is often used to determine an academic paper 's suitability for publication . Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs , e.g. , medical peer review ."}
{"_id": "Percentage", "title": "Percentage", "headings": "", "text": "In mathematics , a percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100 . It is often denoted using the percent sign , '' % '' , or the abbreviations `` pct . '' , `` pct '' ; sometimes the abbreviation `` pc '' is also used . A percentage is a dimensionless number ( pure number ) ."}
{"_id": "Perceptual_control_theory", "title": "Perceptual control theory", "headings": "", "text": "Perceptual control theory ( PCT ) is a model of behavior based on the principles of negative feedback , but differing in important respects from engineering control theory . Results of PCT experiments have demonstrated that an organism controls neither its own behavior , nor external environmental variables , but rather its own perceptions of those variables . Actions are not controlled , they are varied so as to cancel the effects that unpredictable environmental disturbances would otherwise have on controlled perceptions . According to the standard catch-phrase of the field , `` behavior is the control of perception . '' PCT demonstrates circular causation in a negative feedback loop closed through the environment . This fundamentally contradicts the classical notion of linear causation of behavior by stimuli , in which environmental stimuli are thought to cause behavioral responses , mediated ( according to cognitive psychology ) by intervening cognitive processes .   Numerous computer simulations of specific behavioral situations demonstrate its efficacy , with extremely high correlations to observational data ( 0.95 or better ) , which are vanishingly rare in the so-called ` soft ' sciences . While the adoption of PCT in the scientific community has not been widespread , it has been applied not only in experimental psychology and neuroscience , but also in sociology , linguistics , and a number of other fields , and has led to a method of psychotherapy called the method of levels ."}
{"_id": "Perennial_plant", "title": "Perennial plant", "headings": "", "text": "A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives for more than two years . The term ( per - #Prefix + - ennial #Suffix , `` through the years '' ) is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials . The term is also widely used to distinguish plants with little or no woody growth from trees and shrubs , which are also technically perennials .   Perennials , especially small flowering plants , that grow and bloom over the spring and summer , die back every autumn and winter , and then return in the spring from their rootstock , are known as herbaceous perennials or Herbaceous plants . However , depending on the rigors of local climate , a plant that is a perennial in its native habitat , or in a milder garden , may be treated by a gardener as an annual and planted out every year , from seed , from cuttings or from divisions . Tomato vines , for example , live several years in their natural tropical/subtropical habitat but are grown as annuals in temperate regions because they do n't survive the winter .   There is also a class of evergreen , or non-herbaceous , perennials , including plants like Bergenia which retain a mantle of leaves throughout the year . An intermediate class of plants is known as subshrubs , which retain a vestigial woody structure in winter , e.g. Penstemon . The local climate may dictate whether plants are treated as shrubs or perennials . For instance , many varieties of Fuchsia are shrubs in warm regions , but in colder temperate climates may be cut to the ground every year as a result of winter frosts .   The symbol for a perennial plant , based on Species Plantarum by Linnaeus , is , which is also the astronomical symbol for the planet Jupiter ."}
{"_id": "Permafrost", "title": "Permafrost", "headings": "", "text": "In geology , permafrost is ground , including rock or ( cryotic ) soil , at or below the freezing point of water 0 C for two or more years . Most permafrost is located in high latitudes ( in and around the Arctic and Antarctic regions ) , but alpine permafrost may exist at high altitudes in much lower latitudes . Ground ice is not always present , as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock , but it frequently occurs and it may be in amounts exceeding the potential hydraulic saturation of the ground material . Permafrost accounts for 0.022 % of total water on earth and exists in 24 % of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere . It also occurs subsea on the continental shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean , portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period , with global weather implications .   A global temperature rise of 1.5 C-change above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia , according to one group of scientists ."}
{"_id": "Permafrost_carbon_cycle", "title": "Permafrost carbon cycle", "headings": "", "text": "The Permafrost Carbon Cycle is a sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle . Permafrost is defined as subsurface material that remains below 0o C ( 32o F ) for at least two consecutive years . Because permafrost soils remain frozen for long periods of time , they store large amounts of carbon and other nutrients within their frozen framework during that time . Permafrost represents a large carbon reservoir that is seldom considered when determining global terrestrial carbon reservoirs . Recent and ongoing scientific research however , is changing this view .   The permafrost carbon cycle ( Arctic Carbon Cycle ) deals with the transfer of carbon from permafrost soils to terrestrial vegetation and microbes , to the atmosphere , back to vegetation , and finally back to permafrost soils through burial and sedimentation due to cryogenic processes . Some of this carbon is transferred to the ocean and other portions of the globe through the global carbon cycle . The cycle includes the exchange of carbon dioxide and methane between terrestrial components and the atmosphere , as well as the transfer of carbon between land and water as methane , dissolved organic carbon , dissolved inorganic carbon , particulate inorganic carbon and particulate organic carbon ."}
{"_id": "Permian", "title": "Permian", "headings": "", "text": "The Permian is a geologic period and system which spans 46.7 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Triassic Period 252.2 Mya . It is the last period of the Paleozoic Era ; the following Triassic Period belongs to the Mesozoic Era . The concept of the Permian was introduced in 1841 by geologist Sir Roderick Murchison , who named it after the city of Perm .   The Permian witnessed the diversification of the early amniotes into the ancestral groups of the mammals , turtles , lepidosaurs , and archosaurs . The world at the time was dominated by two continents known as Pangaea and Siberia , surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa . The Carboniferous rainforest collapse left behind vast regions of desert within the continental interior . Amniotes , who could better cope with these drier conditions , rose to dominance in place of their amphibian ancestors .   The Permian ( along with the Paleozoic ) ended with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , the largest mass extinction in Earth 's history , in which nearly 90 % of marine species and 70 % of terrestrial species died out . It would take well into the Triassic for life to recover from this catastrophe . Recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction event was protracted ; on land , ecosystems took 30 million years to recover ."}
{"_id": "Permian–Triassic_extinction_event", "title": "Permian–Triassic extinction event", "headings": "", "text": "The Permian -- Triassic ( P -- Tr or P -- T ) extinction event , colloquially known as the Great Dying , the End-Permian Extinction or the Great Permian Extinction , occurred about 252 Ma ( million years ) ago , forming the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geologic periods , as well as the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras . It is the Earth 's most severe known extinction event , with up to 96 % of all marine species and 70 % of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct . It is the only known mass extinction of insects . Some 57 % of all families and 83 % of all genera became extinct . Because so much biodiversity was lost , the recovery of life on Earth took significantly longer than after any other extinction event , possibly up to 10 million years . Studies in Bear Lake County near the Idaho city of Paris showed a quick and dynamic rebound in a marine ecosystem , illustrating the remarkable resiliency of life .   There is evidence for one to three distinct pulses , or phases , of extinction . Suggested mechanisms for the latter include one or more large meteor impact events , massive volcanism such as that of the Siberian Traps , and the ensuing coal or gas fires and explosions , and a runaway greenhouse effect triggered by sudden release of methane from the sea floor due to methane clathrate dissociation or methane-producing microbes known as methanogens ; possible contributing gradual changes include sea-level change , increasing anoxia , increasing aridity , and a shift in ocean circulation driven by climate change ."}
{"_id": "Perth", "title": "Perth", "headings": "", "text": "Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia . It is the fourth-most populous city in Australia , with an estimated population of 2.06 million living in Greater Perth . Perth is part of the South West Land Division of Western Australia , with the majority of the metropolitan area located on the Swan Coastal Plain , a narrow strip between the Indian Ocean and the Darling Scarp . The first areas settled were on the Swan River , with the city 's central business district and port ( Fremantle ) both located on its shores .   Perth was founded by Captain James Stirling in 1829 as the administrative centre of the Swan River Colony . It gained city status ( currently vested in the smaller City of Perth ) in 1856 , and was promoted to the status of a Lord Mayorality in 1929 . The city is named after Perth , Scotland , due to the influence of Sir George Murray , Member of Parliament for Perthshire and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies . The city 's population increased substantially as a result of the Western Australian gold rushes in the late 19th century . During Australia 's involvement in World War II , Fremantle served as a base for submarines operating in the Pacific Theatre , and a US Navy Catalina flying boat fleet was based at Matilda Bay . An influx of immigrants after the war , predominantly from Britain , Greece , Italy and Yugoslavia , led to rapid population growth . This was followed by a surge in economic activity flowing from several mining booms in the late 20th and early 21st centuries that saw Perth become the regional headquarters for a number of large mining operations located around the state .   As part of Perth 's role as the capital of Western Australia , the state 's Parliament and Supreme Court are located within the city , as is Government House , the residence of the Governor of Western Australia . Perth came seventh in the Economist Intelligence Unit 's August 2016 list of the world 's most liveable cities , and was classified by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network in 2010 as a world city .   Perth is divided into 30 local government areas and 250 suburbs , stretching from Two Rocks in the north to Singleton in the south , and east inland to The Lake . Outside of the main CBD , important urban centres within Perth include Armadale , Fremantle , Joondalup , Midland , and Rockingham . Most of those were originally established as separate settlements , and retained a distinct identity after being subsumed into the wider metropolitan area . Mandurah , Western Australia 's second-largest city , has in recent years formed a conurbation with Perth along the coast , though for most purposes it is still considered a separate city ."}
{"_id": "Petroleum", "title": "Petroleum", "headings": "", "text": "Petroleum ( from petra #Greek : `` rock '' + oleum #Latin : `` oil '' . ) is a naturally occurring , yellow-to-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth 's surface , which is commonly refined into various types of fuels . Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called fractional distillation .   It consists of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other organic compounds . The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil . A fossil fuel , petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms , usually zooplankton and algae , are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both intense heat and pressure .   Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling ( natural petroleum springs are rare ) . Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology ( at the reservoir scale ) , sedimentary basin analysis , and reservoir characterization ( mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability of geologic reservoir structures ) have been completed . It is refined and separated , most easily by distillation , into a large number of consumer products , from gasoline ( petrol ) and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals . Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials , and it is estimated that the world consumes about 95 million barrels each day .   Concern over the depletion of the earth 's finite reserves of oil , and the effect this would have on a society dependent on it , is a concept known as peak oil . The use of fossil fuels , such as petroleum , will have a negative impact on Earth 's biosphere , damaging ecosystems through events such as oil spills and releasing a range of pollutants into the air including ground-level ozone and sulfur dioxide from sulfur impurities in fossil fuels . The burning of fossil fuels plays the major role in the current episode of global warming ."}
{"_id": "Phalodi", "title": "Phalodi", "headings": "", "text": "Phalodi is a city and a municipality in Jodhpur district in the Indian state of Rajasthan . It is the headquarters for Phalodi tehsil . Phalodi is also called the `` salt city '' due to the concentration of a large number of salt industries located in the area . Phalodi is in the buffer zone of Thar Desert and often subject to extreme temperature conditions due to arid climate . It holds the record for the highest verified temperature recorded in India at 52 degrees Celsius ( 123.8 ° F ) on 20 May 2016 ."}
{"_id": "Phanerozoic", "title": "Phanerozoic", "headings": "", "text": "The Phanerozoic Eon ( British English Phanærozoic ) is the current geologic eon in the geologic time scale , and the one during which abundant animal and plant life has existed . It covers million years to the present , and began with the Cambrian Period when diverse hard-shelled animals first appeared . Its name was derived from the Ancient Greek words φανερός ( phanerós ) and ζωή ( zōḗ ) , meaning visible life , since it was once believed that life began in the Cambrian , the first period of this eon . The time before the Phanerozoic , called the Precambrian supereon , is now divided into the Hadean , Archaean and Proterozoic eons .   The time span of the Phanerozoic starts with the rapid emergence of a number of animal phyla ; the evolution of those phyla into diverse forms ; the emergence and development of complex plants ; the evolution of fish ; the emergence of insects and tetrapods ; and the development of modern fauna . Land plant life appeared in the early Phanerozoic eon . During this time span , tectonic forces caused the continents to move and eventually collect into a single landmass known as Pangaea , which then separated into the current continental landmasses ."}
{"_id": "Phase-out_of_incandescent_light_bulbs", "title": "Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs", "headings": "", "text": "Governments around the world have passed measures to phase out incandescent light bulbs for general lighting in favor of more energy-efficient lighting alternatives . Phase-out regulations effectively ban the manufacture , importation or sale of incandescent light bulbs for general lighting . The regulations would allow sale of future versions of incandescent bulbs if they are sufficiently energy efficient .   Brazil and Venezuela started the controversial phase-out in 2005 , and the European Union , Switzerland , and Australia started to phase them out in 2009 . Likewise , other nations are implementing new energy standards or have scheduled phase-outs : Argentina , and Russia in 2012 , and the United States , Canada , Mexico , Malaysia and South Korea in 2014 .   Objections to replacement of incandescent lamps for general lighting mainly include the higher purchasing cost of alternative light bulbs . To mitigate the effects of these concerns , various programs have been put in place ranging from subsidies for lamps to improved standards for measurement of performance and for labelling products . Manufacturers develop fluorescent lamps with reduced mercury content compared to original designs , and recycling programs are intended to prevent mercury release . New lamp types offer improved starting characteristics , and dimmable types are available ."}
{"_id": "Phenology", "title": "Phenology", "headings": "", "text": "Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate , as well as habitat factors ( such as elevation ) . The word , coined by the Belgian botanist Charles Morren around 1849 , is derived from the Greek φαίνω ( phainō ) , `` to show , to bring to light , make to appear '' + λόγος ( logos ) , amongst others `` study , discourse , reasoning '' and indicates that phenology has been principally concerned with the dates of first occurrence of biological events in their annual cycle . Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and flowers , the first flight of butterflies and the first appearance of migratory birds , the date of leaf colouring and fall in deciduous trees , the dates of egg-laying of birds and amphibia , or the timing of the developmental cycles of temperate-zone honey bee colonies . In the scientific literature on ecology , the term is used more generally to indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological phenomena , including the dates of last appearance ( e.g. , the seasonal phenology of a species may be from April through September ) .   Because many such phenomena are very sensitive to small variations in climate , especially to temperature , phenological records can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology , especially in the study of climate change and global warming . For example , viticultural records of grape harvests in Europe have been used to reconstruct a record of summer growing season temperatures going back more than 500 years .  In addition to providing a longer historical baseline than instrumental measurements , phenological observations provide high temporal resolution of ongoing changes related to global warming ."}
{"_id": "Phenotype", "title": "Phenotype", "headings": "", "text": "A phenotype is the composite of an organism 's observable characteristics or traits , such as its morphology , development , biochemical or physiological properties , behavior , and products of behavior ( such as a bird 's nest ) . A phenotype results from the expression of an organism 's genetic code , its genotype , as well as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions between the two . When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species , the species is called polymorphic . A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring ; while the coat color depends on many genes , it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow , black and brown .   This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism 's heredity and what that heredity produces . The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann , who distinguished between germ plasm ( heredity ) and somatic cells ( the body ) . The genotype-phenotype distinction should not be confused with Francis Crick 's central dogma of molecular biology , which is a statement about the directionality of molecular sequential information flowing from DNA to protein , and not the reverse .   Richard Dawkins in 1978 and then again in his 1982 book The Extended Phenotype suggested that bird nests and other built structures such as caddis fly larvae cases and beaver dams can be considered as `` extended phenotypes '' ."}
{"_id": "Phil_Jones_(climatologist)", "title": "Phil Jones (climatologist)", "headings": "", "text": "Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 .   His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years .   He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 ."}
{"_id": "Philadelphia", "title": "Philadelphia", "headings": "", "text": "Philadelphia ( -LSB- ˌfɪləˈdɛlfi.ə -RSB- ) is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the sixth-most populous city in the United States , with an estimated population of 1,567,872 and more than 6 million in the seventh-largest metropolitan statistical area , . Philadelphia is the economic and cultural anchor of the Delaware Valleya region located in the Northeastern United States at the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers with 7.2 million people residing in the eighth-largest combined statistical area in the United States .   In 1682 , William Penn , an English Quaker , founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony . Philadelphia played an instrumental role in the American Revolution as a meeting place for the Founding Fathers of the United States , who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the Constitution in 1787 . Several other key Philadelphia events during the Revolution include the First and Second Continental Congress , the preservation of the Liberty Bell , the Battle of Germantown , the Siege of Fort Mifflin , and the Philadelphia Convention . Philadelphia was one of the nation 's capitals in the Revolutionary War , and served as temporary U.S. capital while Washington , D.C. , was under construction . In the 19th century , Philadelphia became a major industrial center and railroad hub that grew from an influx of European immigrants . The majority of European immigrants have come from Ireland , Italy and Germany -- the three largest reported ancestry groups in the city . The city became a prime destination for African Americans during the Great Migration of the 20th century , as well as Puerto Ricans , surpassing two million occupants by 1950 .   The area 's many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination , as the city has evolved into an educational and economic hub . With a gross domestic product of $ 388 billion , Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation . Philadelphia is the center of economic activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies . The Philadelphia skyline is growing , with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several nationally prominent skyscrapers . The city is known for its arts , culture , and rich history , attracting over 41 million domestic tourists alone in 2015 . Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city . Fairmount Park , when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the same watershed , is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States . The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $ 10 billion generated by tourism . Philadelphia is the birthplace of the United States Marine Corps , and is also the home of many U.S. firsts , including the first library ( 1731 ) , first hospital ( 1751 ) and medical school ( 1765 ) , first Capital ( 1777 ) , first stock exchange ( 1790 ) , first zoo ( 1874 ) , and first business school ( 1881 ) . Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States ."}
{"_id": "Philippines", "title": "Philippines", "headings": "", "text": "The Philippines ( -LSB- ˈfɪlᵻpiːnz -RSB- Pilipinas -LSB- ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs -RSB- ) , officially the Republic of the Philippines ( -LSB- Republika ng Pilipinas , links = no -RSB- ) , is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean . It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south : Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City , both part of Metro Manila . Bounded by the South China Sea on the west , the Philippine Sea on the east and the Celebes Sea on the southwest , the Philippines shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north , Vietnam to the west , Palau to the east and Malaysia and Indonesia to the south .   The Philippines ' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons , but also endows it with abundant natural resources and some of the world 's greatest biodiversity . The Philippines has an area of 300000 km2 , and a population of approximately 100 million . It is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world . , approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas , comprising one of the world 's largest diasporas . Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands . In prehistoric times , Negritos were some of the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants . They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples . Exchanges with Chinese , Malay , Indian , and Islamic nations occurred . Then , various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus , Rajahs , Sultans or Lakans .   The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon , Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization . In 1543 , Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain . With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City , in 1565 , the first Hispanic settlement in the archipelago was established . The Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years . This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion . During this time , Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons .   As the 19th century gave way to the 20th , there followed in quick succession the Philippine Revolution , which spawned the short-lived First Philippine Republic , followed by the bloody Philippine -- American War of conquest by US military force . Aside from the period of Japanese occupation , the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II , when the Philippines was recognized as an independent nation . Since then , the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy , which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution .   It is a founding member of the United Nations , World Trade Organization , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum , and the East Asia Summit . It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank . The Philippines is considered to be an emerging market and a newly industrialized country , which has an economy transitioning from being one based on agriculture to one based more on services and manufacturing . It is one of the only two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia , the other being East Timor ."}
{"_id": "Philosophical_skepticism", "title": "Philosophical skepticism", "headings": "", "text": "For a general discussion of skepticism , see Skepticism .  Philosophical skepticism ( UK spelling scepticism ; from Greek σκέψις skepsis '' , `` inquiry '' ) is both a philosophical school of thought and a method that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge . It is generally agreed that knowledge requires justification . It is not enough to have a true belief : one must also have good reasons for that belief . Skeptics claim that it is not possible to have an adequate justification .   Skepticism is not a single position but covers a range of different positions . In the ancient world there were two main skeptical traditions . Academic skepticism took the dogmatic position that knowledge was not possible ; Pyrrhonian skeptics refused to take a dogmatic position on any issue -- including skepticism . Radical skepticism ends in the paradoxical claim that one can not know anything -- including that one can not know about knowing anything .   Skepticism can be classified according to its scope . Local skepticism involves being skeptical about particular areas of knowledge , e.g. moral skepticism , skepticism about the external world , or skepticism about other minds , whereas global skepticism is skeptical about the possibility of any knowledge at all .   Skepticism can also be classified according to its method . In the Western tradition there are two basic approaches to skepticism . Cartesian skepticism -- named somewhat misleadingly after René Descartes , who was not a skeptic but used some traditional skeptical arguments in his Meditations to help establish his rationalist approach to knowledge -- attempts to show that any proposed knowledge claim can be doubted . Agrippan skepticism focuses on the process of justification rather than the possibility of doubt . According to this view there are three ways in which one might attempt to justify a claim but none of them are adequate : one can keep on providing further justification but this leads to an infinite regress ; one can stop at a dogmatic assertion ; or one can argue in circular reasoning , never reaching a viable conclusion .   Philosophical skepticism is distinguished from methodological skepticism in that philosophical skepticism is an approach that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge , whereas methodological skepticism is an approach that subjects all knowledge claims to scrutiny with the goal of sorting out true from false claims ."}
{"_id": "Philosophy_of_geography", "title": "Philosophy of geography", "headings": "", "text": "Philosophy of geography is that subfield of philosophy which deals with epistemological , metaphysical , and axiological issues in geography , with geographic methodology in general , and with more broadly related issues such as the perception and representation of space and place ."}
{"_id": "Photosynthesis", "title": "Photosynthesis", "headings": "", "text": "Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities ( energy transformation ) . This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules , such as sugars , which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis , from the Greek φῶς , phōs , `` light '' , and σύνθεσις , synthesis , `` putting together '' . In most cases , oxygen is also released as a waste product . Most plants , most algae , and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis ; such organisms are called photoautotrophs . Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere , and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth .   Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species , the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments . In plants , these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts , which are most abundant in leaf cells , while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane . In these light-dependent reactions , some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances , such as water , producing oxygen gas . The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means : reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate ( NADPH ) and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , the `` energy currency '' of cells .   In plants , algae and cyanobacteria , long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of reactions called the Calvin cycle ; some bacteria use different mechanisms , such as the reverse Krebs cycle , to achieve the same end . In the Calvin cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds , such as ribulose bisphosphate ( RuBP ) . Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions , the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates , such as glucose .   The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide , rather than water , as sources of electrons . Cyanobacteria appeared later ; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth , which rendered the evolution of complex life possible . Today , the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts , which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization .  Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year ."}
{"_id": "Photovoltaics", "title": "Photovoltaics", "headings": "", "text": "Photovoltaics ( PV ) is a term which covers the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect , a phenomenon studied in physics , photochemistry , and electrochemistry .   A typical photovoltaic system employs solar panels , each comprising a number of solar cells , which generate electrical power . PV installations may be ground-mounted , rooftop mounted or wall mounted . The mount may be fixed , or use a solar tracker to follow the sun across the sky .   Solar PV has specific advantages as an energy source : its operation generates no pollution and no greenhouse gas emissions once installed , it shows simple scalability in respect of power needs and silicon has large availability in the Earth 's crust .   PV systems have the major disadvantage that the power output is dependent on direct sunlight , so about 10-25 % is lost if a tracking system is not used , since the cell will not be directly facing the sun at all times . Dust , clouds , and other things in the atmosphere also diminish the power output . Another main issue is the concentration of the production in the hours corresponding to main insolation , which do n't usually match the peaks in demand in human activity cycles . Unless current societal patterns of consumption and electrical networks mutually adjust to this scenario , electricity still needs to be made up by other power sources , usually hydrocarbon .   Photovoltaic systems have long been used in specialized applications , and standalone and grid-connected PV systems have been in use since the 1990s . They were first mass-produced in 2000 , when German environmentalists and the Eurosolar organization got government funding for a ten thousand roof program .   Advances in technology and increased manufacturing scale have in any case reduced the cost , increased the reliability , and increased the efficiency of photovoltaic installations .  Net metering and financial incentives , such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity , have supported solar PV installations in many countries . More than 100 countries now use solar PV .   After hydro and wind powers , PV is the third renewable energy source in terms of globally capacity . In 2014 , worldwide installed PV capacity increased to 177 gigawatts ( GW ) , which is two percent of global electricity demand . China , followed by Japan and the United States , is the fastest growing market , while Germany remains the world 's largest producer , with solar PV providing seven percent of annual domestic electricity consumption . With current technology ( as of 2013 ) , photovoltaics recoups the energy needed to manufacture them in 1.5 years in Southern Europe and 2.5 years in Northern Europe ."}
{"_id": "Physical_impacts_of_climate_change", "title": "Physical impacts of climate change", "headings": "", "text": "This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described .   This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity ."}
{"_id": "Physics", "title": "Physics", "headings": "", "text": "Physics ( from -LSB- φυσική , phusikḗ ( epistḗmē ) , knowledge of nature -RSB- , from φύσις phúsis `` nature '' ) is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time , along with related concepts such as energy and force . One of the most fundamental scientific disciplines , the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves .   Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines , perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy . Over the last two millennia , physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry , biology , and certain branches of mathematics , but during the scientific revolution in the 17th century , the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right . Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research , such as biophysics and quantum chemistry , and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined . New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy .   Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs . For example , advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new products that have dramatically transformed modern-day society , such as television , computers , domestic appliances , and nuclear weapons ; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization , and advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus .   The United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics ."}
{"_id": "Pine_Island_Glacier", "title": "Pine Island Glacier", "headings": "", "text": "Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay .   The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream .   The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force ."}
{"_id": "Planck_temperature", "title": "Planck temperature", "headings": "", "text": "Planck temperature , denoted by TP , is the unit of temperature in the system of natural units known as Planck units .   It serves as the defining unit of the Planck temperature scale . In this scale the magnitude of the Planck temperature is equal to 1 , while that of absolute zero is 0 .  Other temperatures can be converted to Planck temperature units . For example , 0 ° C = 273.15 K = 1.9279 × 10 − 30TP .   In SI units , the Planck temperature is about 1.417 × 1032 kelvin ( equivalently , degrees Celsius , since the difference is trivially small at this scale ) , or 2.55 × 1032 degrees Fahrenheit or Rankine ."}
{"_id": "Planet", "title": "Planet", "headings": "", "text": "A planet is an astronomical body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that  is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity ,  is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion , and  has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.This definition is drawn from two separate IAU declarations ; a formal definition agreed by the IAU in 2006 , and an informal working definition established by the IAU in 2001/2003 for objects outside of the Solar System . The official 2006 definition applies only to the Solar System , whereas the 2003 definition applies to planets around other stars . The extrasolar planet issue was deemed too complex to resolve at the 2006 IAU conference .  The term planet is ancient , with ties to history , astrology , science , mythology , and religion . Several planets in the Solar System can be seen with the naked eye . These were regarded by many early cultures as divine , or as emissaries of deities . As scientific knowledge advanced , human perception of the planets changed , incorporating a number of disparate objects . In 2006 , the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System . This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit . Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain `` planets '' under the modern definition , some celestial bodies , such as Ceres , Pallas , Juno and Vesta ( each an object in the solar asteroid belt ) , and Pluto ( the first trans-Neptunian object discovered ) , that were once considered planets by the scientific community , are no longer viewed as such .   The planets were thought by Ptolemy to orbit Earth in deferent and epicycle motions . Although the idea that the planets orbited the Sun had been suggested many times , it was not until the 17th century that this view was supported by evidence from the first telescopic astronomical observations , performed by Galileo Galilei . At about the same time , by careful analysis of pre-telescopic observation data collected by Tycho Brahe , Johannes Kepler found the planets ' orbits were not circular but elliptical . As observational tools improved , astronomers saw that , like Earth , the planets rotated around tilted axes , and some shared such features as ice caps and seasons . Since the dawn of the Space Age , close observation by space probes has found that Earth and the other planets share characteristics such as volcanism , hurricanes , tectonics , and even hydrology .   Planets are generally divided into two main types : large low-density giant planets , and smaller rocky terrestrials . Under IAU definitions , there are eight planets in the Solar System . In order of increasing distance from the Sun , they are the four terrestrials , Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars , then the four giant planets , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune . Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites .   Several thousands of planets around other stars ( `` extrasolar planets '' or `` exoplanets '' ) have been discovered in the Milky Way . As of , known extrasolar planets in planetary systems ( including multiple planetary systems ) , ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter have been discovered , out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth , nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun , i.e. in the habitable zone . On December 20 , 2011 , the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets , Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f , orbiting a Sun-like star , Kepler-20 . A 2012 study , analyzing gravitational microlensing data , estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way .  Around one in five Sun-like stars is thought to have an Earth-sized planet in its habitable zone ."}
{"_id": "Planetary_boundaries", "title": "Planetary boundaries", "headings": "", "text": "Planetary boundaries is the central concept in an Earth system framework proposed by a group of Earth system and environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University . In 2009 , the group proposed a framework of `` planetary boundaries '' designed to define a `` safe operating space for humanity '' for the international community , including governments at all levels , international organizations , civil society , the scientific community and the private sector , as a precondition for sustainable development . This framework is based on scientific research that indicates that since the Industrial Revolution , human actions have gradually become the main driver of global environmental change . The scientists assert that once human activity has passed certain thresholds or tipping points , defined as `` planetary boundaries '' , there is a risk of `` irreversible and abrupt environmental change '' . The group identified nine Earth system processes which have boundaries that , to the extent that they are not crossed , mark the safe zone for the planet . However , because of human activities some of these dangerous boundaries have already been crossed , while others are in imminent danger of being crossed .   Rockström and Steffen collaborated with 26 leading academics , including Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen , Goddard Institute for Space Studies climate scientist James Hansen and the German Chancellor 's chief climate adviser Hans Joachim Schellnhuber . The group identified nine `` planetary life support systems '' essential for human survival , and attempted to quantify just how far seven of these systems have been pushed already . They then estimated how much further we can go before our own survival is threatened ; beyond these boundaries there is a risk of `` irreversible and abrupt environmental change '' which could make Earth less habitable . Estimates indicate that three of these boundaries -- climate change , biodiversity loss , and the biogeochemical flow boundary -- appear to have been crossed . The boundaries are `` rough , first estimates only , surrounded by large uncertainties and knowledge gaps '' that interact in ways that are complex and not well understood . Boundaries can help identify where there is room and define a `` safe space for human development '' , which is an improvement on approaches which aim at just minimizing human impacts on the planet . The 2009 report was presented to the General Assembly of the Club of Rome in Amsterdam . An edited summary of the report was subsequently published as the featured article in a special edition of Nature . Nature also published critical commentary from leading academics they invited to comment on each of the seven planetary boundaries which had been quantified , including comments from Nobel laureate Mario J. Molina and biologist Cristián Samper . In 2015 , a second paper was published in Science updating the Planetary Boundaries concept . The findings were presented at the World Economic Forum in Davos , January 2015 ."}
{"_id": "Planetary_habitability", "title": "Planetary habitability", "headings": "", "text": "Planetary habitability is the measure of a planet 's or a natural satellite 's potential to have habitable environments hospitable to life . Habitable environments do not need to contain life . Life may develop directly on a planet or satellite or be transferred to it from another body , a hypothetical process known as panspermia . As the existence of life beyond Earth is unknown , planetary habitability is largely an extrapolation of conditions on Earth and the characteristics of the Sun and Solar System which appear favorable to life 's flourishing -- in particular those factors that have sustained complex , multicellular organisms and not just simpler , unicellular creatures . Research and theory in this regard is a component of planetary science and the emerging discipline of astrobiology .   An absolute requirement for life is an energy source , and the notion of planetary habitability implies that many other geophysical , geochemical , and astrophysical criteria must be met before an astronomical body can support life . In its astrobiology roadmap , NASA has defined the principal habitability criteria as `` extended regions of liquid water , conditions favorable for the assembly of complex organic molecules , and energy sources to sustain metabolism '' .   In determining the habitability potential of a body , studies focus on its bulk composition , orbital properties , atmosphere , and potential chemical interactions . Stellar characteristics of importance include mass and luminosity , stable variability , and high metallicity . Rocky , wet terrestrial-type planets and moons with the potential for Earth-like chemistry are a primary focus of astrobiological research , although more speculative habitability theories occasionally examine alternative biochemistries and other types of astronomical bodies .   The idea that planets beyond Earth might host life is an ancient one , though historically it was framed by philosophy as much as physical science.This article is an analysis of planetary habitability from the perspective of contemporary physical science . A historical viewpoint on the possibility of habitable planets can be found at Beliefs in extraterrestrial life and Cosmic pluralism . For a discussion of the probability of alien life see the Drake equation and Fermi paradox . Habitable planets are also a staple of fiction ; see Planets in science fiction . The late 20th century saw two breakthroughs in the field . The observation and robotic spacecraft exploration of other planets and moons within the Solar System has provided critical information on defining habitability criteria and allowed for substantial geophysical comparisons between the Earth and other bodies . The discovery of extrasolar planets , beginning in the early 1990s and accelerating thereafter , has provided further information for the study of possible extraterrestrial life . These findings confirm that the Sun is not unique among stars in hosting planets and expands the habitability research horizon beyond the Solar System .   The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13.8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10 -- 17 million years old . According to the panspermia hypothesis , microscopic life -- distributed by meteoroids , asteroids and other small Solar System bodies -- may exist throughout the Universe . Nonetheless , Earth is the only place in the Universe known to harbor life . Estimates of habitable zones around other stars , along with the discovery of hundreds of extrasolar planets and new insights into the extreme habitats here on Earth , suggest that there may be many more habitable places in the Universe than considered possible until very recently . On 4 November 2013 , astronomers reported , based on Kepler space mission data , that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way . 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars . The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away , according to the scientists ."}
{"_id": "Planetary_nebula", "title": "Planetary nebula", "headings": "", "text": "A planetary nebula , often abbreviated as PN or plural PNe , is a kind of emission nebula consisting of an expanding , glowing shell of ionized gas ejected from old red giant stars late in their lives . The word `` nebula '' is Latin for mist or cloud , and the term `` planetary nebula '' is a misnomer that originated in the 1780s with astronomer William Herschel because when viewed through his telescope , these objects resemble the rounded shapes of planets . Herschel 's name for these objects was popularly adopted and has not been changed . They are a relatively short-lived phenomenon , lasting a few tens of thousands of years , compared to a typical stellar lifetime of several billion years .   A mechanism for formation of most planetary nebulae is thought to be the following : at the end of the star 's life , during the red-giant phase , the outer layers of the star are expelled by strong stellar winds . After most of the red giant 's atmosphere is dissipated , the ultraviolet radiation of the hot luminous core , called a planetary nebula nucleus ( PNN ) , ionizes the outer layers earlier ejected from the star . Absorbed ultraviolet light energises the shell of nebulous gas around the central star , causing it to appear as a brightly coloured planetary nebula .   Planetary nebulae likely play a crucial role in the chemical evolution of the Milky Way by expelling elements to the interstellar medium from stars where those elements were created . Planetary nebulae are also observed in more distant galaxies , yielding useful information about their chemical abundances .   Starting from the 1990s , Hubble Space Telescope images have revealed many planetary nebulae to have extremely complex and varied morphologies . About one-fifth are roughly spherical , but the majority are not spherically symmetric . The mechanisms that produce such a wide variety of shapes and features are not yet well understood , but binary central stars , stellar winds and magnetic fields may play a role ."}
{"_id": "Plant", "title": "Plant", "headings": "", "text": "Plants are mainly multicellular , predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae .   The term is today generally limited to the green plants , which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae ( Latin for `` green plants '' ) . This includes the flowering plants , conifers and other gymnosperms , ferns , clubmosses , hornworts , liverworts , mosses and the green algae , and excludes the red and brown algae . Historically , plants formed one of two kingdoms covering all living things that were not animals , and both algae and fungi were treated as plants ; however all current definitions of `` plant '' exclude the fungi and some algae , as well as the prokaryotes ( the archaea and bacteria ) .   Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts , derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria . Their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b , which gives them their green color . Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize . Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations , although asexual reproduction is also common .   There are about 300 -- 315 thousand species of plants , of which the great majority , some 260 -- 290 thousand , are seed plants ( see the table below ) . Green plants provide most of the world 's molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earth 's ecologies , especially on land . Plants that produce grains , fruits and vegetables form humankind 's basic foodstuffs , and have been domesticated for millennia . Plants play many roles in culture . They are used as ornaments and , until recently and in great variety , they have served as the source of most medicines and drugs . The scientific study of plants is known as botany , a branch of biology ."}
{"_id": "Plate_tectonics", "title": "Plate tectonics", "headings": "", "text": "Plate tectonics ( from the Late Latin tectonicus , from the τεκτονικός `` pertaining to building '' ) is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth 's lithosphere , over the last hundreds of millions of years . The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift , an idea developed during the first few decades of the 20th century . The geoscientific community accepted plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early 1960s .   The lithosphere , which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet ( the crust and upper mantle ) , is broken up into tectonic plates . The Earth 's lithosphere is composed of seven or eight major plates ( depending on how they are defined ) and many minor plates . Where the plates meet , their relative motion determines the type of boundary : convergent , divergent , or transform . Earthquakes , volcanic activity , mountain-building , and oceanic trench formation occur along these plate boundaries . The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually .   Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere , each topped by its own kind of crust . Along convergent boundaries , subduction carries plates into the mantle ; the material lost is roughly balanced by the formation of new ( oceanic ) crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading . In this way , the total surface of the lithosphere remains the same . This prediction of plate tectonics is also referred to as the conveyor belt principle . Earlier theories , since disproven , proposed gradual shrinking ( contraction ) or gradual expansion of the globe .   Tectonic plates are able to move because the Earth 's lithosphere has greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere . Lateral density variations in the mantle result in convection . Plate movement is thought to be driven by a combination of the motion of the seafloor away from the spreading ridge ( due to variations in topography and density of the crust , which result in differences in gravitational forces ) and drag , with downward suction , at the subduction zones . Another explanation lies in the different forces generated by tidal forces of the Sun and Moon . The relative importance of each of these factors and their relationship to each other is unclear , and still the subject of much debate ."}
{"_id": "Pleistocene", "title": "Pleistocene", "headings": "", "text": "The Pleistocene ( -LSB- pronˈplaɪstəˌsiːn , _ - toʊ - -RSB- , often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age ) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago , spanning the world 's most recent period of repeated glaciations . The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology .   The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period or sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era . In the ICS timescale , the Pleistocene is divided into four stages or ages , the Gelasian , Calabrian , Ionian and Tarantian . All of these stages were defined in southern Europe . In addition to this international subdivision , various regional subdivisions are often used .   Before a change finally confirmed in 2009 by the International Union of Geological Sciences , the time boundary between the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene was regarded as being at 1.806 million years Before Present ( BP ) , as opposed to the currently accepted 2.588 million years BP : publications from the preceding years may use either definition of the period ."}
{"_id": "Pluto", "title": "Pluto", "headings": "", "text": "Pluto ( minor-planet designation : 134340 Pluto ) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt , a ring of bodies beyond Neptune . It was the first Kuiper belt object to be discovered .   Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930 and was originally considered to be the ninth planet from the Sun . After 1992 , its planethood was questioned following the discovery of several objects of similar size in the Kuiper belt . In 2005 , Eris , a dwarf planet in the scattered disc which is 27 % more massive than Pluto , was discovered . This led the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) to define the term `` planet '' formally in 2006 , during their 26th General Assembly . That definition excluded Pluto and reclassified it as a dwarf planet .   Pluto is the largest and second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object directly orbiting the Sun . It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris . Like other Kuiper belt objects , Pluto is primarily made of ice and rock and is relatively small -- about one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume . It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges from 30 to 49 astronomical units or AU ( 4.4 -- 7.4 billion km ) from the Sun . This means that Pluto periodically comes closer to the Sun than Neptune , but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding . Light from the Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average distance ( 39.5 AU ) .   Pluto has five known moons : Charon ( the largest , with a diameter just over half that of Pluto ) , Styx , Nix , Kerberos , and Hydra . Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body .   On July 14 , 2015 , the New Horizons spacecraft became the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto . During its brief flyby , New Horizons made detailed measurements and observations of Pluto and its moons . In September 2016 , astronomers announced that the reddish-brown cap of the north pole of Charon is composed of tholins , organic macromolecules that may be ingredients for the emergence of life , and produced from methane , nitrogen and other gases released from the atmosphere of Pluto and transferred about 19,000 km to the orbiting moon ."}
{"_id": "Podlaskie_Voivodeship", "title": "Podlaskie Voivodeship", "headings": "", "text": "This is an article about a present administrative unit of Poland . For historical units , see History of Podlaskie Voivodeship .   Podlaskie Voivodeship or Podlasie Province ( Województwo podlaskie , -LSB- woje ` wuctfo-pod ` laskJe -RSB- ) is a voivodeship ( province ) in northeastern Poland . It borders on Masovian Voivodeship to the west , Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship to the northwest , Lublin Voivodeship to the south , the Belarusian Voblasts of Grodno and Brest to the east , the Lithuanian Counties of Alytus and Marijampolė to the northeast , and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia to the north .   The capital of Podlasie Province is Białystok . The province was created on 1 January 1999 , pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998 , from the former Białystok and Łomża Voivodeships and the eastern half of the former Suwałki Voivodeship"}
{"_id": "Point_Henry_smelter", "title": "Point Henry smelter", "headings": "", "text": "The Point Henry aluminium smelter was located near Geelong , Victoria in the suburb of Moolap prior to its closure in 2014 . The smelter had a production capacity of 185,000 tonnes of aluminium a year . It was operated by Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals Australia , a joint venture between Alcoa ( 60 % ) and Alumina Limited ( 39.25 % ) . Alumina was brought in by ship and unloaded at a dedicated pier , and approximately half of this finished aluminium was sold to the neighbouring Alcoa Australia Rolled Products plant , where aluminium was rolled into sheet for can manufacture . The remainder of the aluminium was despatched by road as ingots . Around 1000 people were employed at the Point Henry plant .   Construction of the smelter at Point Henry commenced in 1960 by the Cavalier Construction Company . Smelting commenced in 1962 , with full production commencing on 4 April 1963 . The initial electricity supply to the smelter was a 220 kV transmission lines from the Geelong Terminal Station direct to the smelter . When production started , the maximum power demand of the smelter was 39.76 Megawatts ( MW ) . By June 1964 it was 68.38 MW , and by October 76.6 MW -- more than the entire Geelong region 's demand . In November the following year it was 78.88 MW , February 1967 79.84 MW , and 140 MW by 1969 . On 20 March 1969 Alcoa 's own brown coal-fired Anglesea Power Station was brought on line . With 150 MW capacity , the power station was connected to the smelter by around 30 kilometres of high-voltage transmission lines , and was used to augment the supply from the Victorian electrical grid .   The power demand of the smelter was 360 MW for a 185,000 tonne annual production capacity in 2014 , of which approximately 40 per cent was met by the Anglesea power station . The Point Henry smelter , along with the smelter at Portland , used 18 to 25 per cent of Victoria 's electricity production during the 2000s . In March 2010 it was announced that the operators of Loy Yang A power station ( Loy Yang Power ) had signed a contract with the smelter operators for the supply of electricity to power aluminium smelters at Portland and Point Henry until 2036 , the existing power contracts expiring in 2014 ."}
{"_id": "Polar_amplification", "title": "Polar amplification", "headings": "", "text": "Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict .   In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below ."}
{"_id": "Polar_bear", "title": "Polar bear", "headings": "", "text": "The polar bear ( ursus #Latin maritimus #Latin ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 -- , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means `` maritime bear '' and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals ; an alternative basis for classification as marine mammals is that they depend on the ocean as their main food source .   Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures ."}
{"_id": "Polar_ice_cap", "title": "Polar ice cap", "headings": "", "text": "A polar ice cap or polar cap is a high-latitude region of a planet , dwarf planet , or natural satellite that is covered in ice .   There are no requirements with respect to size or composition for a body of ice to be termed a polar ice cap , nor any geological requirement for it to be over land ; only that it must be a body of solid phase matter in the polar region . This causes the term `` polar ice cap '' to be something of a misnomer , as the term ice cap itself is applied more narrowly to bodies that are over land , and cover less than 50,000 km ² : larger bodies are referred to as ice sheets .   The composition of the ice will vary . For example , Earth 's polar caps are mainly water ice , whereas Mars 's polar ice caps are a mixture of solid carbon dioxide and water ice .   Polar ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the Sun than equatorial regions , resulting in lower surface temperatures .   Earth 's polar caps have changed dramatically over the last 12,000 years . Seasonal variations of the ice caps takes place due to varied solar energy absorption as the planet or moon revolves around the Sun . Additionally , in geologic time scales , the ice caps may grow or shrink due to climate variation ."}
{"_id": "Polar_regions_of_Earth", "title": "Polar regions of Earth", "headings": "", "text": "The polar regions of Earth , also known as Earth 's frigid zones , are the regions of Earth surrounding its geographical poles ( the North and South Poles ) . These regions are dominated by Earth 's polar ice caps , the northern resting on the Arctic Ocean and the southern on the continent of Antarctica ."}
{"_id": "Polar_vortex", "title": "Polar vortex", "headings": "", "text": "A polar vortex is an upper level low-pressure area lying near the Earth 's pole . There are two polar vortices in the Earth 's atmosphere , which overlie the North , and South Poles . Each polar vortex is a persistent , large-scale , low pressure zone that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole ( called a cyclone ) , and clockwise at the South Pole . The bases of the two polar vortices are located in the middle and upper troposphere and extend into the stratosphere . Beneath that lies a large mass of cold , dense arctic air . The vortices weaken and strengthen from year to year . When the vortex of the arctic is strong it is well defined , there is a single vortex and the arctic air is well contained ; when weaker , which it generally is , it will break into two or more vortices ; when very weak , the flow of arctic air becomes more disorganized and masses of cold arctic air can push equatorward , bringing with it a rapid and sharp temperature drop . The interface between the cold dry air mass of the pole and the warm moist air mass further south defines the location of the polar front . The polar front is centered , roughly at 60 ° latitude . A polar vortex strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer due to its dependence on the temperature difference between the equator and the poles . The vortices span less than 1,000 kilometers ( 620 miles ) in diameter within which they rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , and in a clockwise fashion in the Southern Hemisphere . As with other cyclones , their rotation is driven by the Coriolis effect .   When the polar vortex is strong , there is a single vortex with a jet stream that is `` well constrained '' near the polar front . When the northern vortex weakens , it separates into two or more vortices , the strongest of which are near Baffin Island , Canada and the other over northeast Siberia . The Antarctic vortex of the Southern Hemisphere is a single low pressure zone that is found near the edge of the Ross ice shelf near 160 west longitude . When the polar vortex is strong , the mid-latitude Westerlies ( winds at the surface level between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude from the west ) increase in strength and are persistent . When the polar vortex is weak , high pressure zones of the mid latitudes may push poleward , moving the polar vortex , jet stream , and polar front equatorward . The jet stream is seen to `` buckle '' and deviate south . This rapidly brings cold dry air into contact with the warm , moist air of the mid latitudes , resulting in a rapid and dramatic change of weather known as a `` cold snap '' .   Ozone depletion occurs within the polar vortices -- particularly over the Southern Hemisphere -- reaching a maximum depletion in the spring ."}
{"_id": "Political_positions_of_Paul_Ryan", "title": "Political positions of Paul Ryan", "headings": "", "text": "The political positions of Paul Ryan , since 1999 the U.S. Representative from Wisconsin 's 1st congressional district and currently the 54th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives , are conservative and Republican with a focus on fiscal policy . Ryan was Chairman of the House Budget Committee from 2011 to 2015 and of Ways and Means in 2015 . Ryan was the Republican nominee for vice president as the running mate of Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election .   Ryan supports eliminating the capital gains tax , the corporate income tax , the estate tax , and the Alternative Minimum Tax .  In 1999 Ryan supported the Gramm -- Leach -- Bliley Act , which repealed some financial regulation of banks from the Glass -- Steagall Act of 1933 . During the economic recovery from the Great Recession of the late 2000s , Ryan supported the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) , which authorized the Treasury to purchase toxic assets from banks and other financial institutions , and the auto industry bailout ; Ryan opposed the Credit CARD Act of 2009 , which expanded consumer protections regarding credit card plans , and the Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act , which strengthened financial regulation .   Ryan believes federal poverty reduction programs are ineffective and supports cuts to welfare , child care , Pell Grants , food stamps , and other federal assistance programs . Ryan supports the privatization of social security and Medicare and block granting Medicaid to the states . Ryan supported the Medicare Part D prescription drug benefit , and opposes the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( ACA ) , also known as `` Obamacare '' , and supports its repeal .   Ryan is pro-life and opposes abortion rights . Ryan opposed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 , which bolstered women 's rights to equal pay for equal work . Ryan supports civil unions and opposes same-sex marriage . Ryan supports school vouchers , and supported the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 and its repeal in 2015 . Ryan is unsure , and believes climate scientists are unsure , of the impact of human activity on climate change . Ryan supports tax incentives for the petroleum industry and opposes them for renewable energy . Ryan supports gun rights and opposes stricter gun control . Ryan supported the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan ."}
{"_id": "Politics_of_global_warming", "title": "Politics of global warming", "headings": "", "text": "The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge ."}
{"_id": "Pollution", "title": "Pollution", "headings": "", "text": "Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy , such as noise , heat or light . Pollutants , the components of pollution , can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants . Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution ."}
{"_id": "Population_density", "title": "Population density", "headings": "", "text": "Population density ( in agriculture : standing stock and standing crop ) is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume ; it is a quantity of type number density . It is frequently applied to living organisms , and most of the time to humans . It is a key geographical term ."}
{"_id": "Population_genetics", "title": "Population genetics", "headings": "", "text": "Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations , and is a part of evolutionary biology . Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation , speciation , and population structure .   Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis . Its primary founders were Sewall Wright , J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher , who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics . Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline , modern population genetics encompasses theoretical , lab , and field work . Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept .   What sets population genetics apart today from newer , more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution , such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics , is its emphasis on genetic phenomena as dominance , epistasis , and the degree to which genetic recombination breaks up linkage disequilibrium . This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data ."}
{"_id": "Portable_Network_Graphics", "title": "Portable Network Graphics", "headings": "", "text": "Portable Network Graphics ( PNG -LSB- ˈpɪŋ -RSB- ) is a raster graphics file format that supports lossless data compression . PNG was created as an improved , non-patented replacement for Graphics Interchange Format ( GIF ) , and is the most widely used lossless image compression format on the Internet .   PNG supports palette-based images ( with palettes of 24-bit RGB or 32-bit RGBA colors ) , grayscale images ( with or without alpha channel for transparency ) , and full-color non-palette-based RGB/RGBA images ( with or without alpha channel ) . PNG was designed for transferring images on the Internet , not for professional-quality print graphics , and therefore does not support non-RGB color spaces such as CMYK . A PNG file contains a single image in an extensible structure of `` chunks '' , encoding the basic pixels and other information such as textual comments and integrity checks .   PNG files nearly always use file extension PNG or png and are assigned MIME media type image/png . PNG was approved for this use by the Internet Engineering Steering Group on 14 October 1996 , and was published as an ISO/IEC standard in 2004 ."}
{"_id": "Portland,_Oregon", "title": "Portland, Oregon", "headings": "", "text": "Portland ( -LSB- ˈpɔrtlənd -RSB- ) is a port and the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon and the seat of Multnomah County . It is in the Willamette Valley region of the Pacific Northwest , at the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers . The city covers 145 sqmi and had an estimated population of 639,863 in 2016 , making it the 26th most populous city in the United States . Approximately 2,424,955 people live in the Portland metropolitan statistical area ( MSA ) , the 25th most populous MSA in the United States . Its Combined Statistical Area ( CSA ) ranks 18th with a population of 3,160,488 . Roughly 60 % of Oregon 's population resides within the Portland metropolitan area .   Named after Portland , Maine , the Oregon settlement began to be populated in the 1830s near the end of the Oregon Trail . Its water access provided convenient transportation of goods , and the timber industry was a major force in the city 's early economy . At the turn of the 20th century , the city had a reputation as one of the most dangerous port cities in the world , a hub for organized crime and racketeering .   After the city 's economy experienced an industrial boom during World War II , its hard-edged reputation began to dissipate . Beginning in the 1960s , Portland became noted for its growing liberal political values , and the city has earned a reputation as a bastion of counterculture , which proceeded into the 21st century .   The city operates with a commission-based government guided by a mayor and four commissioners as well as Metro , the only directly elected metropolitan planning organization in the United States . The city government is notable for its land-use planning and investment in public transportation . Portland is frequently recognized as one of the world 's most environmentally conscious cities because of its high walkability , large community of bicyclists , farm-to-table dining , expansive network of public transportation options , and over 10000 acre of public parks . Its climate is marked by warm , dry summers and cool , rainy winters . This climate is ideal for growing roses , and Portland has been called the `` City of Roses '' for over a century . `` Keep Portland Weird '' is an unofficial slogan for the city ."}
{"_id": "Positive_feedback", "title": "Positive feedback", "headings": "", "text": "Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation .  That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics .   Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect .  That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger .  Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback .   Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again ."}
{"_id": "Post-glacial_rebound", "title": "Post-glacial rebound", "headings": "", "text": "Post-glacial rebound ( also called either isostatic rebound or crustal rebound ) is the rise of land masses that were depressed by the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , through a process known as isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are different parts of a process known as either glacial isostasy , glacial isostatic adjustment , or glacioisostasy . Glacioisostasy is the solid Earth deformation associated with changes in ice mass distribution . The most obvious and direct effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However , through processes known as ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets ."}
{"_id": "Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom", "title": "Poverty in the United Kingdom", "headings": "", "text": "This article is about poverty within the population of the United Kingdom as distinct from UK policy on world poverty .   Despite being a developed country , those living at the lower end of the income distribution in the United Kingdom have a relatively low standard of living . Data based on incomes published in 2016 by Department for Work and Pensions ( DWP ) show that , after housing costs have been taken into consideration , the number of people living in the UK in relative poverty to be 13.44 m ( 21 % of the population ) In 2015 , a report by Institute for Fiscal Studies reported that 21.6 % of Britons were now in relative poverty . The report showed that there had been a fall in poverty in the first few years of the twenty-first century , but the rate of poverty had remained broadly flat since 2004/5 .   It has been found by the Poverty and Social Exclusion project at Bristol University in 2014 , that the proportion of households lacking three items or activities deemed necessary for life in the UK at that time ( as defined by a survey of the wider population ) has increased from 14 % in 1983 to 33 % in 2012 ."}
{"_id": "Power_station", "title": "Power station", "headings": "", "text": "A power station , also referred to as a power plant or powerhouse and sometimes generating station or generating plant , is an industrial facility for the generation of electric power . Most power stations contain one or more generators , a rotating machine that converts mechanical power into electrical power . The relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor creates an electrical current . The energy source harnessed to turn the generator varies widely . Most power stations in the world burn fossil fuels such as coal , oil , and natural gas to generate electricity . Others use nuclear power , but there is an increasing use of cleaner renewable sources such as solar , wind , wave and hydroelectric ."}
{"_id": "Precipitation", "title": "Precipitation", "headings": "", "text": "In meteorology , precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity . The main forms of precipitation include drizzle , rain , sleet , snow , graupel and hail . Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor , so that the water condenses and `` precipitates '' . Thus , fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions , because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate . Two processes , possibly acting together , can lead to air becoming saturated : cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air . Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud . Short , intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called `` showers . ''   Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain . This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring . A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air . Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content , the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds , namely stratus and cumulonimbus . Eventually , the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example due to water evaporation from lakes , lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes .   Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans and 107000 km3 over land . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm , but over land it is only 715 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes .   Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies , e.g. when it gets cold , Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost , rather than rain or snow ."}
{"_id": "Presidency_of_Barack_Obama", "title": "Presidency of Barack Obama", "headings": "", "text": "The presidency of Barack Obama began at noon EST on January 20 , 2009 , when Barack Obama was inaugurated as President of the United States , and ended on January 20 , 2017 . Obama , a Democrat , took office as the 44th United States president following a decisive victory over Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election . Four years later , in the 2012 election , he defeated Mitt Romney to win re-election . He was the first African American president , the first multiracial president , the first non-white president , and the first president to have been born in Hawaii . Obama was succeeded by Republican Donald Trump , who won the 2016 presidential election .   Obama 's first-term actions addressed the global financial crisis and included a major stimulus package , a partial extension of the Bush tax cuts , legislation to reform health care , a major financial regulation reform bill , and the end of a major US military presence in Iraq . Obama also appointed Supreme Court Justices Elena Kagan and Sonia Sotomayor , the latter of whom became the first Hispanic American on the Supreme Court . Democrats controlled both houses of Congress until Republicans won a majority in the House of Representatives in the 2010 elections . Following the elections , Obama and Congressional Republicans engaged in a protracted stand-off over government spending levels and the debt ceiling .   In his second term , Obama took steps to combat climate change , signing a major international climate agreement and an executive order to limit carbon emissions . Obama also presided over the implementation of the Affordable Care Act and other legislation passed in his first term , and he negotiated rapprochements with Iran and Cuba . The number of American soldiers in Afghanistan fell dramatically during Obama 's second term , though U.S. soldiers remained in Afghanistan throughout Obama 's presidency . Republicans took control of the Senate after the 2014 elections , and Obama continued to grapple with Congressional Republicans over government spending , immigration , judicial nominations , and other issues ."}
{"_id": "Presidency_of_Donald_Trump", "title": "Presidency of Donald Trump", "headings": "", "text": "The presidency of Donald Trump began at noon EST on January 20 , 2017 , the day that Donald Trump was inaugurated as the 45th President of the United States , succeeding Barack Obama . Trump , a Republican , was a businessman from New York City at the time of his victory in the 2016 presidential election over Democrat Hillary Clinton . His running mate , former Governor Mike Pence of Indiana , took office as the 48th Vice President of the United States on the same day . Trump 's term in office is set to end on January 20 , 2021 , though he is eligible for election to a second term and has declared his intention to run .   During his first few months in office , , Trump has issued 36 executive orders and 25 presidential memoranda . The executive orders 13769 and 13780 dealing with denying admission to the US of people from several foreign countries have been blocked by federal courts . Trump 's nominee to the Supreme Court , Neil Gorsuch , was confirmed by the United States Senate on April 7 , 2017 ."}
{"_id": "Presidential_transition_of_Barack_Obama", "title": "Presidential transition of Barack Obama", "headings": "", "text": "The Presidential transition of Barack Obama began when Barack Obama won the United States presidential election on November 4 , 2008 , and became the President-elect . He was formally elected by the Electoral College on December 15 , 2008 . The results were certified by a joint session of Congress on January 8 , 2009 , and the transition ended when he was inaugurated at noon on January 20 , 2009 ."}
{"_id": "Probability", "title": "Probability", "headings": "", "text": "Probability is the measure of the likelihood that an event will occur . Probability is quantified as a number between 0 and 1 , where , loosely speaking , 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty . The higher the probability of an event , the more certain that the event will occur . A simple example is the tossing of a fair ( unbiased ) coin . Since the coin is fair , the two outcomes ( `` heads '' and `` tails '' ) are both equally probable ; the probability of `` heads '' equals the probability of `` tails '' ; and since no other outcomes are possible , the probability of either `` heads '' or `` tails '' is 1/2 ( which could also be written as 0.5 or 50 % ) .   These concepts have been given an axiomatic mathematical formalization in probability theory , which is used widely in such areas of study as mathematics , statistics , finance , gambling , science ( in particular physics ) , artificial intelligence/machine learning , computer science , game theory , and philosophy to , for example , draw inferences about the expected frequency of events . Probability theory is also used to describe the underlying mechanics and regularities of complex systems ."}
{"_id": "Prognosis", "title": "Prognosis", "headings": "", "text": "Prognosis ( Greek : πρόγνωσις `` fore-knowing , foreseeing '' ) is a medical term for predicting the likely outcome of one 's chance of survival . When applied to large statistical populations , prognostic estimates can be very accurate : for example the statement `` 45 % of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days '' can be made with some confidence , because previous research found that this proportion of patients died . However , it is much harder to translate this into a prognosis for an individual patient : additional information is needed to determine whether a patient belongs to the 45 % who will die , or to the 55 % who survive .   A complete prognosis includes the expected duration , function , and description of the course of the disease , such as progressive decline , intermittent crisis , or sudden , unpredictable crisis ."}
{"_id": "Project_Steve", "title": "Project Steve", "headings": "", "text": "Project Steve is a list of scientists with the given name Stephen/Steven or a variation thereof ( e.g. , Stephanie , Stefan , Esteban , etc. ) who `` support evolution '' . It was originally created by the National Center for Science Education as a `` tongue-in-cheek parody '' of creationist attempts to collect a list of scientists who `` doubt evolution , '' such as the Answers in Genesis ' list of scientists who accept the biblical account of the Genesis creation narrative or the Discovery Institute 's A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism . The list pokes fun at such endeavors to make it clear that , `` We did not wish to mislead the public into thinking that scientific issues are decided by who has the longer list of scientists ! '' It also honors Stephen Jay Gould .   However , at the same time the project is a genuine collection of scientists . Despite the list 's restriction to only scientists with names like `` Steve '' , which in the United States limits the list to roughly 1 percent of the total population , Project Steve is longer and contains many more eminent scientists than any creationist list . In particular , Project Steve contains many more biologists than the creationist lists , with about 51 % of the listed Steves being biologists .   The `` List of Steves '' webpage provides an updated total of scientist `` Steves '' who have signed the list . , Project Steve has 1,416 signatories ."}
{"_id": "Providence,_Rhode_Island", "title": "Providence, Rhode Island", "headings": "", "text": "Providence is the capital of and most populous city in the U.S. state of Rhode Island , founded in 1636 , and one of the oldest cities in the United States . It is located in Providence County and is the third most populous city in New England , after Boston and Worcester . Providence has a city population of 179,154 ; it is also part of the Providence metropolitan area which extends into southern Massachusetts . The Providence metropolitan area has an estimated population of 1,604,291 , which exceeds that of Rhode Island as a whole by about 60 % . This can be considered , in turn , to be part of the Greater Boston commuting area , which contains 7.6 million people .   Providence was founded by Roger Williams , a religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony . He named the area in honor of `` God 's merciful Providence '' , which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him and his followers to settle . The city is situated at the mouth of the Providence River at the head of Narragansett Bay .   Providence was one of the first cities in the country to industrialize and became noted for its textile manufacturing and subsequent machine tool , jewelry , and silverware industries . Today , the city of Providence is home to eight hospitals and seven institutions of higher learning which have shifted the city 's economy into service industries , though it still retains some manufacturing activity . The city was once nicknamed the `` Beehive of Industry '' ; it began rebranding itself as the `` Creative Capital '' in 2009 to emphasize its educational resources and arts community ."}
{"_id": "Proxima_Centauri", "title": "Proxima Centauri", "headings": "", "text": "Proxima Centauri or Alpha Centauri C is a red dwarf , a small low-mass star , about 4.25 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Centaurus . It was discovered in 1915 by the Scottish astronomer Robert Innes , the Director of the Union Observatory in South Africa , and is the nearest-known star to the Sun . With an apparent magnitude of 11.05 , it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye . Proxima Centauri forms a third component of the Alpha Centauri binary star system , currently with a separation of about AU and an orbital period of 550,000 years .   Because of Proxima Centauri 's proximity to Earth , its angular diameter can be measured directly . It is about one-seventh the diameter of the Sun . It has a mass about an eighth of the Sun 's mass , and its average density is about 40 times that of the Sun . Although it has a very low average luminosity , Proxima is a flare star that undergoes random dramatic increases in brightness because of magnetic activity . The star 's magnetic field is created by convection throughout the stellar body , and the resulting flare activity generates a total X-ray emission similar to that produced by the Sun . The mixing of the fuel at Proxima Centauri 's core through convection and its relatively low energy-production rate mean that it will be a main-sequence star for another four trillion years , or nearly 300 times the current age of the universe .   In 2016 , the European Southern Observatory announced the discovery of Proxima b , a planet orbiting the star at a distance of roughly 0.05 AU with an orbital period of approximately 11.2 Earth days . Its estimated mass is at least 1.3 times that of the Earth . The equilibrium temperature of Proxima b is estimated to be within the range where water could exist as liquid on its surface , thus placing it within the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri , although because Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf and a flare star , whether it could support life is disputed .  Previous searches for orbiting companions had ruled out the presence of brown dwarfs and supermassive planets ."}
{"_id": "Proxy_(climate)", "title": "Proxy (climate)", "headings": "", "text": "In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began .   Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping .   Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere ."}
{"_id": "Psychology", "title": "Psychology", "headings": "", "text": "Psychology is the science of behavior and mind , embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought . It is an academic discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles and researching specific cases .   In this field , a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social , behavioral , or cognitive scientist . Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior , while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors .   Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes , including perception , cognition , attention , emotion ( affect ) , intelligence , phenomenology , motivation ( conation ) , brain functioning , and personality . This extends to interaction between people , such as interpersonal relationships , including psychological resilience , family resilience , and other areas . Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind . Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables . In addition , or in opposition , to employing empirical and deductive methods , some -- especially clinical and counseling psychologists -- at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques . Psychology has been described as a `` hub science '' , with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences , natural sciences , medicine , humanities , and philosophy .   While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems , it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in several spheres of human activity . By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society . The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role , practicing in clinical , counseling , or school settings . Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior , and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings ( e.g. , medical schools , hospitals ) . Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings , or in other areas such as human development and aging , sports , health , and the media , as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law ."}
{"_id": "Puerto_Rico", "title": "Puerto Rico", "headings": "", "text": "Puerto Rico ( Spanish for `` Rich Port '' ) , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico , `` Free Associated State of Puerto Rico '' ) and briefly called Porto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea .   It is an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona , Culebra , and Vieques . The capital and most populous city is San Juan . Its official languages are Spanish and English , though Spanish predominates . The island 's population is approximately 3.4 million . Puerto Rico 's rich history , tropical climate , diverse natural scenery , traditional cuisine , and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world .   Originally populated by the indigenous Taíno people , the island was claimed in 1493 by Christopher Columbus for the Crown of Castile , and it later endured invasion attempts from the French , Dutch , and British . Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the island 's ethnic , cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African slaves , and Canarian , and Andalusian settlers . In the Spanish imperial imagination , Puerto Rico played a secondary , but strategic role when compared to wealthier colonies like Peru and Mexico . Such a distant administrative control continued right up until the end of the 19th century helping to produce a distinctive creole Hispanic culture and language that combined elements from the Natives , Africans , and Iberian people . In 1898 , following the Spanish -- American War , the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris .   Puerto Ricans are considered natural-born citizens of the United States . However , Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress , which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 . As a U.S. territory , American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the national level and may not vote for president and vice president of the United States . However , Congress approved a local constitution , allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor . A 2012 referendum showed a majority ( 54 % of those who voted ) disagreed with `` the present form of territorial status '' , with full statehood as the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status , although a significant number of people did not answer the second question from the referendum . A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017 , and `` Statehood '' and `` Independence/Free Association '' were initially the only available options . However , at the recommendation of the Department of Justice , a `` current territorial status '' option will be added .   In early 2017 , the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government . The outstanding bond debt had climbed to $ 70 billion at a time with 12.4 % unemployment . The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession . This was the second major financial crisis to affect the island after the Great Depression when the U.S. government , in 1935 , provided relief efforts through the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration . On May 3 , 2017 , Puerto Rico 's financial oversight board in the U.S. District Court in Puerto Rico filed the debt restructuring petition which was made under Title III of PROMESA ."}
{"_id": "Quantum_mind", "title": "Quantum mind", "headings": "", "text": "The quantum mind or quantum consciousness group of hypotheses propose that classical mechanics can not explain consciousness . It posits that quantum mechanical phenomena , such as quantum entanglement and superposition , may play an important part in the brain 's function and could form the basis of an explanation of consciousness ."}
{"_id": "Quaternary_extinction_event", "title": "Quaternary extinction event", "headings": "", "text": "The Quaternary period saw the extinctions of numerous predominantly larger , especially megafaunal , species , many of which occurred during the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene epoch . However , this extinction wave did not stop at the end of the Pleistocene , but continued , especially on isolated islands , in human-caused extinctions , although there is debate as to whether these should be considered separate events or part of the same event . Among the main causes hypothesized by paleontologists are natural climate change and overkill by humans , who appeared during the Middle Pleistocene and migrated to many regions of the world during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene . A variant of the latter possibility is the second-order predation hypothesis , which focuses more on the indirect damage caused by overcompetition with nonhuman predators . The spread of disease is also discussed as a possible reason ."}
{"_id": "Quaternary_glaciation", "title": "Quaternary glaciation", "headings": "", "text": "The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling ."}
{"_id": "Question_mark", "title": "Question mark", "headings": "", "text": "The question mark -LSB- ? -RSB- ( also known as interrogation point , query , or eroteme in journalism ) is a punctuation mark that indicates an interrogative clause or phrase in many languages . The question mark is not used for indirect questions . The question mark glyph is also often used in place of missing or unknown data . In Unicode , it is encoded at ."}
{"_id": "Rabbit,_Run_(film)", "title": "Rabbit, Run (film)", "headings": "", "text": "Rabbit , Run is a 1970 American independent film directed by Jack Smight adapted from John Updike 's 1960 novel by Howard Kreitsek | Howard B. Kreitsek , who also served as producer . The film starred James Caan as Rabbit Angstrom , Carrie Snodgress as Rabbit 's wife Janice , and Anjanette Comer as his girlfriend Ruth . The movie co-starred Jack Albertson as Coach Marty Tothero , Arthur Hill as Rev. Jack Eccles , and Henry Jones and Josephine Hutchinson as Rabbit 's parents ."}
{"_id": "Radiative_forcing", "title": "Radiative forcing", "headings": "", "text": "Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols ."}
{"_id": "Radiocarbon_dating", "title": "Radiocarbon dating", "headings": "", "text": "Radiocarbon dating ( also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating ) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon , a radioactive isotope of carbon .   The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists . Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960 . The radiocarbon dating method is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen . The resulting radiocarbon combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide , which is incorporated into plants by photosynthesis ; animals then acquire by eating the plants . When the animal or plant dies , it stops exchanging carbon with its environment , and from that point onwards the amount of it contains begins to decrease as the undergoes radioactive decay . Measuring the amount of in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died . The older a sample is , the less there is to be detected , and because the half-life of ( the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed ) is about 5,730 years , the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to around 50,000 years ago , although special preparation methods occasionally permit accurate analysis of older samples .   The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward , but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained . Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years . The resulting data , in the form of a calibration curve , is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample 's calendar age . Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of in different types of organisms ( fractionation ) , and the varying levels of throughout the biosphere ( reservoir effects ) . Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil , and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s . Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its to decay below detectable levels , fossil fuels contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century . Conversely , nuclear testing increased the amount of in the atmosphere , which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began .   Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done by beta-counting devices , which counted the amount of beta radiation emitted by decaying atoms in a sample . More recently , accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice ; it counts all the atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements ; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples ( as small as individual plant seeds ) , and gives results much more quickly . The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology . In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods , it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances . Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the `` radiocarbon revolution '' . Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated , such as the end of the last ice age , and the beginning of the Neolithic and Bronze Age in different regions ."}
{"_id": "Rain", "title": "Rain", "headings": "", "text": "Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated -- that is , become heavy enough to fall under gravity . Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth . It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems , as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation .   The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts . If enough moisture and upward motion is present , precipitation falls from convective clouds ( those with strong upward vertical motion ) such as cumulonimbus ( thunder clouds ) which can organize into narrow rainbands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes .   The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall , both in amounts and intensity , downwind of cities . Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally , including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics . Antarctica is the driest continent . The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm , but over the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Rainfall is measured using rain gauges . Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar .   Rain is also known or suspected on other planets , where it may be composed of methane , neon , sulfuric acid , or even iron rather than water ."}
{"_id": "Random_variable", "title": "Random variable", "headings": "", "text": "In probability and statistics , a random variable , random quantity , aleatory variable , or stochastic variable is a variable quantity whose value depends on possible outcomes . As a function , a random variable is required to be measurable , which rules out certain pathological cases where the quantity which the random variable returns is infinitely sensitive to small changes in the outcome .   It is common that these outcomes depend on some physical variables that are not well understood . For example ,  when you toss a coin , the final outcome of heads or tails depends on the uncertain physics . Which outcome will be observed is not certain . Of course  the coin could get caught in a crack in the floor , but such a possibility is excluded from consideration . The domain of a random variable is the set of possible outcomes . In the case of the coin , there are only two possible outcomes , namely heads or tails . Since one of these outcomes must occur , either the event that the coin lands heads or the event that the coin lands tails must have non-zero probability .   A random variable is defined as a function that maps outcomes to numerical quantities ( labels ) , typically real numbers . In this sense , it is a procedure for assigning a numerical quantity to each physical outcome , and , contrary to its name , this procedure itself is neither random nor variable . What is random is the unstable physics that describes how the coin lands , and the uncertainty of which outcome will actually be observed .   A random variable 's possible values might represent the possible outcomes of a yet-to-be-performed experiment , or the possible outcomes of a past experiment whose already-existing value is uncertain ( for example , due to imprecise measurements or quantum uncertainty ) . They may also conceptually represent either the results of an `` objectively '' random process ( such as rolling a die ) or the `` subjective '' randomness that results from incomplete knowledge of a quantity . The meaning of the probabilities assigned to the potential values of a random variable is not part of probability theory itself but is instead related to philosophical arguments over the interpretation of probability . The mathematics works the same regardless of the particular interpretation in use .   A random variable has a probability distribution , which specifies the probability that its value falls in any given interval . Random variables can be discrete , that is , taking any of a specified finite or countable list of values , endowed with a probability mass function characteristic of the random variable 's probability distribution ; or continuous , taking any numerical value in an interval or collection of intervals , via a probability density function that is characteristic of the random variable 's probability distribution ; or a mixture of both types . Two random variables with the same probability distribution can still differ in terms of their associations with , or independence from , other random variables . The realizations of a random variable , that is , the results of randomly choosing values according to the variable 's probability distribution function , are called random variates .   The formal mathematical treatment of random variables is a topic in probability theory . In that context , a random variable is understood as a function defined on a sample space whose outputs are numerical values ."}
{"_id": "Raptor_conservation", "title": "Raptor conservation", "headings": "", "text": "Raptor conservation concerns are threats affecting the population viability of birds of prey . Because of their hunting lifestyle , raptors face distinct conservation challenges . As top predators , they are important for healthy ecosystem functioning , and by protecting them many other species are safeguarded . Their extensive habitat requirements make regional conservation strategies necessary for protecting birds of prey ."}
{"_id": "Rate_of_return", "title": "Rate of return", "headings": "", "text": "In finance , return is a profit on an investment . It comprises any change in value and interest or dividends or other such cash flows which the investor receives from the investment . It may be measured either in absolute terms ( e.g. , dollars ) or as a percentage of the amount invested . The latter is also called the holding period return .   A loss instead of a profit is described as a negative return .   Rate of return is a profit on an investment over a period of time , expressed as a proportion of the original investment . The time period is typically a year , in which case the rate of return is referred to as annual return .   To compare returns over time periods of different lengths on an equal basis , it is useful to convert each return into an annual equivalent rate of return , or annualised return . This conversion process is called annualisation , described below .   Return on investment ( ROI ) is return per dollar invested . It is a measure of investment performance , as opposed to size ( c.f. return on equity , return on assets , return on capital employed ) ."}
{"_id": "Reaganomics", "title": "Reaganomics", "headings": "", "text": "Reaganomics ( -LSB- reɪgəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- a portmanteau of -LSB- Ronald -RSB- Reagan and economics attributed to Paul Harvey ) refers to the economic policies promoted by U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s . These policies are commonly associated with supply-side economics , referred to as trickle-down economics or voodoo economics by political opponents , and free-market economics by political advocates .   The four pillars of Reagan 's economic policy were to reduce the growth of government spending , reduce the federal income tax and capital gains tax , reduce government regulation , and tighten the money supply in order to reduce inflation ."}
{"_id": "Reason", "title": "Reason", "headings": "", "text": "Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things , applying logic , establishing and verifying facts , and changing or justifying practices , institutions , and beliefs based on new or existing information . It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy , science , language , mathematics , and art and is normally considered to be a definitive characteristic of human nature .  Reason , or an aspect of it , is sometimes referred to as rationality .   Reasoning is associated with thinking , cognition , and intellect . Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical reasoning ( forms associated with the strict sense ) : deductive reasoning , inductive reasoning , abductive reasoning ; and other modes of reasoning considered more informal , such as intuitive reasoning and verbal reasoning . Along these lines , a distinction is often drawn between discursive reason , reason proper , and intuitive reason , in which the reasoning process -- however valid -- tends toward the personal and the opaque . Although in many social and political settings logical and intuitive modes of reason may clash , in other contexts intuition and formal reason are seen as complementary , rather than adversarial as , for example , in mathematics , where intuition is often a necessary building block in the creative process of achieving the hardest form of reason , a formal proof .   Reason , like habit or intuition , is one of the ways by which thinking comes from one idea to a related idea . For example , it is the means by which rational beings understand themselves to think about cause and effect , truth and falsehood , and what is good or bad . It is also closely identified with the ability to self-consciously change beliefs , attitudes , traditions , and institutions , and therefore with the capacity for freedom and self-determination .   In contrast to reason as an abstract noun , a reason is a consideration which explains or justifies some event , phenomenon , or behavior . The field of logic studies ways in which human beings reason formally through argument .   Psychologists and cognitive scientists have attempted to study and explain how people reason , e.g. which cognitive and neural processes are engaged , and how cultural factors affect the inferences that people draw . The field of automated reasoning studies how reasoning may or may not be modeled computationally . Animal psychology considers the question of whether animals other than humans can reason ."}
{"_id": "Recycling", "title": "Recycling", "headings": "", "text": "Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects . It is an alternative to `` conventional '' waste disposal that can save material and help lower greenhouse gas emissions ( compared to plastic production , for example ) . Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials , thereby reducing : energy usage , air pollution ( from incineration ) , and water pollution ( from landfilling ) .   Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the `` Reduce , Reuse , and Recycle '' waste hierarchy .   There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste and ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice .   Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass , paper , and cardboard , metal , plastic , tires , textiles , and electronics . The composting or other reuse of biodegradable waste -- such as food or garden waste -- is also considered recycling . Materials to be recycled are either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside , then sorted , cleaned , and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing .   In the strictest sense , recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same material -- for example , used office paper would be converted into new office paper or used polystyrene foam into new polystyrene . However , this is often difficult or too expensive ( compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other sources ) , so `` recycling '' of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing different materials ( for example , paperboard ) instead . Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex products , either due to their intrinsic value ( such as lead from car batteries , or gold from circuit boards ) , or due to their hazardous nature ( e.g. , removal and reuse of mercury from thermometers and thermostats ) ."}
{"_id": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation", "title": "Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation", "headings": "", "text": "Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 .   In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC .   During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests .   In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure ."}
{"_id": "Reef", "title": "Reef", "headings": "", "text": "A reef is a bar of rock , sand , coral or similar material , lying beneath the surface of water . Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface .   Many reefs result from abiotic processes -- deposition of sand , wave erosion planing down rock outcrops , and other natural processes -- but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae . Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms , especially fish ."}
{"_id": "Reforestation", "title": "Reforestation", "headings": "", "text": "Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands that have been depleted , usually through deforestation . Reforestation can be used to rectify or improve the quality of human life by soaking up pollution and dust from the air , rebuild natural habitats and ecosystems , mitigate global warming since forests facilitate biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , and harvest for resources , particularly timber , but also non-timber forest products .   The term reforestation is similar to afforestation , the process of restoring and recreating areas of woodlands or forests that may have existed long ago but were deforested or otherwise removed at some point in the past . Sometimes the term re-afforestation is used to distinguish between the original forest cover and the later re-growth of forest to an area . Forestation is the establishment of forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it .   Special tools , e.g. tree planting bars , are used to make planting of trees easier and faster ."}
{"_id": "Regime_shift", "title": "Regime shift", "headings": "", "text": "In ecology , regime shifts are large , abrupt , persistent changes in the structure and function of a system . A regime is a characteristic behaviour of a system which is maintained by mutually reinforced processes or feedbacks . Regimes are considered persistent relative to the time period over which the shift occurs . The change of regimes , or the shift , usually occurs when a smooth change in an internal process ( feedback ) or a single disturbance ( external shocks ) triggers a completely different system behavior . Although such non-linear changes have been widely studied in different disciplines ranging from atoms to climate dynamics , regime shifts have gained importance in ecology because they can substantially affect the flow of ecosystem services that societies rely upon , such as provision of food , clean water or climate regulation . Moreover , regime shift occurrence is expected to increase as human influence on the planet increases -- the Anthropocene -- including current trends on human induced climate change and biodiversity loss ."}
{"_id": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "title": "Regional effects of global warming", "headings": "", "text": "Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores .   Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years .   There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise ."}
{"_id": "Regression_analysis", "title": "Regression analysis", "headings": "", "text": "In statistical modeling , regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables . It includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables , when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables ( or ` predictors ' ) . More specifically , regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable ( or ` criterion variable ' ) changes when any one of the independent variables is varied , while the other independent variables are held fixed . Most commonly , regression analysis estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables -- that is , the average value of the dependent variable when the independent variables are fixed . Less commonly , the focus is on a quantile , or other location parameter of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable given the independent variables . In all cases , the estimation target is a function of the independent variables called the regression function . In regression analysis , it is also of interest to characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the regression function which can be described by a probability distribution . A related but distinct approach is necessary condition analysis ( NCA ) , which estimates the maximum ( rather than average ) value of the dependent variable for a given value of the independent variable ( ceiling line rather than central line ) in order to identify what value of the independent variable is necessary but not sufficient for a given value of the dependent variable .   Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting , where its use has substantial overlap with the field of machine learning . Regression analysis is also used to understand which among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable , and to explore the forms of these relationships . In restricted circumstances , regression analysis can be used to infer causal relationships between the independent and dependent variables . However this can lead to illusions or false relationships , so caution is advisable ; for example , correlation does not imply causation .   Many techniques for carrying out regression analysis have been developed . Familiar methods such as linear regression and ordinary least squares regression are parametric , in that the regression function is defined in terms of a finite number of unknown parameters that are estimated from the data . Nonparametric regression refers to techniques that allow the regression function to lie in a specified set of functions , which may be infinite-dimensional .   The performance of regression analysis methods in practice depends on the form of the data generating process , and how it relates to the regression approach being used . Since the true form of the data-generating process is generally not known , regression analysis often depends to some extent on making assumptions about this process . These assumptions are sometimes testable if a sufficient quantity of data is available . Regression models for prediction are often useful even when the assumptions are moderately violated , although they may not perform optimally . However , in many applications , especially with small effects or questions of causality based on observational data , regression methods can give misleading results .   In a narrower sense , regression may refer specifically to the estimation of continuous response variables , as opposed to the discrete response variables used in classification . The case of a continuous output variable may be more specifically referred to as metric regression to distinguish it from related problems ."}
{"_id": "Reinforcement", "title": "Reinforcement", "headings": "", "text": "In behavioral psychology , reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organism 's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus . This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior ( e.g. , pulling a lever more frequently ) , longer duration ( e.g. , pulling a lever for longer periods of time ) , greater magnitude ( e.g. , pulling a lever with greater force ) , or shorter latency ( e.g. , pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent stimulus ) .   Rewarding stimuli , which are associated with `` wanting '' and `` liking '' ( desire and pleasure , respectively ) and appetitive behavior , function as positive reinforcers ; the converse statement is also true : positive reinforcers provide a desirable stimulus . Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus . Thus , reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior . However , there is also negative reinforcement , which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus . An ibuprofen is a negative reinforcer because it takes away pain .   In most cases , the term `` reinforcement '' refers to an enhancement of behavior , but this term is also sometimes used to denote an enhancement of memory ; for example , `` post-training reinforcement '' refers to the provision of a stimulus ( such as food ) after a learning session in an attempt to increase the retained breadth , detail , and duration of the individual memories or overall memory just formed . The memory-enhancing stimulus can also be one whose effects are directly rather than only indirectly emotional , as with the phenomenon of `` flashbulb memory , '' in which an emotionally highly intense stimulus can incentivize memory of a set of a situation 's circumstances well beyond the subset of those circumstances that caused the emotionally significant stimulus , as when people of appropriate age are able to remember where they were and what they were doing when they learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy or of the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks .   Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning ."}
{"_id": "Reliability_engineering", "title": "Reliability engineering", "headings": "", "text": "Reliability engineering is engineering that emphasizes dependability in the lifecycle management of a product . Dependability , or reliability , describes the ability of a system or component to function under stated conditions for a specified period of time . Reliability may also describe the ability to function at a specified moment or interval of time ( Availability ) . Reliability engineering represents a sub-discipline within systems engineering . Reliability is theoretically defined as the probability of success , as the frequency of failures ; or in terms of availability , as a probability derived from reliability , testability and maintainability . Testability , Maintainability and maintenance are often defined as a part of `` reliability engineering '' in Reliability Programs . Reliability plays a key role in the cost-effectiveness of systems .   Reliability engineering deals with the estimation , prevention and management of high levels of `` lifetime '' engineering uncertainty and risks of failure . Although stochastic parameters define and affect reliability , according to some expert authors on reliability engineering ( e.g. P. O'Conner , J. Moubray and A. Barnard ) , reliability is not ( solely ) achieved by mathematics and statistics . You can not really find a root cause ( needed to effectively prevent failures ) by only looking at statistics . `` Nearly all teaching and literature on the subject emphasize these aspects , and ignore the reality that the ranges of uncertainty involved largely invalidate quantitative methods for prediction and measurement . ''   Reliability engineering relates closely to safety engineering and to system safety , in that they use common methods for their analysis and may require input from each other . Reliability engineering focuses on costs of failure caused by system downtime , cost of spares , repair equipment , personnel , and cost of warranty claims . Safety engineering normally emphasizes not cost , but preserving life and nature , and therefore deals only with particular dangerous system-failure modes . High reliability ( safety factor ) levels also result from good engineering and from attention to detail , and almost never from only reactive failure management ( reliability accounting / statistics ) ."}
{"_id": "Remote_sensing", "title": "Remote sensing", "headings": "", "text": "Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation . Remote sensing is used in numerous fields , including geography , land surveying and most Earth Science disciplines ( for example , hydrology , ecology  , oceanography , glaciology , geology ) ; it also has military , intelligence , commercial , economic , planning , and humanitarian applications .   In current usage , the term `` remote sensing '' generally refers to the use of satellite - or aircraft-based sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth , including on the surface and in the atmosphere and oceans , based on propagated signals ( e.g. electromagnetic radiation ) . It may be split into `` active '' remote sensing ( i.e. , when a signal is emitted by a satellite or aircraft and its reflection by the object is detected by the sensor ) and `` passive '' remote sensing ( i.e. , when the reflection of sunlight is detected by the sensor ) ."}
{"_id": "Renewable_energy", "title": "Renewable energy", "headings": "", "text": "Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services .   Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable .   Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 .   While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) .   Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas ."}
{"_id": "Renewable_energy_commercialization", "title": "Renewable energy commercialization", "headings": "", "text": "Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years . First-generation technologies , which are already mature and economically competitive , include biomass , hydroelectricity , geothermal power and heat . Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time ; they include solar heating , photovoltaics , wind power , solar thermal power stations , and modern forms of bioenergy . Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification , hot-dry-rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . As of 2012 , renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall .   Public policy and political leadership helps to `` level the playing field '' and drive the wider acceptance of renewable energy technologies . Countries such as Germany , Denmark , and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade . As of 2014 , Germany has a commitment to the `` Energiewende '' transition to a sustainable energy economy , and Denmark has a commitment to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets .   Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015 , providing multiple benefits . There was a new record set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity ( 64GW and 57GW ) and a new high of US$ 329 Billion for global renewables investment . A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Sinovel , Trina Solar , Vestas , and Yingli .   Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries . According to a 2011 projection by the ( IEA ) International Energy Agency , solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years , reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions .   Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States ."}
{"_id": "Renewable_energy_in_Kenya", "title": "Renewable energy in Kenya", "headings": "", "text": "The renewable energy sector in Kenya is among the most active in Africa . In Kenya , investment grew from virtually zero in 2009 to US$ 1.3 billion in 2010 across technologies such as wind , geothermal , small-scale hydro and biofuels . This is not saying that Kenya was never active in the renewable energy sector . Kenya is Africa 's first geothermal power producer and the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita . It is still the largest producer of geothermal power in Africa today at 200 MW with only one other African country producing geothermal power , Ethiopia . Connectivity to the national grid in Kenya currently stands at 28 % . In 2011 , Kenya was also the first country in Africa to open a carbon exchange ."}
{"_id": "Renewable_energy_in_Scotland", "title": "Renewable energy in Scotland", "headings": "", "text": "The production of renewable energy in Scotland is an issue that has come to the fore in technical , economic , and political terms during the opening years of the 21st century . The natural resource base for renewable energy is extraordinary by European , and even global standards , with the most important potential sources being wind , wave , and tide .   In 2015 , Scotland generated 59 % of its electricity consumption through renewable sources , exceeding the country 's lofty goal of 50 % renewable energy by 2015 . Moving forward , the Scottish Government 's energy plan calls for 100 % of electricity consumption to be generated through renewable sources by 2020 , and 50 % of total energy consumption ( including transportation ) by 2030 .   At the start of 2016 , Scotland had 8,055 megawatts ( MW ) of installed renewable electricity capacity . Renewable electricity generation in Scotland was 21,983 GWh in 2015 , up 15.2 % on 2014 . Scottish renewable generation makes up approximately 26.4 % of total UK renewable generation ( down from 32 % in 2014 ) . In 2014 , Scotland exported over 24 per cent of generation .   Continuing improvements in engineering and economics are enabling more of the renewable resources to be utilised . Fears regarding peak oil and climate change have driven the subject high up the political agenda and are also encouraging the use of various biofuels . Although the finances of many projects remain either speculative or dependent on market incentives , it is probable that there has been a significant , and in all likelihood long-term change , in the underpinning economics .   In addition to planned increases in large-scale generating capacity and microsystems using renewable sources , various related schemes to reduce carbon emissions are being researched . Although there is significant support from the public , private and community-led sectors , concerns about the effect of the technologies on the natural environment have been expressed . There is also an emerging political debate about the relationship between the siting , and the ownership and control of these widely distributed resources ."}
{"_id": "Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union", "title": "Renewable energy in the European Union", "headings": "", "text": "The countries of the European Union are the number two global leaders in the development and application of renewable energy . Promoting the use of renewable energy sources is important both to the reduction of the EU 's dependence on foreign energy imports , and in meeting targets to combat global warming ."}
{"_id": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States", "title": "Renewable energy in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays .   Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production .   Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world .   U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world .   The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 ."}
{"_id": "Republican_Party_(United_States)", "title": "Republican Party (United States)", "headings": "", "text": "The Republican Party , commonly referred to as the GOP ( abbreviation for Grand Old Party ) , is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States , the other being its historic rival , the Democratic Party . The party is named after republicanism , the dominant value during the American Revolution . Founded by anti-slavery activists , modernists , ex-Whigs , and ex-Free Soilers in 1854 , the Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932 .   There have been 19 Republican presidents , the most from any one party . The first was 16th president Abraham Lincoln , who served from 1861 to 1865 , when he was assassinated , and the most recent being 45th and current president Donald Trump , who took office on January 20 , 2017 .   The Republican Party 's current ideology is American conservatism , which contrasts with the Democrats ' more progressive platform ( also called modern liberalism ) . Further , its platform involves support for free market capitalism , free enterprise , fiscal conservatism , a strong national defense , deregulation , and restrictions on labor unions . In addition to advocating for conservative economic policies , the Republican Party is socially conservative , and seeks to uphold traditional values based largely on Judeo-Christian ethics . The GOP was strongly committed to protectionism and tariffs from its founding until the 1930s , when it was based in the industrial Northeast and Midwest . Since 1952 there has been a reversal against protectionism and the party 's core support since the 1990s comes chiefly from the South , the Great Plains , the Mountain States and rural districts in the North . as well as from conservative Catholics , Mormons , and Evangelicals nationwide .   As of 2017 , the Republican Party is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928 . In addition to holding the Presidency ( via Trump and Vice President Mike Pence ) , the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress , having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate . The party also holds a majority of governorships ( 33/50 ) and state legislatures ( full control of 32/50 , split control of six others ) ."}
{"_id": "Respiratory_system", "title": "Respiratory system", "headings": "", "text": "The respiratory system ( called also respiratory apparatus , ventilatory system ) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism . The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment .   In air-breathing vertebrates like human beings , respiration takes place in the respiratory organs called lungs . The passage of air into the lungs to supply the body with oxygen is known as inhalation , and the passage of air out of the lungs to expel carbon dioxide is known as exhalation ; this process is collectively called breathing or ventilation . In humans and other mammals , the anatomical features of the respiratory system include trachea , bronchi , bronchioles , lungs , and diaphragm . Molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged , by diffusion , between the gaseous external environment and the blood . This exchange process occurs in the alveoli ( air sacs ) in the lungs .   In fish and many invertebrates , respiration takes place through the gills . Other animals , such as insects , have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features , and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange . Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals . The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata ."}
{"_id": "Retractions_in_academic_publishing", "title": "Retractions in academic publishing", "headings": "", "text": "In academic publishing, a retraction is the action by which a published paper in an academic journal is removed from the journal. Online journals typically remove the retracted article from online access."}
{"_id": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "title": "Retreat of glaciers since 1850", "headings": "", "text": "The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses .   Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear .   The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas .   The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions ."}
{"_id": "Richard_Lindzen", "title": "Richard Lindzen", "headings": "", "text": "Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''"}
{"_id": "Richard_Tol", "title": "Richard Tol", "headings": "", "text": "Richard S. J. Tol ( born 2 December 1969 , Hoorn , the Netherlands ) is a professor of economics at the University of Sussex . He is also professor of the economics of climate change at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam . He is a member of the Academia Europaea ."}
{"_id": "Rick_Perry", "title": "Rick Perry", "headings": "", "text": "James Richard Perry ( born March 4 , 1950 ) is an American politician who is the 14th and current United States Secretary of Energy , serving in the Trump Administration . Prior to his cabinet position , Perry served as the 47th Governor of Texas from December 2000 to January 2015 . A Republican , he was elected Lieutenant Governor of Texas in 1998 and assumed the governorship in December 2000 when then-governor George W. Bush resigned to become President of the United States . Perry was the longest-serving governor in Texas history .   Perry was elected three times to full gubernatorial terms and is the fourth Texas governor ( after Allan Shivers , Price Daniel and John Connally ) to serve three terms . With a tenure in office of 14 years , 30 days , Perry was , at the time he left office , the second longest-serving current U.S. governor ( after Terry Branstad of Iowa ) . Perry ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in 2012 and 2016 . On December 14 , 2016 , Donald Trump announced his intention to nominate the longtime Texas governor as his Secretary of Energy . On March 2 , 2017 , he was confirmed by the United States Senate in a 62 -- 37 vote ."}
{"_id": "Rick_Perry_2012_presidential_campaign", "title": "Rick Perry 2012 presidential campaign", "headings": "", "text": "The Rick Perry presidential campaign of 2012 began when Rick Perry, four-term Governor of Texas, announced via a spokesman on August 11, 2011, that he would be running for the 2012 Republican Party nomination for president of the United States.Perry was considered as a potential candidate since as early as the 2008 presidential election, initially denying he was interested in the office but later becoming more open-minded. He formally launched his campaign on August 13, 2011, in Charleston, South Carolina. While he was initially successful in fundraising and was largely considered a serious contender for the nomination, he struggled during the debates and his poll numbers began to decline. After finishing fifth with just over 10% of the vote in the Iowa caucuses on January 3, 2012, Perry considered dropping out of the presidential race but did not. After a poor showing in New Hampshire and with \"lagging\" poll numbers in South Carolina, Perry formally announced he was suspending his campaign on January 19, 2012."}
{"_id": "Rigour", "title": "Rigour", "headings": "", "text": "Rigour ( British English ) or rigor ( American English ; see spelling differences ) describes a condition of stiffness or strictness . Rigour frequently refers to a process of adhering absolutely to certain constraints , or the practice of maintaining strict consistency with certain predefined parameters . These constraints may be environmentally imposed , such as `` the rigours of famine '' ; logically imposed , such as mathematical proofs which must maintain consistent answers ; or socially imposed , such as the process of defining ethics and law ."}
{"_id": "Ringed_seal", "title": "Ringed seal", "headings": "", "text": "The ringed seal ( Pusa hispida or Phoca hispida ) , also known as the jar seal and as netsik or nattiq by the Inuit , is an earless seal ( family : Phocidae ) inhabiting the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions . The ringed seal is a relatively small seal , rarely greater than 1.5 m in length , with a distinctive patterning of dark spots surrounded by light grey rings , hence its common name . It is the most abundant and wide-ranging ice seal in the Northern Hemisphere : ranging throughout the Arctic Ocean , into the Bering Sea and Okhotsk Sea as far south as the northern coast of Japan in the Pacific , and throughout the North Atlantic coasts of Greenland and Scandinavia as far south as Newfoundland , and include two freshwater subspecies in northern Europe . Ringed seals are one of the primary prey of polar bears and have long been a component of the diet of indigenous people of the Arctic ."}
{"_id": "Rio_Grande", "title": "Rio Grande", "headings": "", "text": "The Rio Grande ( -LSB- ˈriːoʊ_ˈɡrænd -RSB- or -LSB- ˈriːoʊ_ˈɡrɑːndɛ -RSB- Río Bravo del Norte , -LSB- ˈri.o ˈβɾaβo ðel ˈnorte -RSB- or simply Río Bravo ) is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico ( the other being the Colorado River ) . The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States and flows to the Gulf of Mexico . Along the way , it forms part of the Mexico -- United States border . According to the International Boundary and Water Commission , its total length was 1896 mi in the late 1980s , though course shifts occasionally result in length changes . Depending on how it is measured , the Rio Grande is either the fourth - or fifth-longest river system in North America .   The river serves as part of the natural border between the U.S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas . A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico . Since the mid -- 20th century , heavy water consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20 % of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf . Near the river 's mouth , the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region . The Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by America 's Great Waters Coalition .   The Rio Grande 's watershed covers 182200 sqmi . Many endorheic basins are situated within , or adjacent to , the Rio Grande 's basin , and these are sometimes included in the river basin 's total area , increasing its size to about 336000 sqmi ."}
{"_id": "Rio_de_Janeiro", "title": "Rio de Janeiro", "headings": "", "text": "Rio de Janeiro ( -LSB- ˈriːoʊ_di_ʒəˈnɛəroʊ , _ - deɪ_ʒə - , _ - də_dʒə - -RSB- -LSB- ˈʁi.u d ( ʒi ) ʒɐˈnejɾu -RSB- ; River of January ) , or simply Rio , is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas . The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area , the second-most populous metropolitan area in Brazil and sixth-most populous in the Americas . Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro , Brazil 's third-most populous state . Part of the city has been designated as a World Heritage Site , named `` Rio de Janeiro : Carioca Landscapes between the Mountain and the Sea '' , by UNESCO on 1 July 2012 as a Cultural Landscape .   Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese , the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro , a domain of the Portuguese Empire . Later , in 1763 , it became the capital of the State of Brazil , a state of the Portuguese Empire . In 1808 , when the Portuguese Royal Court transferred itself from Portugal to Brazil , Rio de Janeiro became the chosen seat of the court of Queen Maria I of Portugal , who subsequently , in 1815 , under the leadership of her son , the Prince Regent , and future King João VI of Portugal , raised Brazil to the dignity of a kingdom , within the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil , and Algarves . Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 , when the War of Brazilian Independence began . This is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies . Rio de Janeiro subsequently served as the capital of the independent monarchy , the Empire of Brazil , until 1889 , and then the capital of a republican Brazil until 1960 when the capital was transferred to Brasília .   Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country , and 30th largest in the world in 2008 , estimated at about R$ 343 billion ( IBGE , 2008 ) ( nearly US$ 201 billion ) . It is headquarters to Brazilian oil , mining , and telecommunications companies , including two of the country 's major corporations -- Petrobras and Vale -- and Latin America 's largest telemedia conglomerate , Grupo Globo . The home of many universities and institutes , it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil , accounting for 17 % of national scientific output according to 2005 data .   Rio de Janeiro is one of the most visited cities in the Southern Hemisphere and is known for its natural settings , Carnival , samba , bossa nova , and balneario beaches such as Barra da Tijuca , Copacabana , Ipanema , and Leblon . In addition to the beaches , some of the most famous landmarks include the giant statue of Christ the Redeemer atop Corcovado mountain , named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World ; Sugarloaf Mountain with its cable car ; the Sambódromo ( Sambadrome ) , a permanent grandstand-lined parade avenue which is used during Carnival ; and Maracanã Stadium , one of the world 's largest football stadiums .   Rio de Janeiro was the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics , making the city the first South American and Portuguese-speaking city to host the events , and the third time the Olympics were held in a Southern Hemisphere city . The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups , the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup , and the XV Pan American Games .   The city is divided into 33 administrative regions ."}
{"_id": "Rise_of_the_Olympian", "title": "Rise of the Olympian", "headings": "", "text": "`` Rise of the Olympian '' is a Wonder Woman story arc written by Gail Simone with art by Aaron Lopresti ."}
{"_id": "Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire", "title": "Rise of the Ottoman Empire", "headings": "", "text": "The foundation and rise of the Ottoman Empire is a period of history that started with the emergence of the Ottoman principality in , and ended with the conquest of Constantinople on May 29 , 1453 . This period witnessed the foundation of a political entity ruled by the Ottoman Dynasty in the northwestern Anatolian region of Bithynia , and its transformation from a small principality on the Byzantine frontier into an empire spanning the Balkans and Anatolia . For this reason , this period in the empire 's history has been described as the Proto-Imperial Era . Throughout most of this period , the Ottomans were merely one of many competing states in the region , and relied upon the support of local warlords and vassals to maintain control over their realm . By the middle of the fifteenth century the Ottoman sultans were able to accumulate enough personal power and authority to establish a centralized imperial state , a process which was brought to fruition by Sultan Mehmed II ( r. 1451-1481 ) .   The cause of Ottoman success can not be attributed to any single factor , and they varied throughout the period as the Ottomans continually adapted to changing circumstances .   The earlier part of this period , the fourteenth century , is particularly difficult for historians to study due to the scarcity of sources . Not a single written document survives from the reign of Osman I , and very little survives from the rest of the century . The Ottomans , furthermore , did not begin to record their own history until the fifteenth century , more than a hundred years after many of the events they describe . It is thus a great challenge for historians to differentiate between fact and myth in analyzing the stories contained in these later chronicles , so much so that one historian has even declared it impossible , describing the earliest period of Ottoman history as a `` black hole . ''"}
{"_id": "Rise_of_the_Planet_of_the_Apes", "title": "Rise of the Planet of the Apes", "headings": "", "text": "Rise of the Planet of the Apes is a 2011 American science fiction film directed by Rupert Wyatt and starring James Franco , Freida Pinto , John Lithgow , Brian Cox , Tom Felton , David Oyelowo , and Andy Serkis . Written by Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver , it is 20th Century Fox 's reboot of the Planet of the Apes series , intended to act as an origin story for a new series of films . Its premise is similar to the fourth film in the original series , Conquest of the Planet of the Apes ( 1972 ) , but it is not a direct remake of that film .   Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released on August 5 , 2011 , to critical and commercial success . The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects . It was also nominated for five Saturn Awards including Best Director for Wyatt and Best Writing for Jaffa and Silver , winning Best Science Fiction Film , Best Supporting Actor for Serkis and Best Special Effects . Serkis ' performance as Caesar was widely acclaimed , earning him many nominations from many associations which do not usually recognize performance capture as traditional acting . A sequel to the film , Dawn of the Planet of the Apes , was released on July 11 , 2014 , and a third film , War for the Planet of the Apes , is planned for a July 14 , 2017 release ."}
{"_id": "Risk", "title": "Risk", "headings": "", "text": "Risk is the potential of gaining or losing something of value . Values ( such as physical health , social status , emotional well-being , or financial wealth ) can be gained or lost when taking risk resulting from a given action or inaction , foreseen or unforeseen . Risk can also be defined as the intentional interaction with uncertainty . Uncertainty is a potential , unpredictable , and uncontrollable outcome ; risk is a consequence of action taken in spite of uncertainty .   Risk perception is the subjective judgment people make about the severity and probability of a risk , and may vary person to person . Any human endeavor carries some risk , but some are much riskier than others ."}
{"_id": "Risk_management", "title": "Risk management", "headings": "", "text": "Risk management is the identification , assessment , and prioritization of risks ( defined in ISO 31000 as the effect of uncertainty on objectives ) followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize , monitor , and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities . Risk management 's objective is to assure uncertainty does not deflect the endeavor from the business goals .   Risks can come from various sources including uncertainty in financial markets , threats from project failures ( at any phase in design , development , production , or sustainment life-cycles ) , legal liabilities , credit risk , accidents , natural causes and disasters , deliberate attack from an adversary , or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause . There are two types of events i.e. negative events can be classified as risks while positive events are classified as opportunities . Several risk management standards have been developed including the Project Management Institute , the National Institute of Standards and Technology , actuarial societies , and ISO standards . Methods , definitions and goals vary widely according to whether the risk management method is in the context of project management , security , engineering , industrial processes , financial portfolios , actuarial assessments , or public health and safety .   Strategies to manage threats ( uncertainties with negative consequences ) typically include avoiding the threat , reducing the negative effect or probability of the threat , transferring all or part of the threat to another party , and even retaining some or all of the potential or actual consequences of a particular threat , and the opposites for opportunities ( uncertain future states with benefits ) .   Certain aspects of many of the risk management standards have come under criticism for having no measurable improvement on risk ; whereas the confidence in estimates and decisions seem to increase . For example , it has been shown that one in six IT projects experience cost overruns of 200 % on average , and schedule overruns of 70 % ."}
{"_id": "River_Parrett", "title": "River Parrett", "headings": "", "text": "The River Parrett flows through the counties of Dorset and Somerset in South West England , from its source in the Thorney Mills springs in the hills around Chedington in Dorset . Flowing northwest through Somerset and the Somerset Levels to its mouth at Burnham-on-Sea , into the Bridgwater Bay nature reserve on the Bristol Channel , the Parrett and its tributaries drain an area of 1700 km2 -- about 50 per cent of Somerset 's land area , with a population of 300,000 .   The Parrett 's main tributaries include the Rivers Tone , Isle , and Yeo , and the River Cary via the King 's Sedgemoor Drain . The 37 mi long river is tidal for 19 mi up to Oath . The fall of the river between Langport and Bridgwater is only 1 ft/mi , so it is prone to frequent flooding in winter and during high tides . Many approaches have been tried since at least the medieval period to reduce the incidence and effect of floods and to drain the surrounding fields .   In Anglo-Saxon times the river formed a boundary between Wessex and Dumnonia . It later served the Port of Bridgwater , and enabled cargoes to be transported inland . The arrival of the railways led to a decline in commercial shipping , and the only working docks are at Dunball . Man 's influence on the river has left a legacy of bridges and industrial artefacts . The Parrett along with its connected waterways and network of drains supports an ecosystem that includes several rare species of flora and fauna . The River Parrett Trail has been established along the banks of the river ."}
{"_id": "River_Thames", "title": "River Thames", "headings": "", "text": "The River Thames ( -LSB- tɛmz -RSB- ) is a river that flows through southern England , most notably through London . At 215 mi , it is the longest river entirely in England and the second longest in the United Kingdom , after the River Severn . It also flows through Oxford ( where it is called Isis ) , Reading , Henley-on-Thames and Windsor . The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway , derived from its long tidal reach up to Teddington Lock . It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire , and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary . The Thames drains the whole of Greater London .   Its tidal section , reaching up to Teddington Lock , includes most of its London stretch and has a rise and fall of 7 m. Running through some of the driest parts of mainland Britain and heavily abstracted for drinking water , the Thames ' discharge is low considering its length and breadth : the Severn has a discharge almost twice as large on average despite having a smaller drainage basin . In Scotland , the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60 % smaller .   Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs . Its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries . The river contains over 80 islands . With its waters varying from freshwater to almost seawater , the Thames supports a variety of wildlife and has a number of adjoining Sites of Special Scientific Interest , with the largest being in the remaining parts of the North Kent Marshes and covering 5449 ha .   In 2010 , the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world -- the $ 350,000 International Riverprize ."}
{"_id": "Rob_Portman", "title": "Rob Portman", "headings": "", "text": "Robert Jones Portman ( born December 19 , 1955 ) is an American lawyer and the junior United States Senator from Ohio , in office since 2011 . Previously he served as a congressman , as the 14th United States Trade Representative , and as the 35th Director of the Office of Management and Budget .   Born in Cincinnati , Ohio , Portman graduated from Dartmouth College and the University of Michigan Law School . He worked briefly in the White House during the George H. W. Bush administration before entering the U.S. House of Representatives , representing the eastern half of Greater Cincinnati and neighboring counties along the Ohio River , and serving six consecutive terms . Portman resigned from Congress to serve as U.S. Trade Representative from May 2005 to May 2006 . As Trade Representative , Portman is cited for initiating worldwide trade agreements between other countries and the United States , and pursuing claims against China and the European Union at the World Trade Organization . He later served in the George W. Bush administration from May 2006 to June 2007 as Director of the Office of Management and Budget , where he advocated a balanced budget . Portman is married and has three children .   A center-right member of the Republican Party , Portman was elected U.S. Senator in 2010 . He has been listed as a possible Republican vice presidential candidate in the past two presidential elections . In the Senate , Portman was a member of the Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction . Throughout his time in Congress , the Cabinet , and the Senate , Portman has visited over thirty countries , including Israel , China , and Iraq . In 2013 , Portman became the first incumbent statewide or national-level Republican to publicly support legal recognition of same-sex marriage since Lincoln Chafee in 2004 ."}
{"_id": "Rock_music", "title": "Rock music", "headings": "", "text": "Rock music is a genre of popular music that originated as `` rock and roll '' in the United States in the early 1950s , and developed into a range of different styles in the 1960s and later , particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States . It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll , a style which drew heavily on the African-American genres of blues and rhythm and blues , and from country music . Rock music also drew strongly on a number of other genres such as electric blues and folk , and incorporated influences from jazz , classical and other musical styles . Musically , rock has centered on the electric guitar , usually as part of a rock group with electric bass and drums and one or more singers . Typically , rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form , but the genre has become extremely diverse . Like pop music , lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political .   By the late 1960s `` classic rock '' period , a number of distinct rock music subgenres had emerged , including hybrids like blues rock , folk rock , country rock , raga rock , and jazz-rock , many of which contributed to the development of psychedelic rock , which was influenced by the countercultural psychedelic and hippie scene . New genres that emerged included progressive rock , which extended the artistic elements ; glam rock , which highlighted showmanship and visual style ; and the diverse and enduring subgenre of heavy metal , which emphasized volume , power , and speed . In the second half of the 1970s , punk rock reacted by producing stripped-down , energetic social and political critiques . Punk was an influence in the 1980s on new wave , post-punk and eventually alternative rock . From the 1990s alternative rock began to dominate rock music and break into the mainstream in the form of grunge , Britpop , and indie rock . Further fusion subgenres have since emerged , including pop punk , rap rock , and rap metal , as well as conscious attempts to revisit rock 's history , including the garage rock/post-punk and synth-pop revivals at the beginning of the 2000s ( decade ) .   Rock music has also embodied and served as the vehicle for cultural and social movements , leading to major subcultures including mods and rockers in the UK and the hippie counterculture that spread out from San Francisco in the US in the 1960s . Similarly , 1970s punk culture spawned the goth and emo subcultures . Inheriting the folk tradition of the protest song , rock music has been associated with political activism as well as changes in social attitudes to race , sex and drug use , and is often seen as an expression of youth revolt against adult consumerism and conformity ."}
{"_id": "Roger_A._Pielke_Jr.", "title": "Roger A. Pielke Jr.", "headings": "", "text": "Roger A. Pielke Jr. ( born November 2 , 1968 ) is an American political scientist and professor and the director of the Sports Governance Center within the Department of Athletics at the Center for Science and Technology Policy Research at the University of Colorado Boulder .   He previously served in the Environmental Studies Program and was a Fellow of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) where he served as Director of the Center for Science and Technology Policy Research at the University of Colorado Boulder from 2001 to 2007 . Pielke was a visiting scholar at Oxford University 's Saïd Business School in the 2007-2008 academic year .   His interests include understanding the politicization of science ; decision making under uncertainty ; policy education for scientists in areas such as climate change , disaster mitigation , and world trade ; and research on the governance of sports organizations , including FIFA and the NCAA ."}
{"_id": "Ron_Johnson_(Wisconsin_politician)", "title": "Ron Johnson (Wisconsin politician)", "headings": "", "text": "Ronald Harold Johnson (born April 8, 1955) is an American businessman and politician serving as the senior United States Senator for Wisconsin. He is a member of the Republican Party. Johnson was first elected to the Senate in 2010, defeating Democratic incumbent Russ Feingold and re-elected in 2016, again defeating Feingold. Before politics, Johnson was chief executive officer of a polyester and plastics manufacturer founded by his brother-in-law."}
{"_id": "Ronald_Reagan", "title": "Ronald Reagan", "headings": "", "text": "Ronald Wilson Reagan ( -LSB- ˈrɒnəld_ˈwɪlsən_ˈreɪɡən -RSB- ) ( February 6 , 1911 -- June 5 , 2004 ) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . Before his presidency , he was the 33rd Governor of California , from 1967 to 1975 , after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader .   Raised in a poor family in small towns of northern Illinois , Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on several regional radio stations . After moving to Hollywood in 1937 , he became an actor and starred in a few major productions . Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild , the labor union for actors , where he worked to root out Communist influence . In the 1950s , he moved into television and was a motivational speaker at General Electric factories . Having been a lifelong Democrat , his views changed . He became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party . In 1964 , Reagan 's speech , `` A Time for Choosing '' , in support of Barry Goldwater 's foundering presidential campaign , earned him national attention as a new conservative spokesman . Building a network of supporters , he was elected Governor of California in 1966 . As governor , Reagan raised taxes , turned a state budget deficit to a surplus , challenged the protesters at the University of California , ordered National Guard troops in during a period of protest movements in 1969 , and was re-elected in 1970 . He twice ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for the U.S. presidency in 1968 and 1976 ; four years later , he easily won the nomination outright , becoming the oldest elected U.S. president up to that time , defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980 .   Entering the presidency in 1981 , Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives . His supply-side economic policies , dubbed `` Reaganomics '' , advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth , control of the money supply to curb inflation , economic deregulation , and reduction in government spending . In his first term he survived an assassination attempt , spurred the War on Drugs , and fought public sector labor . Over his two terms , the economy saw a reduction of inflation from 12.5 % to 4.4 % , and an average annual growth of real GDP of 3.4 ; while Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending , tax cuts and increased military spending contributed to increased federal outlays overall , even after adjustment for inflation . During his re-election bid , Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was `` Morning in America '' , winning a landslide in 1984 with the largest electoral college victory in American history . Foreign affairs dominated his second term , including ending of the Cold War , the bombing of Libya , and the Iran -- Contra affair . Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an `` evil empire '' , and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate , President Reagan challenged Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev to `` tear down this wall ! '' . He transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback , by escalating an arms race with the USSR while engaging in talks with Gorbachev , which culminated in the INF Treaty , shrinking both countries ' nuclear arsenals . Reagan 's presidency came during the decline of the Soviet Union and just ten months after the end of his term , the Berlin Wall fell , and on December 26 , 1991 , nearly three years after he left office , the Soviet Union collapsed .   Leaving office in 1989 , Reagan held an approval rating of sixty-eight percent , matching those of Franklin D. Roosevelt , and later Bill Clinton , as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . He was the first president since Dwight D. Eisenhower to serve two full terms , after a succession of five prior presidents failed to do so . While having planned an active post-presidency , in 1994 Reagan disclosed his diagnosis with Alzheimer 's disease earlier that year , appearing publicly for the last time at the funeral of Richard Nixon ; he died ten years later in 2004 at the age of 93 ; Reagan had the second-longest life out of all the presidents ; the current longest lifespan of a president is held by Gerald Ford , who died two years after Reagan . An icon among Republicans , he is viewed favorably in historian rankings of U.S. presidents , and his tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the U.S."}
{"_id": "Ross_Ice_Shelf", "title": "Ross Ice Shelf", "headings": "", "text": "The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica ( an area of roughly 487000 sqkm and about 800 km across : about the size of France ) . It is several hundred metres thick . The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long , and between 15 and high above the water surface . Ninety percent of the floating ice , however , is below the water surface .   Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand . It floats in , and covers , a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the west of the Ross Sea .   The ice shelf is named after Captain Sir James Clark Ross , who discovered it on 28 January 1841 . It was originally called The Barrier , with various adjectives including Great Ice Barrier , as it prevented sailing further south . Ross mapped the ice front eastward to 160 ° W . In 1947 , the US Board on Geographic Names applied the name Ross Shelf Ice to this feature and published it in the original US Antarctic Gazetteer . In January 1953 the name was changed to Ross Ice Shelf ; that name was published in 1956 ."}
{"_id": "Ross_McKitrick", "title": "Ross McKitrick", "headings": "", "text": "Ross McKitrick is a Canadian economist specializing in environmental economics and policy analysis . He is a professor of economics at the University of Guelph , and a senior fellow of the Fraser Institute . He is a member of the academic advisory boards of the John Deutsch Institute , the Global Warming Policy Foundation , and the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation .   He has authored works about climate change issues , including co-authoring the book Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming in 2003 . McKitrick produced a series of videos and articles for the Friends of Science in which he argued that there is a `` pause '' in global warming that reveals flaws in current climate change models . The Friends of Science argue that the sun -- not human emissions of GHG -- is the main driver of climate change ."}
{"_id": "Rossby_wave", "title": "Rossby wave", "headings": "", "text": "Rossby waves , also known as planetary waves , are a natural phenomenon in the atmosphere and oceans of planets that largely owe their properties to rotation of the planet . Rossby waves are a subset of inertial waves .   Atmospheric Rossby waves on Earth are giant meanders in high-altitude winds that have a major influence on weather . These waves are associated with pressure systems and the jet stream . Oceanic Rossby waves move along the thermocline : the boundary between the warm upper layer and the cold deeper part of the ocean ."}
{"_id": "Roswell_UFO_incident", "title": "Roswell UFO incident", "headings": "", "text": "In mid-1947 , a United States Air Force balloon crashed at a ranch near Roswell , New Mexico . Following wide initial interest in the crashed `` flying disc '' , the US military stated that it was merely a conventional weather balloon . Interest subsequently waned until the late 1970s , when ufologists began promoting a variety of increasingly elaborate conspiracy theories , claiming that one or more alien spacecraft had crash-landed , and that the extraterrestrial occupants had been recovered by the military , who then engaged in a cover-up .   In the 1990s , the US military published two reports disclosing the true nature of the crashed object : a nuclear test surveillance balloon from Project Mogul . Nevertheless , the Roswell incident continues to be of interest in popular media , and conspiracy theories surrounding the event persist . Roswell has been described as `` the world 's most famous , most exhaustively investigated , and most thoroughly debunked UFO claim '' ."}
{"_id": "Roy_Spencer_(scientist)", "title": "Roy Spencer (scientist)", "headings": "", "text": "Roy Warren Spencer ( born December 20 , 1955 ) is a meteorologist , Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , and the U.S. Science Team leader for the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer ( AMSR-E ) on NASA 's Aqua satellite . He has served as Senior Scientist for Climate Studies at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center .   He is known for his satellite-based temperature monitoring work , for which he was awarded the American Meteorological Society 's Special Award ."}
{"_id": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "title": "Runaway greenhouse effect", "headings": "", "text": "A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . ''   Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios ."}
{"_id": "Russia", "title": "Russia", "headings": "", "text": "Russia ( -LSB- ˈrʌʃə -RSB- -LSB- Россия , Rossiya , rɐˈsʲijə -RSB- ) , also officially the Russian Federation ( -LSB- Российская Федерация , r = Rossiyskaya Federatsiya , p = rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə -RSB- ) , is a country in Eurasia . At 17075200 km2 , Russia is the largest country in the world by surface area , covering more than one-eighth of the Earth 's inhabited land area , and the ninth most populous , with over 144 million people at the end of March 2016 . The European western part of the country is much more populated and urbanised than the eastern ; about 77 % of the population live in European Russia . Russia 's capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world ; other major urban centers include Saint Petersburg , Novosibirsk , Yekaterinburg , Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan .   Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe , Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms . From northwest to southeast , Russia shares land borders with Norway , Finland , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania and Poland ( both with Kaliningrad Oblast ) , Belarus , Ukraine , Georgia , Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , China , Mongolia , and North Korea . It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait .   The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD . Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants , the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century . In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire , beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium . Rus ' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states ; most of the Rus ' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century . The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities , achieved independence from the Golden Horde , and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus ' . By the 18th century , the nation had greatly expanded through conquest , annexation , and exploration to become the Russian Empire , which was the third largest empire in history , stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east .   Following the Russian Revolution , the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , the world 's first constitutionally socialist state . The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II , and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War . The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century , including the world 's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space . By the end of 1990 , the Soviet Union had the world 's second largest economy , largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction . Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , fifteen independent republics emerged from the USSR : Russia , Ukraine , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Uzbekistan , Armenia , Azerbaijan , Estonia , Georgia , Kyrgyzstan , Latvia , Lithuania , Moldova , Tajikistan , Turkmenistan ; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and sole successor state of the Soviet Union . It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic .   The Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015 . Russia 's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world , making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally . The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction . Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower . It is permanent member of the United Nations Security Council , as well as a member of the G20 , the Council of Europe , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) , the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation ( SCO ) , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe ( OSCE ) , and the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) , as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) , the Collective Security Treaty Organization ( CSTO ) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union ( EEU ) , along with Armenia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , and Kyrgyzstan ."}
{"_id": "Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections", "title": "Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections", "headings": "", "text": "United States intelligence agencies have concluded that there was Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections . In January 2017 , a published U.S. intelligence community assessment expressed `` high confidence '' that the Russian government favored Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton and that Russian President Vladimir Putin personally ordered an `` influence campaign '' to denigrate Clinton and to harm her electoral chances and potential presidency . The report concluded that Russia used disinformation , data thefts , leaks , and social media `` trolls '' in an effort to give an advantage to Trump over Clinton but did not target or compromise vote tallying . These conclusions were reaffirmed by the lead intelligence officials in the Trump administration in May 2017 . Intelligence allies of the U.S. in Europe had found communications between suspected Russian agents and the Trump campaign as early as 2015 . Some media organizations have referred to this interference as `` Kremlingate '' .   On October 7 , 2016 , the Office of the Director of National Intelligence ( DNI ) and the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) jointly stated that Russia hacked the Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) servers and Clinton campaign chairman John Podesta 's personal email account and leaked their documents to WikiLeaks .  Several cybersecurity firms stated that the cyberattacks were committed by Russian intelligence groups Fancy Bear and Cozy Bear . In October 2016 , U.S. President Barack Obama directly warned Putin to stop interfering or face `` serious consequences '' . Russian officials initially issued categorical denials of any Russian involvement in any DNC hacks or leaks . In June 2017 , however , in a shift from Russia 's previous blanket denials , Putin suggested that private `` patriotically minded '' Russian hackers could have been responsible for cyberattacks , while continuing to deny government involvement . In January 2017 , Director of National Intelligence James Clapper testified that Russia 's alleged meddling in the 2016 presidential campaign went beyond hacking , and included disinformation such as the dissemination of fake news often promoted on social media . President-elect Trump initially rejected the reports of Russian interference and criticized the intelligence agencies , saying that Democrats were simply reacting to their election loss .   Investigations on Russian influence , including potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials , were started by the FBI , the Senate Intelligence Committee and the House Intelligence Committee . Six federal agencies have also been investigating possible links and financial ties between the Kremlin and Trump 's associates , including his son-in-law Jared Kushner and advisers Carter Page , Paul Manafort and Roger Stone . In December 2016 , Obama ordered a report on hacking efforts aimed at U.S. elections since 2008 . On December 29 , 2016 , the U.S. expelled 35 Russian diplomats , denied access to two Russia-owned compounds , and broadened existing sanctions on Russian entities and individuals . Russia did not retaliate .   On March 20 , 2017 , FBI director James Comey testified to the House Intelligence Committee that the FBI had been conducting a counter-intelligence investigation about Russian interference since July 2016 , including possible coordination between associates of Trump and Russia . On May 9 , 2017 , in a move that was widely criticized as an attempt to curtail the Russian investigation by the FBI , Trump dismissed Comey . On May 17 , 2017 , Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein appointed former FBI Director Robert Mueller as special counsel in the FBI 's Russian investigation ."}
{"_id": "Sadovo", "title": "Sadovo", "headings": "", "text": "Sadovo is a small town in Sadovo Municipality , Plovdiv Province , central Bulgaria , and the administrative center of Plovdiv . The population is 2,600 .   The mayor of Sadovo is Dimitar Zdravkov ."}
{"_id": "Sahara", "title": "Sahara", "headings": "", "text": "The Sahara ( الصحراء الكبرى , , ` the Greatest Desert ' ) is the largest hot desert and the third largest desert in the world after Antarctica and the Arctic . Its area of 9200000 km2 is comparable to the area of the United States .   The desert comprises much of North Africa , excluding the fertile region on the Mediterranean Sea coast , the Atlas Mountains of the Maghreb , and the Nile Valley in Egypt and Sudan . It stretches from the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the Atlantic Ocean in the west , where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains . To the south , it is bounded by the Sahel , a belt of semi-arid tropical savanna around the Niger River valley and the Sudan Region of Sub-Saharan Africa .   The Sahara can be divided into several regions including : the western Sahara , the central Ahaggar Mountains , the Tibesti Mountains , the Aïr Mountains , the Ténéré desert , and the Libyan Desert .   The name ` Sahara ' is derived from ( , pronounced -LSB- / / ˈSaHa : ra : -RSB- ) , the plural of the Arabic word for `` desert '' ."}
{"_id": "Sahel_drought", "title": "Sahel drought", "headings": "", "text": "The Sahel has long experienced a series of historic droughts , dating back to at least the 17th century . The Sahel region is a climate zone sandwiched between the African Savannah grasslands to the south and the Sahara desert to the north , across West and Central Africa . While the frequency of drought in the region is thought to have increased from the end of the 19th century , three long droughts have had dramatic environmental and societal effects upon the Sahel nations . Famine followed severe droughts in the 1910s , the 1940s , and the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s , although a partial recovery occurred from 1975-80 . The most recent drought occurred in 2012 .   While at least one particularly severe drought has been confirmed each century since the 17th century , the frequency and severity of recent Sahelian droughts stands out . Famine and dislocation on a massive scale -- from 1968 to 1974 and again in the early and mid-1980s -- was blamed on two spikes in the severity of the 1960-1980s drought period . From the late 1960s to early 1980s famine killed 100,000 people , left 750,000 dependent on food aid , and affected most of the Sahel 's 50 million people . The economies , agriculture , livestock and human populations of much of Mauritania , Mali , Chad , Niger and Burkina Faso ( known as Upper Volta during the time of the drought ) were severely impacted . As disruptive as the droughts of the late 20th century were , evidence of past droughts recorded in Ghanaian lake sediments suggest that multi-decadal megadroughts were common in West Africa over the past 3,000 years and that several droughts lasted far longer and were far more severe .   Since the 1980s , summer rainfall in the Sahel has been increasing ; this has been associated with an increase in vegetation , forming what has been called a ` greening ' of the Sahel . The observed increase in rainfall is accounted for by enhancements in the African easterly jet , which is known to induce wet anomalies . A 2011 study found that the positional shifts in the African easterly jet and African easterly waves accompanied the northward migration of the Sahel rainband ."}
{"_id": "Salt_marsh", "title": "Salt marsh", "headings": "", "text": "A salt marsh or saltmarsh , also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh , is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open salt water or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides . It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs , grasses , or low shrubs . These plants are terrestrial in origin and are essential to the stability of the salt marsh in trapping and binding sediments . Salt marshes play a large role in the aquatic food web and the delivery of nutrients to coastal waters . They also support terrestrial animals and provide coastal protection ."}
{"_id": "Salt_pannes_and_pools", "title": "Salt pannes and pools", "headings": "", "text": "Salt pannes and pools are water retaining depressions located within salt and brackish marshes . Pools tend to retain water during the summer months between high tides , whereas pannes generally do not . Salt pannes generally start when a mat of organic debris ( known as wrack ) is deposited upon existing vegetation , killing it . This creates a slight depression in the surrounding vegetation which retains water for varying periods of time . Upon successive cycles of inundation and evaporation the panne develops an increased salinity greater than that of the larger body of water . This increased salinity dictates the type of flora and fauna able to grow within the panne . Salt pools are also secondary formations , though the exact mechanism ( s ) of formation are not well understood ; some have predicted they will increase in size and abundance in the future due to rising sea levels .   Salt pannes and pools are unique microhabitats dominated by various species of halophytes , benthic plants and varying estuarine marine life that vary considerably in composition due to a variety of factors :  Substrate type : affects the ability of the depression to hold water .  depth and diameter : affect water temperature and evaporation rate in the depression . A shallow and wide pool will evaporate at a greater rate than a pool of the same volume of water which is deeper and has a smaller surface area . Evaporation rate also affects salinity , the higher the evaporation rate the higher the salinity , with rates as high as a third greater than ocean water .  location within the intertidal zone , whether high marsh or low marsh and distance from the mean low tide mark which affects the length and duration of inundation until the depression is subject to evaporation as well as length of time until the rising tide replenishes the water volume .   These factors affect the types of species which can survive within the various types of salt pannes and pools .   Variants of salt pannes and pools :   Low salt marsh   Low salt marsh panne   Usually devoid of vegetation , that may be present include smooth cordgrass ( Spartina alterniflora ) , marine algae such as knotted wrack ( Ascophyllum nodosum ) and rockweeds ( Fucus spp . ) . The substrate is typically soft , silty mud .   High salt marsh   Arrow-grass ( forb ) panne  Briefly flooded , very shallow with a moderate amount of vegetation usually dominated by Arrow grass ( Triglochin maritimum ) , with the deeper sections possibly remaining unvegetated .   Smooth cord-grass ( short form ) panne  Shallow anaerobic depressions with poor drainage , poor water quality due to low nutrient levels and high concentrations of sulfides and similar compounds which inhibit plant growth . Short form ( 6-12 '' tall ) smooth cord-grass ( Spartina alterniflora ) is the dominant plant species . Typically found on the high salt marsh , but can occasionally be found on the upper margins of low salt marsh .   Salt marsh mosquito panne   Minimal vegetation often found on the upper half of the high salt marsh . It is typically deeper than forb and smooth cord-grass pannes . Usually flooded by the higher of the two spring tides , retains water for 2 -- 3 weeks later until drying out . The female eastern salt marsh mosquito ( Aedes sollicitans ) lays eggs on the exposed surface . The eggs lay dormant until the next time the panne floods .   Widgeon grass ( Ruppia maritima ) - marsh minnow deepwater pool  Pools on the high salt marsh that are semi-permanently and permanently flooded . They are able to sustain populations of Sheephead minnow ( Cyprinodon variegatus variegatus ) , Mummichogs , ( Fundulus heteroclitus ) , and other species of small fish which may become trapped in the pools and benthic species of vegetation . Occasioanally can be found at the upper edge of the low salt marsh ."}
{"_id": "San_Francisco", "title": "San Francisco", "headings": "", "text": "San Francisco ( initials SF ) ( -LSB- sæn_frənˈsɪskoʊ -RSB- , Spanish for Saint Francis ; Spanish : -LSB- san franˈsisko -RSB- ) , officially the City and County of San Francisco , is the cultural , commercial , and financial center of Northern California . Located at the north end of the San Francisco Peninsula , San Francisco is about 47.9 sqmi in area , making it the smallest county -- and the only consolidated city-county -- within the state of California . With a density of about 18,581 people per square mile ( 7,174 people per km2 ) , San Francisco is the most densely settled large city ( population greater than 200,000 ) in California and the second-most densely populated major city in the United States after New York City . San Francisco is the fourth-most populous city in California , after Los Angeles , San Diego , and San Jose , and the 13th-most populous city in the United States -- with a census-estimated 2016 population of 870,887 . The city and its surrounding areas are known as the San Francisco Bay Area , and are a part of the larger OMB-designated San Jose-San Francisco-Oakland combined statistical area , the fifth most populous in the nation with an estimated population of 8.7 million .   San Francisco was founded on June 29 , 1776 , when colonists from Spain established Presidio of San Francisco at the Golden Gate and Mission San Francisco de Asís a few miles away , all named for St. Francis of Assisi . The California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth , making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time . San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856 .  After three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire , San Francisco was quickly rebuilt , hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later . In World War II , San Francisco was a major port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater . It then became the birthplace of the United Nations in 1945 . After the war , the confluence of returning servicemen , massive immigration , liberalizing attitudes , along with the rise of the `` hippie '' counterculture , the Sexual Revolution , the Peace Movement growing from opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War , and other factors led to the Summer of Love and the gay rights movement , cementing San Francisco as a center of liberal activism in the United States . Politically , the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines .   A popular tourist destination , San Francisco is known for its cool summers , fog , steep rolling hills , eclectic mix of architecture , and landmarks , including the Golden Gate Bridge , cable cars , the former Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary , Fisherman 's Wharf , and its Chinatown district . San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. , Gap Inc. , Salesforce.com , Dropbox , Reddit , Square , Inc. , Dolby , Airbnb , Weebly , Pacific Gas and Electric Company , Yelp , Pinterest , Twitter , Uber , Lyft , Mozilla , Wikimedia Foundation , Craigslist and Weather Underground . It has several nicknames , including `` The City by the Bay '' , `` Fog City '' , `` San Fran '' , and `` Frisco '' , as well as older ones like `` The City that Knows How '' , `` Baghdad by the Bay '' , `` The Paris of the West '' , or simply `` The City '' . , San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings ."}
{"_id": "San_Francisco_Bay", "title": "San Francisco Bay", "headings": "", "text": "San Francisco Bay is a shallow estuary in the U.S. state of California . It is surrounded by a contiguous region known as the San Francisco Bay Area ( often simply `` the Bay Area '' ) , dominated by the large cities San Francisco , Oakland , and San Jose .   San Francisco Bay drains water from approximately 40 percent of California . Water from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers , and from the Sierra Nevada mountains , flow into Suisun Bay , which then travels through the Carquinez Strait to meet with the Napa River at the entrance to San Pablo Bay , which connects at its south end to San Francisco Bay . It then connects to the Pacific Ocean via the Golden Gate strait . However , this entire group of interconnected bays is often called the San Francisco Bay .   The bay was designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance on February 2 , 2013 ."}
{"_id": "San_Joaquin_Valley", "title": "San Joaquin Valley", "headings": "", "text": "The San Joaquin Valley -LSB- ˌsæn_hwɑːˈkiːn -RSB- is the area of the Central Valley of the U.S. state of California that lies south of the Sacramento -- San Joaquin River Delta and is drained by the San Joaquin River . It comprises seven Northern California counties -- all of Kings County ; a majority of Fresno , Merced , Stanislaus counties ; segments of Madera and Tulare counties -- and all of Kern County , in Southern California . Although a majority of the valley is rural , it does contain urban cities such as Fresno , Bakersfield , Stockton , Modesto , Turlock , Porterville , Visalia , Merced , and Hanford ."}
{"_id": "Santa_Ana_winds", "title": "Santa Ana winds", "headings": "", "text": "The Santa Ana winds are strong , extremely dry down-slope winds that originate inland and affect coastal Southern California and northern Baja California . They originate from cool , dry high-pressure air masses in the Great Basin .   Santa Ana winds are known for the hot dry weather that they bring in the fall ( often the hottest of the year ) , but they can arise at other times of the year . They often bring the lowest relative humidities of the year to coastal Southern California . These low humidities , combined with the warm , compressionally-heated airmass , plus high wind speeds , create critical fire weather conditions . Known as `` devil winds '' , Santa Anas are infamous for fanning regional wildfires ."}
{"_id": "Sarah_Palin", "title": "Sarah Palin", "headings": "", "text": "Sarah Louise Palin ( -LSB- ˈpeɪlᵻn -RSB- née Heath ; born February 11 , 1964 ) is an American politician , commentator , and author who served as the ninth Governor of Alaska from 2006 until her resignation in 2009 . As the Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States in the 2008 election alongside presidential nominee , Arizona Senator John McCain , she was the first Alaskan on the national ticket of a major political party and the first Republican woman selected as a vice presidential candidate . Also , her book Going Rogue has sold more than two million copies .   She was elected to the Wasilla city council in 1992 and became mayor of Wasilla in 1996 . In 2003 , after an unsuccessful run for lieutenant governor , she was appointed chair of the Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission , responsible for overseeing the state 's oil and gas fields for safety and efficiency . She was the youngest person and the first woman to be elected Governor of Alaska .   Since her resignation as Governor , she has endorsed and campaigned for the Tea Party movement as well as several candidates in multiple election cycles , prominently including Donald Trump for President in 2016 . From 2010 to 2015 , she provided political commentary for Fox News . On April 3 , 2014 , Palin premiered her TV show , Amazing America with Sarah Palin , on the Sportsman Channel , which ran until February 12 , 2015 . On July 27 , 2014 , Palin launched the online news network called the Sarah Palin Channel , which was closed on July 4 , 2015 ."}
{"_id": "Satellite_television", "title": "Satellite television", "headings": "", "text": "Satellite television is a service that delivers television programming to customers by relaying it from a communications satellite orbiting the Earth directly to the customer 's location . The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic antenna usually referred to as a satellite dish and a low-noise block downconverter .   A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television programme for viewing on a television set . Receivers can be external set-top boxes , or a built-in television tuner . Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services . It is the only television available in many remote geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television service .   Modern systems signals are relayed from a communications satellite on the Ku band frequencies ( 12 -- 18 GHz ) requiring only a small dish less than a meter in diameter . The first satellite TV systems were an obsolete type now known as television receive-only . These systems received weaker analog signals transmitted in the C-band ( 4 -- 8 GHz ) from FSS type satellites , requiring the use of large 2-3 meter dishes . Consequently , these systems were nicknamed `` big dish '' systems , and were more expensive and less popular .   Early systems used analog signals , but modern ones use digital signals which allow transmission of the modern television standard high-definition television .   Different receivers are required for the two types . Some transmissions and channels are unencrypted and therefore free-to-air or free-to-view , while many other channels are transmitted with encryption ( pay television ) , requiring the customer to subscribe and pay a monthly fee to receive the programming ."}
{"_id": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "title": "Satellite temperature measurements", "headings": "", "text": "The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites .   Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 .   Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases ."}
{"_id": "Saturn", "title": "Saturn", "headings": "", "text": "Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System , after Jupiter . It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth . Although it has only one-eighth the average density of Earth , with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive . Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture ; its astronomical symbol represents the god 's sickle .   Saturn 's interior is probably composed of a core of iron -- nickel and rock ( silicon and oxygen compounds ) . This core is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen , an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium , and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer . Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere . Electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn 's planetary magnetic field , which is weaker than Earth 's , but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn 's larger size . Saturn 's magnetic field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter 's . The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast , although long-lived features can appear . Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1800 km/h , higher than on Jupiter , but not as high as those on Neptune .   Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust . Sixty-two moons are known to orbit Saturn , of which fifty-three are officially named . This does not include the hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings . Titan , Saturn 's largest moon , and the second-largest in the Solar System , is larger than the planet Mercury , although less massive , and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere ."}
{"_id": "Saudi_Arabia", "title": "Saudi Arabia", "headings": "", "text": "Saudi Arabia ( -LSB- saʊ - -RSB- ) , officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ( KSA ) , is an Arab sovereign state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula .  With a land area of approximately , Saudi Arabia is geographically the fifth-largest state in Asia and second-largest state in the Arab world after Algeria . Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north , Kuwait to the northeast , Qatar , Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east , Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south . It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba . It is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains .   The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four distinct regions : Hejaz , Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia ( Al-Ahsa ) and Southern Arabia ( ` Asir ) . The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud . He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh , the ancestral home of his family , the House of Saud . Saudi Arabia has since been an absolute monarchy , effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines . The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called `` the predominant feature of Saudi culture '' , with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade . Saudi Arabia is sometimes called `` the Land of the Two Holy Mosques '' in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram ( in Mecca ) and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ( in Medina ) , the two holiest places in Islam . The state has a total population of 28.7 million , of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners . The state 's official language is Arabic .   Petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province . Saudi Arabia has since become the world 's largest oil producer and exporter , controlling the world 's second largest oil reserves and the sixth largest gas reserves . The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies . However , the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council , lacking any significant service or production sector ( apart from the extraction of resources ) . The state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment . Saudi Arabia is a monarchical autocracy , has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world and SIPRI found that Saudi Arabia was the world 's second largest arms importer in 2010 -- 2014 . Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power . In addition to the GCC , it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC ."}
{"_id": "Scarlet_fever", "title": "Scarlet fever", "headings": "", "text": "Scarlet fever can occur as a result of a group A Streptococcus ( group A strep ) infection . The signs and symptoms include a sore throat , fever , headaches , swollen lymph nodes , and a characteristic rash . The rash is red and feels like sandpaper and the tongue may be red and bumpy . It most commonly affects children between five and fifteen years of age .   Scarlet fever affects a small number of people who have either strep throat or streptococcal skin infections . The bacteria are usually spread by people coughing or sneezing . It can also be spread when a person touches an object that has the bacteria on it and then touches their mouth or nose . The characteristic rash is due to the erythrogenic toxin , a substance produced by some types of the bacterium . The diagnosis is typically confirmed by culturing the throat .   There is no vaccine . Prevention is by frequent handwashing , not sharing personal items , and staying away from other people when sick . The disease is treatable with antibiotics which prevents most complications . Outcomes with scarlet fever are typically good . Long-term complications as a result of scarlet fever include kidney disease , rheumatic heart disease , and arthritis . It was a leading cause of death in children in the early 20th century ."}
{"_id": "Scenario_planning", "title": "Scenario planning", "headings": "", "text": "Scenario planning , also called scenario thinking or scenario analysis , is a strategic planning method that some organizations use to make flexible long-term plans . It is in large part an adaptation and generalization of classic methods used by military intelligence .   The original method was that a group of analysts would generate simulation games for policy makers . The games combine known facts about the future , such as demographics , geography , military , political , industrial information , and mineral reserves , with key driving forces identified by considering social , technical , economic , environmental , and political ( STEEP ) trends .   In business applications , the emphasis on gaming the behavior of opponents was reduced ( shifting more toward a game against nature ) . At Royal Dutch/Shell for example , scenario planning was viewed as changing mindsets about the exogenous part of the world , prior to formulating specific strategies .   Scenario planning may involve aspects of systems thinking , specifically the recognition that many factors may combine in complex ways to create sometime surprising futures ( due to non-linear feedback loops ) . The method also allows the inclusion of factors that are difficult to formalize , such as novel insights about the future , deep shifts in values , unprecedented regulations or inventions . Systems thinking used in conjunction with scenario planning leads to plausible scenario story lines because the causal relationship between factors can be demonstrated . In these cases when scenario planning is integrated with a systems thinking approach to scenario development , it is sometimes referred to as dynamic scenarios ."}
{"_id": "Science", "title": "Science", "headings": "", "text": "Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe .   Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences , which study the material universe ; the social sciences , which study people and societies ; and the formal sciences , which study logic and mathematics . The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations . Disciplines which use science , like engineering and medicine , may also be considered to be applied sciences .   From classical antiquity through the 19th century , science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to philosophy than it is now , and in the Western world the term `` natural philosophy '' once encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science , such as astronomy , medicine , and physics . However , during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientific method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics . While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air , earth , fire and water was more philosophical , medieval Middle Easterns used practical and experimental observation to classify materials .   In the 17th and 18th centuries , scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws . Over the course of the 19th century , the word `` science '' became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world . It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology , chemistry , and physics reached their modern shapes . That same time period also included the origin of the terms `` scientist '' and `` scientific community '' , the founding of scientific institutions , and the increasing significance of their interactions with society and other aspects of culture ."}
{"_id": "Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics", "title": "Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics", "headings": "", "text": "Science , technology , engineering and mathematics ( STEM , previously SMET ) is a term that refers to the academic disciplines of science , technology , engineering and mathematics . The term is typically used when addressing education policy and curriculum choices in schools to improve competitiveness in science and technology development . It has implications for workforce development , national security concerns and immigration policy .   The acronym arose in common use shortly after an interagency meeting on science education held at the US National Science Foundation chaired by the then NSF director Rita Colwell . A director from the Office of Science division of Workforce Development for Teachers and Scientists , Peter Faletra , suggested the change from the older acronym METS to STEM . Colwell , expressing some dislike for the older acronym , responded by suggesting NSF to institute the change . One of the first NSF projects to use the acronym was STEMTEC , the Science , Technology , Engineering and Math Teacher Education Collaborative at the University of Massachusetts Amherst , which was funded in 1998 ."}
{"_id": "Science_and_the_Catholic_Church", "title": "Science and the Catholic Church", "headings": "", "text": "The relationship between the Roman Catholic Church and science is a widely debated subject . Historically , the Church has often been a patron of sciences . It has been prolific in the foundation of schools , universities and hospitals , and many clergy have been active in the sciences . Historians of science such as Pierre Duhem credit medieval Catholic mathematicians and philosophers such as John Buridan , Nicole Oresme , and Roger Bacon as the founders of modern science . Duhem found `` the mechanics and physics , of which modern times are justifiably proud , to proceed by an uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements from doctrines professed in the heart of the medieval schools . '' Yet , the conflict thesis and other critiques emphasize historical or contemporary conflict between the Catholic Church and science , citing in particular the trial of Galileo as evidence . For its part , the Catholic Church teaches that science and the Christian faith are complementary , as can be seen from the Catechism of the Catholic Church which states in regards to faith and science :  Though faith is above reason , there can never be any real discrepancy between faith and reason . Since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind , God can not deny himself , nor can truth ever contradict truth . ... Consequently , methodical research in all branches of knowledge , provided it is carried out in a truly scientific manner and does not override moral laws , can never conflict with the faith , because the things of the world and the things of faith derive from the same God . The humble and persevering investigator of the secrets of nature is being led , as it were , by the hand of God in spite of himself , for it is God , the conserver of all things , who made them what they are .   Catholic scientists , both religious and lay , have led scientific discovery in many fields . From ancient times , Christian emphasis on practical charity gave rise to the development of systematic nursing and hospitals and the Church remains the single greatest private provider of medical care and research facilities in the world . Following the Fall of Rome , monasteries and convents remained bastions of scholarship in Western Europe and clergymen were the leading scholars of the age -- studying nature , mathematics , and the motion of the stars ( largely for religious purposes ) . During the Middle Ages , the Church founded Europe 's first universities , producing scholars like Robert Grosseteste , Albert the Great , Roger Bacon , and Thomas Aquinas , who helped establish the scientific method . During this period , the Church was also a great patron of engineering for the construction of elaborate cathedrals . Since the Renaissance , Catholic scientists have been credited as fathers of a diverse range of scientific fields : Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744-1829 ) prefigured the theory of evolution with Lamarckism , Friar Gregor Mendel ( 1822-1884 ) pioneered genetics , and Fr Georges Lemaitre ( 1894-1966 ) proposed the Big Bang cosmological model . The Jesuits have been particularly active , notably in astronomy . Church patronage of sciences continues through elite institutions like the Pontifical Academy of Sciences and Vatican Observatory .   This view of the Church as a patron of sciences is contested by some , who speak either of an historically varied relationship which has shifted , from active and even singular support , to bitter clashes ( with accusations of heresy ) -- or of an enduring intellectual conflict between religion and science . Enlightenment philosophers such as Voltaire were famously dismissive of the achievements of the Middle Ages . In the 19th century , the `` conflict thesis '' emerged to propose an intrinsic conflict or conflicts between the Church and science . The original historical usage of the term asserted that the Church has been in perpetual opposition to science . Later uses of the term denote the Church 's epistemological opposition to science . The thesis interprets the relationship between the Church and science as inevitably leading to public hostility , when religion aggressively challenges new scientific ideas as in the Galileo Affair . An alternative criticism is that the Church opposed particular scientific discoveries that it felt challenged its authority and power -- particularly through the Reformation and on through the Enlightenment . This thesis shifts the emphasis away from the perception of the fundamental incompatibility of religion per se and science-in-general to a critique of the structural reasons for the resistance of the Church as a political organisation .   The Church itself rejects the notion of innate conflict . The Vatican Council ( 1869/70 ) declared that `` Faith and reason are of mutual help to each other . '' The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1912 proffers that `` The conflicts between science and the Church are not real , '' and states that belief in such conflicts are predicated on false assumptions . Pope St. John Paul II summarised the Catholic view of the relationship between faith and reason in the encyclical Fides et Ratio , saying that `` faith and reason are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth ; and God has placed in the human heart a desire to know the truth -- in a word , to know himself -- so that , by knowing and loving God , men and women may also come to the fullness of truth about themselves . '' The present Papal astronomer Brother Guy Consolmagno describes science as an `` act of worship '' and as `` a way of getting intimate with the Creator . ''"}
{"_id": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "title": "Scientific consensus on climate change", "headings": "", "text": "There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports.  Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors."}
{"_id": "Scientific_journal", "title": "Scientific journal", "headings": "", "text": "In academic publishing , a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science , usually by reporting new research . There are thousands of scientific journals in publication , and many more have been published at various points in the past ( see list of scientific journals ) . Most journals are highly specialized , although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields . Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed , in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal 's standards of quality , and scientific validity . If the journal 's editor considers the paper appropriate , at least two researchers preferably from the same field check the paper for soundness of its scientific argument , and must agree to publish it . Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines , they are actually quite different . Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually , as one would read a magazine . The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method . If they are describing experiments or calculations , they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results . Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record .   The history of scientific journals dates from 1665 , when the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results . Over a thousand , mostly ephemeral , were founded in the 18th century , and the number has increased rapidly after that .   Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education . Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research . An essential part of a scientific article is citation of earlier work . The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations ( citation impact ) . Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles , and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper . Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics , while the latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles . In a scientific research group or academic department it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs . Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published , and many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication , where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles .   The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely . Some journals , such as Nature , Science , PNAS , and Physical Review Letters , have a reputation of publishing articles that mark a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields . In many fields , a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists ; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication , and usually will also have the highest impact factor . In some countries , journal rankings can be utilized for funding decisions and even evaluation of individual researchers , although they are poorly suited for that purpose .   It is also common for journals to have a regional focus , specializing in publishing papers from a particular country or other geographic region , like African Invertebrates .   Articles tend to be highly technical , representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal . They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field and advanced students . In some subjects this is inevitable given the nature of the content . Usually , rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors ; however , these rules may vary from journal to journal , especially between journals from different publishers . Articles are usually either original articles reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature . There are also scientific publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors ."}
{"_id": "Scientific_method", "title": "Scientific method", "headings": "", "text": "The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena , acquiring new knowledge , or correcting and integrating previous knowledge . To be termed scientific , a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning . The Oxford Dictionaries Online define the scientific method as `` a method or procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century , consisting in systematic observation , measurement , and experiment , and the formulation , testing , and modification of hypotheses '' . Experiments need to be designed to test hypotheses . The most important part of the scientific method is the experiment .   The scientific method is a continuous process , which usually begins with observations about the natural world . Human beings are naturally inquisitive , so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear and often develop ideas ( hypotheses ) about why things are the way they are . The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways , including making further observations about nature . In general , the strongest tests of hypotheses come from carefully controlled and replicated experiments that gather empirical data . Depending on how well the tests match the predictions , the original hypothesis may require refinement , alteration , expansion or even rejection . If a particular hypothesis becomes very well supported a general theory may be developed .   Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another , identifiable features are frequently shared in common between them . The overall process of the scientific method involves making conjectures ( hypotheses ) , deriving predictions from them as logical consequences , and then carrying out experiments based on those predictions . A hypothesis is a conjecture , based on knowledge obtained while formulating the question . The hypothesis might be very specific or it might be broad . Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments . Under modern interpretations , a scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable , implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis ; otherwise , the hypothesis can not be meaningfully tested .   The purpose of an experiment is to determine whether observations agree with or conflict with the predictions derived from a hypothesis . Experiments can take place anywhere from a college lab to CERN 's Large Hadron Collider . There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method , however . Though the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps , it represents rather a set of general principles .  Not all steps take place in every scientific inquiry ( or to the same degree ) , and are not always in the same order . Some philosophers and scientists have argued that there is no scientific method , such as Lee Smolin and Paul Feyerabend ( in his Against Method ) . Nola and Sankey remark that `` For some , the whole idea of a theory of scientific method is yester-year 's debate '' ."}
{"_id": "Scientific_modelling", "title": "Scientific modelling", "headings": "", "text": "Scientific modelling is a scientific activity , the aim of which is to make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand , define , quantify , visualize , or simulate by referencing it to existing and usually commonly accepted knowledge . It requires selecting and identifying relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then using different types of models for different aims , such as conceptual models to better understand , operational models to operationalize , mathematical models to quantify , and graphical models to visualize the subject . Modelling is an essential and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines , each of which have their own ideas about specific types of modelling .   There is also an increasing attention to scientific modelling in fields such as science education , philosophy of science , systems theory , and knowledge visualization . There is growing collection of methods , techniques and meta-theory about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling ."}
{"_id": "Scientific_theory", "title": "Scientific theory", "headings": "", "text": "A scientific theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can , in accordance with the scientific method , be repeatedly tested , using a predefined protocol of observations and experiments . Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and are a comprehensive form of scientific knowledge .   It is important to note that the definition of a `` scientific theory '' ( often ambiguously contracted to `` theory '' for the sake of brevity , including in this page ) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word `` theory '' . Per NAS 2008 : `` The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word . It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence . '' In everyday non-scientific speech , `` theory '' can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess , conjecture , idea , or , hypothesis ; such a usage is the opposite of the word `` theory '' in science . These different usages are comparable to the differing , and often opposing , usages of the term `` prediction '' in science versus `` prediction '' in vernacular speech , denoting a mere hope .   The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain . As additional scientific evidence is gathered , a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new empirical findings ; in such circumstances , a more accurate theory is then desired . In certain cases , the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful ( due to its sheer simplicity ) as an approximation under specific conditions ( e.g. , Newton 's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light ) .   Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions . They describe the causal elements responsible for a particular natural phenomenon , and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry ( e.g. , electricity , chemistry , astronomy ) . Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge , as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease .   As with other forms of scientific knowledge , scientific theories are both deductive and inductive in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability .   Paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , and science historian Stephen Jay Gould said , `` ... facts and theories are different things , not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty . Facts are the world ′ s data . Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts . ''"}
{"_id": "Scotland", "title": "Scotland", "headings": "", "text": "Scotland ( -LSB- ˈskɒt.lənd -RSB- Scots : -LSB- - scoˈskɔt.lənd -RSB- Alba -LSB- ˈal̪ˠapə -RSB- ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain . It shares a border with England to the south , and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , with the North Sea to the east and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the south-west . In addition to the mainland , the country is made up of more than 790 islands , including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides .   The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707 . By inheritance in 1603 , James VI , King of Scots , became King of England and King of Ireland , thus forming a personal union of the three kingdoms . Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain . The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain , which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England . In 1801 , Great Britain itself entered into a political union with the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland .   Within Scotland , the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles , titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to the pre-union Kingdom of Scotland . The legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland ; Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law . The continued existence of legal , educational , religious and other institutions distinct from those in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity since the 1707 union with England .   In 1997 , a Scottish Parliament was re-established , in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members , having authority over many areas of domestic policy . Scotland is represented in the United Kingdom Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs . Scotland is also a member of the British -- Irish Council , and sends five elected representatives to the British -- Irish Parliamentary Assembly ."}
{"_id": "Scott_Pruitt", "title": "Scott Pruitt", "headings": "", "text": "Edward Scott Pruitt ( born May 9 , 1968 ) is an American lawyer and Republican politician from the state of Oklahoma who is currently the 14th Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency . Nominated by President Donald Trump in December 2016 , Pruitt was confirmed by the Senate to lead the EPA on February 17 , 2017 .   Pruitt represented Tulsa and Wagoner Counties in the Oklahoma Senate from 1998 until 2006 . In 2006 , Pruitt narrowly lost to Oklahoma Speaker of the House Todd Hiett in a bid for the Republican nomination for Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma . In 2010 , Pruitt was elected Attorney General of Oklahoma . In that role , he was viewed as a proponent of federalism , supporting religious freedom laws and opposing abortion rights , same-sex marriage , the Affordable Care Act , and environmental regulations as a self-described `` leading advocate against the EPA 's activist agenda '' . He fought the agency 's efforts on climate and clear air in several lawsuits , often closely coordinating with the fossil fuel industry , which supported him with almost $ 300,000 in campaign contributions . In 2012 , Pruitt was elected as chairman of the Republican Attorneys General Association , and re-elected for a second term in February 2013 .   Pruitt rejects the scientific consensus that human activities are a primary contributor to climate change . He specifically rejects the stance of the scientific community , including US agencies NASA and NOAA , that carbon dioxide is the primary contributor ."}
{"_id": "Scuba_diving", "title": "Scuba diving", "headings": "", "text": "Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving in which the scuba diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus ( scuba ) which is completely independent of surface supply , to breathe underwater . Unlike other modes of diving , which rely either on breath-hold or on breathing supplied under pressure from the surface , scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas , usually compressed air , allowing them greater freedom of movement than with an air line or diver 's umbilical and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold . Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled , and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a diving regulator . They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas . Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases . The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit ; therefore , a smaller cylinder or cylinders , may be used for an equivalent dive duration . Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption , they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection , scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals , and media divers to avoid bubble interference .   Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications , including scientific , military and public safety roles , but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable . Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen , combat divers or attack swimmers .   A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet , but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle , or a sled pulled from the surface . Other equipment includes a dive mask to improve underwater vision , a protective diving suit , equipment to control buoyancy , and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive . Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications . These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment , and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems . A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations , but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications ."}
{"_id": "Sea", "title": "Sea", "headings": "", "text": "A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land . More broadly , `` the sea '' is the interconnected system of Earth 's salty , oceanic waters -- considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions . The sea moderates Earth 's climate and has important roles in the water cycle , carbon cycle , and nitrogen cycle . Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory , the modern scientific study of the sea -- oceanography -- dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s . The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections -- including the International Hydrographic Organization 's four named oceans ( the Atlantic , Pacific , Indian , and Arctic ) and the Southern Ocean ; smaller , second-order sections , such as the Mediterranean , are known as seas .   Owing to the present state of continental drift , the Northern Hemisphere is now fairly equally divided between land and sea ( a ratio of about 2:3 ) but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic ( 1:4.7 ) . Salinity in the open ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3.5 % by mass , although this can vary in more landlocked waters , near the mouths of large rivers , or at great depths . About 85 % of the solids in the open sea are sodium chloride . Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature . Surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides , the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun . The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses and by the rotation of the Earth ( the Coriolis effect ) .   Former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves , shallow areas in the sea close to land . These nutrient-rich waters teem with life , which provide humans with substantial supplies of food -- mainly fish , but also shellfish , mammals , and seaweed -- which are both harvested in the wild and farmed . The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs . Whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales ' dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting . Oceanography has established that not all life is restricted to the sunlit surface waters : even under enormous depths and pressures , nutrients streaming from hydrothermal vents support their own unique ecosystem . Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earth 's atmosphere ; both plants and animals first evolved in the sea .   The sea is an essential aspect of human trade , travel , mineral extraction , and power generation . This has also made it essential to warfare and left major cities exposed to earthquakes and volcanoes from nearby faults ; powerful tsunami waves ; and hurricanes , typhoons , and cyclones produced in the tropics . This importance and duality has affected human culture , from early sea gods to the epic poetry of Homer to the changes induced by the Columbian Exchange , from burial at sea to Basho 's haikus to hyperrealist marine art , and inspiring music ranging from the shanties in The Complaynt of Scotland to Rimsky-Korsakov 's `` The Sea and Sinbad 's Ship '' to A-mei 's `` Listen to the Sea '' . It is the scene of leisure activities including swimming , diving , surfing , and sailing . However , population growth , industrialization , and intensive farming have all contributed to present-day marine pollution . Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts , lowering its pH in a process known as ocean acidification . The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem ."}
{"_id": "Sea-level_curve", "title": "Sea-level curve", "headings": "", "text": "The sea-level curve is the representation of the changes of the sea level throughout the geological history .   The first such curve is the Vail curve or Exxon curve . The names of the curve refer to the fact that in 1977 a team of Exxon geologists from Esso Production Research headed by Peter Vail published a monograph on global eustatic sea-level changes . Their sea-level curve was based on seismic and biostratigraphic data accumulated during petroleum exploration .   The Vail curve ( and the monograph itself ) was the subject of debate among geologists , because it was based on undisclosed commercially confidential stratigraphic data , and hence not independently verifiable . Because of this , there were later efforts to establish a sea-level curve based on non-commercial data .   In 1987 -- 1988 a revised eustatic sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras was published , now known as the Haq sea-level curve , in reference to the Pakistani-American Oceanographer Bilal Haq ."}
{"_id": "SeaLifeBase", "title": "SeaLifeBase", "headings": "", "text": "SeaLifeBase is a global online database of information about marine life . It aims to provide key information on the taxonomy , distribution and ecology of all marine species in the world apart from finfish . SeaLifeBase is in partnership with the WorldFish Center in Malaysia and the UBC Fisheries Centre at the University of British Columbia . Daniel Pauly is the principal investigator and it is coordinated by Maria Lourdes D. Palomares . , it included descriptions of 74,000 species , 47,700 common names , 12,400 pictures , and references to 31,700 works in the scientific literature . SeaLifeBase complements FishBase , which provides parallel information for finfish ."}
{"_id": "Sea_ice", "title": "Sea ice", "headings": "", "text": "Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs ."}
{"_id": "Sea_level", "title": "Sea level", "headings": "", "text": "Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location .   Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming .   The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) ."}
{"_id": "Sea_level_rise", "title": "Sea level rise", "headings": "", "text": "A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly .   Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. .  Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century .   Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems ."}
{"_id": "Sea_surface_temperature", "title": "Sea surface temperature", "headings": "", "text": "Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans .   Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites ."}
{"_id": "Seagrass", "title": "Seagrass", "headings": "", "text": "Seagrasses are flowering plants ( angiosperms ) belonging to four families ( Posidoniaceae , Zosteraceae , Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae ) , all in the order Alismatales ( in the class of monocotyledons ) , which grow in marine , fully saline environments . There are 12 genera with some 60 species known ."}
{"_id": "Seamount", "title": "Seamount", "headings": "", "text": "A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts ''   A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands .   Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts .   Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis ."}
{"_id": "Sean_Solomon", "title": "Sean Solomon", "headings": "", "text": "Sean Carl Solomon ( born 1945 ) is the director of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University , where he is also the William B. Ransford Professor of Earth and Planetary Science . Before moving to Columbia in 2012 , he was the director of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institute in Washington , D.C. His research area is in geophysics , including the fields of planetary geology , seismology , marine geophysics , and geodynamics . Solomon is the principal investigator on the NASA MESSENGER mission to Mercury . He is also a team member on the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory mission and the Plume-Lithosphere Undersea Melt Experiment ( PLUME ) ."}
{"_id": "Season", "title": "Season", "headings": "", "text": "A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather , ecology and hours of daylight . Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to the plane of the orbit . In temperate and polar regions , the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface , variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate , and plants to be dormant .   During May , June , and July , the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun . The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November , December , and January . It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux . However , due to seasonal lag , June , July , and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December , January , and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere .   In temperate and subpolar regions , four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized : spring , autumn or fall , and winter . Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions : prevernal , vernal , estival , serotinal , autumnal , and hibernal . Many tropical regions have two seasons : the rainy , wet , or monsoon season and the dry season . Some have a third cool , mild , or harmattan season . Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies , whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times , and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual .   In some parts of the world , some other `` seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season , tornado season , and wildfire season . The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood , growth , and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt ."}
{"_id": "Season_creep", "title": "Season creep", "headings": "", "text": "In phenology , season creep is observed changes in the timing of the seasons , such as earlier indications of spring widely observed in temperate areas across the Northern Hemisphere .  Phenological records analyzed by climate scientists have shown significant temporal trends in the observed time of seasonal events ,  from the end of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century . In Europe , season creep has been associated with the arrival of spring moving up by approximately one week in a recent 30-year period .  Other studies have put the rate of season creep measured by plant phenology in the range of 2 -- 3 days per decade advancement in spring , and 0.3 -- 1.6 days per decade delay in autumn , over the past 30 -- 80 years .   Observable changes in nature related to season creep include birds laying their eggs earlier and buds appearing on some trees in late winter . In addition to advanced budding , flowering trees have been blooming earlier , for example the culturally important cherry blossoms in Japan ,  and Washington , D.C.  Northern hardwood forests have been trending toward leafing out sooner , and retaining their green canopies longer .  The agricultural growing season has also expanded by 10 -- 20 days over the last few decades .   The effects of season creep have been noted by non-scientists as well , including gardeners who have advanced their spring planting times ,  and experimented with plantings of less hardy warmer climate varieties of non-native plants . While summer growing seasons are expanding , winters are getting warmer and shorter , resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water ,  earlier ice-out ,  earlier melt water flows ,  and earlier spring lake level peaks .  Some spring events , or `` phenophases '' , have become intermittent or unobservable ; for example , bodies of water that once froze regularly most winters now freeze less frequently ,  and formerly migratory birds are now seen year-round in some areas ."}
{"_id": "Seattle", "title": "Seattle", "headings": "", "text": "Seattle ( -LSB- siˈætəl -RSB- ) is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County , Washington . With an estimated 704,352 residents , Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America . In July 2013 , it was the fastest-growing major city in the United States and remained in the Top 5 in May 2015 with an annual growth rate of 2.1 % . In July 2016 , Seattle was again the fastest-growing major U.S. city , with a 3.1 % annual growth rate . The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound ( an inlet of the Pacific Ocean ) and Lake Washington , about 100 mi south of the Canada -- United States border . A major gateway for trade with Asia , Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling .   The Seattle area was previously inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers . Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers , subsequently known as the Denny Party , arrived from Illinois via Portland , Oregon , on the schooner Exact at Alki Point on November 13 , 1851 . The settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named `` Seattle '' in 1852 , after Chief Si'ahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes .   Logging was Seattle 's first major industry , but by the late-19th century , the city had become a commercial and shipbuilding center as a gateway to Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush . Growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company , which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing . The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s , with companies like Microsoft becoming established in the region . In 1994 , Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle . The stream of new software , biotechnology , and Internet companies led to an economic revival , which increased the city 's population by almost 50,000 between 1990 and 2000 .   Seattle has a noteworthy musical history . From 1918 to 1951 , nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street , from the current Chinatown / International District , to the Central District . The jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles , Quincy Jones , Ernestine Anderson , and others . Seattle is also the birthplace of hip-hop sensation Neema , rock musician Jimi Hendrix , origin of the bands Nirvana , Pearl Jam , Soundgarden , Alice in Chains and the alternative rock subgenre grunge ."}
{"_id": "Seawall", "title": "Seawall", "headings": "", "text": "A seawall ( or sea wall ) is a form of coastal defense constructed where the sea , and associated coastal processes , impact directly upon the landforms of the coast . The purpose of a sea wall is to protect areas of human habitation , conservation and leisure activities from the action of tides , waves , or tsunamis . As a seawall is a static feature it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea .   The coast is generally a high-energy , dynamic environment with spatial variations over a wide range of timescales . The coast is exposed to erosion by rivers and winds as well as the sea , so that a combination of denudational processes will work against a sea wall .  Because of these persistent natural forces , sea walls need to be maintained ( and eventually replaced ) to maintain their effectiveness .   The many types of sea wall in use today reflect both the varying physical forces they are designed to withstand , and location specific aspects , such as local climate , coastal position , wave regime , and value of landform . Sea walls are hard engineering shore-based structures which protect the coast from erosion . But various environmental problems and issues may arise from the construction of a sea wall , including disrupting sediment movement and transport patterns . Combined with a high construction cost , this has led to an increasing use of other soft engineering coastal management options such as beach replenishment .   Sea walls may be constructed from various materials , most commonly reinforced concrete , boulders , steel , or gabions . Other possible construction materials are : vinyl , wood , aluminium , fibreglass composite , and large biodegrable sandbags made of jute and coir . In the UK , sea wall also refers to an earthen bank used to create a polder , or a dike construction ."}
{"_id": "Seawater", "title": "Seawater", "headings": "", "text": "Seawater , or salt water , is water from a sea or ocean . On average , seawater in the world 's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5 % ( 35 g/L , or 0.600 M ) This means that every kilogram ( roughly one litre by volume ) of seawater has approximately 35 g of dissolved salts ( predominantly sodium and chloride ions ) . Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L . Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water ( density 1.0 kg/L at 4 C ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume . The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases . At typical salinity , it freezes at about -2 C . The coldest seawater ever recorded ( in a liquid state ) was in 2010 , in a stream under an Antarctic glacier , and measured -2.6 C. Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4 . However , there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units ."}
{"_id": "Second_Grinnell_expedition", "title": "Second Grinnell expedition", "headings": "", "text": "The Second Grinnell expedition of 1853–1855 was an American effort, financed by Henry Grinnell, to determine the fate of the Franklin's lost expedition. Led by Elisha Kent Kane, the team explored areas northwest of Greenland, now called Grinnell Land. While failing to determine the fate of Sir John Franklin, the expedition set a new record for northward penetration, delineated 960 miles (1,540 km) of unexplored coastline north of 82° latitude, and discovered the long-sought open Polar Sea. Kane collected valuable geographical, climate and magnetic observations before abandoning the brig Advance to the pack ice in 1855. While three members of the crew were lost, the epic journey of the survivors inspired the public as a vivid tale of Arctic survival."}
{"_id": "Second_law_of_thermodynamics", "title": "Second law of thermodynamics", "headings": "", "text": "The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can only increase over time . It can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in a steady state ( equilibrium ) or undergoing a reversible process . The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes , and the asymmetry between future and past .   Historically , the second law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of thermodynamic theory . Statistical thermodynamics , classical or quantum , explains the microscopic origin of the law .   The second law has been expressed in many ways . Its first formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot in 1824 , who showed that there is an upper limit to the efficiency of conversion of heat to work in a heat engine ."}
{"_id": "Self-publishing", "title": "Self-publishing", "headings": "", "text": "Self-publishing is the publication of any book or other media by its author without the involvement of an established publisher . A self-published physical book is said to have been privately printed . The author is in control of the entire process including , for a book , the design of the cover and interior , formats , price , distribution , marketing , and public relations . The authors can do it all themselves or may outsource some or all the work to companies which offer these services .   Self-publishing is not limited to physical books . E-books , pamphlets , brochures , websites , and other media are commonly self-published ."}
{"_id": "Sensitivity_analysis", "title": "Sensitivity analysis", "headings": "", "text": "Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system ( numerical or otherwise ) can be apportioned to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs . A related practice is uncertainty analysis , which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty ; ideally , uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem .   The process of recalculating outcomes under alternative assumptions to determine the impact of a variable under sensitivity analysis can be useful for a range of purposes , including :  Testing the robustness of the results of a model or system in the presence of uncertainty .  Increased understanding of the relationships between input and output variables in a system or model .  Uncertainty reduction , through the identification of model inputs that cause significant uncertainty in the output and should therefore be the focus of attention in order to increase robustness ( perhaps by further research ) .  Searching for errors in the model ( by encountering unexpected relationships between inputs and outputs ) .  Model simplification -- fixing model inputs that have no effect on the output , or identifying and removing redundant parts of the model structure .  Enhancing communication from modelers to decision makers ( e.g. by making recommendations more credible , understandable , compelling or persuasive ) .  Finding regions in the space of input factors for which the model output is either maximum or minimum or meets some optimum criterion ( see optimization and Monte Carlo filtering ) .  In case of calibrating models with large number of parameters , a primary sensitivity test can ease the calibration stage by focusing on the sensitive parameters . Not knowing the sensitivity of parameters can result in time being uselessly spent on non-sensitive ones .  To seek to identify important connections between observations , model inputs , and predictions or forecasts , leading to the development of better models ."}
{"_id": "Sensor-based_sorting", "title": "Sensor-based sorting", "headings": "", "text": "Sensor-based sorting , is an umbrella term for all applications where particles are singularly detected by a sensor technique and rejected by an amplified mechanical , hydraulic or pneumatic process . The technique is generally applied in the three industries mining , recycling and food processing and used in the particle size range between 0.5 and . Since sensor-based sorting is a single particle separation technology , the throughput is proportional to the average particle size and weight fed onto the machine ."}
{"_id": "September_11_attacks", "title": "September 11 attacks", "headings": "", "text": "The September 11 attacks ( also referred to as 9/11 ) The expression `` 9/11 '' is pronounced `` nine eleven '' . The slash is not part of the pronunciation . The name is frequently used in British English as well as in American English , even though the dating conventions differ . were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday , September 11 , 2001 . The attacks killed 2,996 people , injured over 6,000 others , and caused at least $ 10 billion in property and infrastructure damage .   Four passenger airliners operated by two major U.S. passenger air carriers ( United Airlines and American Airlines ) -- all of which departed from airports in the northeastern United States bound for California -- were hijacked by 19 al-Qaeda terrorists . Two of the planes , American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 , were crashed into the North and South towers , respectively , of the World Trade Center complex in New York City . Within an hour and 42 minutes , both 110-story towers collapsed , with debris and the resulting fires causing partial or complete collapse of all other buildings in the World Trade Center complex , including the 47-story 7 World Trade Center tower , as well as significant damage to ten other large surrounding structures . A third plane , American Airlines Flight 77 , was crashed into the Pentagon ( the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense ) in Arlington County , Virginia , leading to a partial collapse of the building 's western side . The fourth plane , United Airlines Flight 93 , initially was steered toward Washington , D.C. , but crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania , after its passengers tried to overcome the hijackers . It was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States , with 343 and 72 killed respectively .   Suspicion for the attack quickly fell on al-Qaeda . The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban , which had harbored al-Qaeda . Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks . Although al-Qaeda 's leader , Osama bin Laden , initially denied any involvement , in 2004 he claimed responsibility for the attacks . Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S. support of Israel , the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia , and sanctions against Iraq as motives . Having evaded capture for almost a decade , bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U.S. Navy in May 2011 .   The destruction of the World Trade Center and nearby infrastructure caused serious damage to the economy of Lower Manhattan and had a significant effect on global markets , closing Wall Street until September 17 and the civilian airspace in the U.S. and Canada until September 13 . Many closings , evacuations , and cancellations followed , out of respect or fear of further attacks . Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002 , and the Pentagon was repaired within a year . On November 18 , 2006 , construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site . The building was officially opened on November 3 , 2014 . Numerous memorials have been constructed , including the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City , the Pentagon Memorial in Arlington County , Virginia , and the Flight 93 National Memorial in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville , Pennsylvania ."}
{"_id": "Series_and_parallel_circuits", "title": "Series and parallel circuits", "headings": "", "text": "Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in many different ways . The two simplest of these are called series and parallel and occur frequently . Components connected in series are connected along a single path , so the same current flows through all of the components . Components connected in parallel are connected , so the same voltage is applied to each component .   A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as a series circuit ; likewise , one connected completely in parallel is known as a parallel circuit .   In a series circuit , the current through each of the components is the same , and the voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across each component . In a parallel circuit , the voltage across each of the components is the same , and the total current is the sum of the currents through each component .   Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and one 6 V battery . If a wire joins the battery to one bulb , to the next bulb , to the next bulb , to the next bulb , then back to the battery , in one continuous loop , the bulbs are said to be in series . If each bulb is wired to the battery in a separate loop , the bulbs are said to be in parallel . If the four light bulbs are connected in series , there is same current through all of them , and the voltage drop is 1.5 V across each bulb , which may not be sufficient to make them glow . If the light bulbs are connected in parallel , the currents through the light bulbs combine to form the current in the battery , while the voltage drop is across each bulb and they all glow .   In a series circuit , every device must function for the circuit to be complete . One bulb burning out in a series circuit breaks the circuit . In parallel circuits , each light has its own circuit , so all but one light could be burned out , and the last one will still function ."}
{"_id": "Settlement_of_the_Americas", "title": "Settlement of the Americas", "headings": "", "text": "Available scientific evidence indicates that modern humans emerged from Africa over 100,000 years ago , yet did not arrive in the Americas until less than 20,000 years ago . Current understanding of the settlement of the Americas derives from advances in four interrelated disciplines : archaeology , Pleistocene geology , physical anthropology , and DNA analysis . While there is general agreement that the Americas were first settled from Asia , the pattern of migration , its timing , and the place ( s ) of origin in Asia of the peoples who migrated to the Americas remain unclear . In the 2000s , researchers sought to use familiar tools to validate or reject established theories , such as Clovis first . The archeological evidence suggests that the Paleo-Indians ' first dispersal into the Americas occurred near the end of the last glacial period or , more specifically , what is known as the Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) , around 16,500 -- 13,000 years ago .   The settlement of the Americas is of intense interest to archaeologists and anthropologists . Modern biochemical techniques , as well as the accumulation of archaeological and geological evidence , have shed progressively more light on the subject ; however , significant questions remain unresolved ."}
{"_id": "Severe_weather", "title": "Severe weather", "headings": "", "text": "Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage , serious social disruption , or loss of human life . Types of severe weather phenomena vary , depending on the latitude , altitude , topography , and atmospheric conditions . High winds , hail , excessive precipitation , and wildfires are forms and effects of severe weather , as are thunderstorms , downbursts , lightning , tornadoes , waterspouts , tropical cyclones , and extratropical cyclones . Regional and seasonal severe weather phenomena include blizzards , snowstorms , ice storms , and duststorms ."}
{"_id": "Seville", "title": "Seville", "headings": "", "text": "Seville ( -LSB- səˈvɪl -RSB- Sevilla -LSB- seˈβiʎa -RSB- , -LSB- seˈβi ʝa -RSB- ) is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville , Spain . It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir . The inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos ( feminine form : sevillanas ) or hispalenses , after the Roman name of the city , Hispalis . Seville has a municipal population of about 703,000 , and a metropolitan population of about 1.5 million , making it the fourth-largest city in Spain and the 30th most populous municipality in the European Union . Its Old Town , with an area of 4 km ² , contains three UNESCO World Heritage Sites : the Alcázar palace complex , the Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies . The Seville harbour , located about 80 km from the Atlantic Ocean , is the only river port in Spain . Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe , with summer average high temperatures of above 35 ° C.   Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis . It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712 . During the Muslim rule in Spain , Seville came under the jurisdiction of the Caliphate of Córdoba before becoming the independent Taifa of Seville ; later it was ruled by the Muslim Almoravids and the Almohads until finally being incorporated into the Christian Kingdom of Castile under Ferdinand III in 1248 . After the discovery of the Americas , Seville became one of the economic centres of the Spanish Empire as its port monopolised the trans-oceanic trade and the Casa de Contratación ( House of Trade ) wielded its power , opening a Golden Age of arts and literature . In 1519 , Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth . Coinciding with the Baroque period of European history , the 17th century in Seville represented the most brilliant flowering of the city 's culture ; then began a gradual economic and demographic decline as silting in the Guadalquivir forced the trade monopoly to relocate to the nearby port of Cádiz .   The 20th century in Seville saw the tribulations of the Spanish Civil War , decisive cultural milestones such as the Ibero-American Exposition of 1929 and Expo ' 92 , and the city 's election as the capital of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia ."}
{"_id": "Sewage_sludge", "title": "Sewage sludge", "headings": "", "text": "Sewage sludge refers to the residual , semi-solid material that is produced as a by-product during sewage treatment of industrial or municipal wastewater . The term septage is also referring to sludge from simple wastewater treatment but is connected to simple on-site sanitation systems , such as septic tanks .   When fresh sewage or wastewater enters a primary settling tank , approximately 50 % of the suspended solid matter will settle out in an hour and a half . This collection of solids is known as raw sludge or primary solids and is said to be `` fresh '' before anaerobic processes become active . The sludge will become putrescent in a short time once anaerobic bacteria take over , and must be removed from the sedimentation tank before this happens .   This is accomplished in one of two ways . In an Imhoff tank , fresh sludge is passed through a slot to the lower story or digestion chamber where it is decomposed by anaerobic bacteria , resulting in liquefaction and reduced volume of the sludge . After digesting for an extended period , the result is called `` digested '' sludge and may be disposed of by drying and then landfilling . More commonly with domestic sewage , the fresh sludge is continuously extracted from the tank mechanically and passed to separate sludge digestion tanks that operate at higher temperatures than the lower story of the Imhoff tank and , as a result , digest much more rapidly and efficiently .   Biosolids is a term often used in conjunction with reuse of sewage sludge after sewage sludge treatment . Biosolids can be defined as organic wastewater solids that can be reused after stabilization processes such as anaerobic digestion and composting . Opponents of sewage sludge reuse reject this term as a public relations term ."}
{"_id": "Sewage_sludge_treatment", "title": "Sewage sludge treatment", "headings": "", "text": "Sewage sludge treatment describes the processes used to manage and dispose of sewage sludge produced during sewage treatment . Sludge is mostly water with lesser amounts of solid material removed from liquid sewage . Primary sludge includes settleable solids removed during primary treatment in primary clarifiers . Secondary sludge separated in secondary clarifiers includes treated sewage sludge from secondary treatment bioreactors .   Sludge treatment is focused on reducing sludge weight and volume to reduce disposal costs , and on reducing potential health risks of disposal options . Water removal is the primary means of weight and volume reduction , while pathogen destruction is frequently accomplished through heating during thermophilic digestion , composting , or incineration . The choice of a sludge treatment method depends on the volume of sludge generated , and comparison of treatment costs required for available disposal options . Air-drying and composting may be attractive to rural communities , while limited land availability may make aerobic digestion and mechanical dewatering preferable for cities , and economies of scale may encourage energy recovery alternatives in metropolitan areas .   Energy may be recovered from sludge through methane gas production during anaerobic digestion or through incineration of dried sludge , but energy yield is often insufficient to evaporate sludge water content or to power blowers , pumps , or centrifuges required for dewatering . Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include toxic chemicals removed from liquid sewage by sorption onto solid particles in clarifier sludge . Reducing sludge volume may increase the concentration of some of these toxic chemicals in the sludge ."}
{"_id": "Shale_gas", "title": "Shale gas", "headings": "", "text": "Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas .   Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves .   The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low .   A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) .   Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' ."}
{"_id": "Shock_(circulatory)", "title": "Shock (circulatory)", "headings": "", "text": "Circulatory shock , commonly known as shock , is a life-threatening medical condition of low blood perfusion to tissues resulting in cellular injury and inadequate tissue function . The typical signs of shock are low blood pressure , rapid heart rate , signs of poor end-organ perfusion ( i.e. : low urine output , confusion , or loss of consciousness ) , and weak pulses .   The shock index ( SI ) , defined as heart rate divided by systolic blood pressure , is an accurate diagnostic measure that is more useful than hypotension and tachycardia in isolation . Under normal conditions , a number between 0.5 and 0.8 is typically seen . Should that number increase , so does suspicion of an underlying state of shock . Blood pressure alone may not be a reliable sign for shock , as there are times when a person is in circulatory shock but has a stable blood pressure .   Circulatory shock is not related to the emotional state of shock . Circulatory shock is a life-threatening medical emergency and one of the most common causes of death for critically ill people . Shock can have a variety of effects , all with similar outcomes , but all relate to a problem with the body 's circulatory system . For example , shock may lead to hypoxemia ( a lack of oxygen in arterial blood ) or cardiac and/or respiratory arrest .   One of the key dangers of shock is that it progresses by a positive feedback mechanism . Poor blood supply leads to cellular damage , which results in an inflammatory response to increase blood flow to the affected area . This is normally very useful to match up supply with tissue demand for nutrients . However , if enough tissue causes this , it will deprive vital nutrients from other parts of the body . Additionally , the ability of the circulatory system to meet this increase in demand causes saturation , a major result of which is that other parts of the body begin to respond in a similar way , thus exacerbating the problem . Due to this chain of events , immediate treatment of shock is critical to survival ."}
{"_id": "Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation", "title": "Shutdown of thermohaline circulation", "headings": "", "text": "A shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation is an effect of global warming on a major ocean circulation .   Data from 2010 NASA suggested that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation has not slowed down , but may have actually sped up slightly in the recent past . However , this has been superseded by a 2015 study that suggests ` that the Gulf Stream has weakened by 15-20 % '"}
{"_id": "Sierra_Madre_Occidental", "title": "Sierra Madre Occidental", "headings": "", "text": "The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera , that runs northwest -- southeast through Northwestern and Western Mexico , and along the Gulf of California . The Sierra Madre is part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges ( cordillera ) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western `` backbone '' of North America , Central America , South America and Antarctica ."}
{"_id": "Silurian", "title": "Silurian", "headings": "", "text": "The Silurian is a geologic period and system spanning 24.6 million years from the end of the Ordovician Period , at million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Devonian Period , Mya . As with other geologic periods , the rock beds that define the period 's start and end are well identified , but the exact dates are uncertain by several million years . The base of the Silurian is set at a major Ordovician-Silurian extinction event when 60 % of marine species were wiped out .   A significant evolutionary milestone during the Silurian was the diversification of jawed and bony fish . Multi-cellular life also began to appear on land in the form of small , bryophyte-like and vascular plants that grew beside lakes , streams , and coastlines , and terrestrial arthropods are also first found on land during the Silurian . However , terrestrial life would not greatly diversify and affect the landscape until the Devonian ."}
{"_id": "Sinking_of_MV_Sewol", "title": "Sinking of MV Sewol", "headings": "", "text": "The sinking of Sewol , also referred to as the Sewol Ferry Disaster , occurred on the morning of 16 April 2014 , en route from Incheon to Jeju in South Korea . The ferry capsized while carrying 476 people , mostly secondary school students from Danwon High School ( Ansan City ) . The 6,825-ton vessel sent a distress signal from about 2.7 km north off Byeongpungdo at 08:58 Korea Standard Time ( 23:58 UTC , 15 April 2014 ) . In total , 304 passengers and crew members died in the disaster . Of the approximately 172 survivors , more than half were rescued by fishing boats and other commercial vessels that arrived at the scene approximately 40 minutes after the South Korean coast guard .   The sinking of Sewol resulted in widespread social and political reaction within South Korea . Many criticized the actions of the captain and most of the crew . More criticized the ferry operator and the regulators who oversaw its operations . Additional criticism was directed at the South Korean government and media for its disaster response ( including the poor showing of the then Korean coastguard ) and attempts to downplay government culpability .   On 15 May 2014 , the captain and three crew members were charged with murder , while the other 11 members of the crew were indicted for abandoning the ship . An arrest warrant was also issued for Yoo Byung-eun , the owner of Chonghaejin Marine , which operated Sewol , but he could not be found despite a nationwide manhunt . On 22 July 2014 , police revealed that they had established that a dead man found in a field 415 kilometres south of Seoul was Yoo . Foul play was ruled out , but police say they have yet to establish the cause of Yoo 's death .   On the first anniversary of the disaster , as part of commemorations for the victims of the sinking of Sewol , 4,475 people held electronic candles to form the shape of the ferry in an attempt to set a Guinness World Record for the largest torchlight image ."}
{"_id": "Sinking_of_the_RMS_Lusitania", "title": "Sinking of the RMS Lusitania", "headings": "", "text": "The sinking of the Cunard ocean liner RMS Lusitania occurred on Friday , 7 May 1915 during the First World War , as Germany waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom who had implemented a naval blockade of Germany . The ship was identified and torpedoed by the German U-boat and sank in 18 minutes . The vessel went down 11 mi off the Old Head of Kinsale , Ireland , killing 1,198 and leaving 761 survivors . The sinking turned public opinion in many countries against Germany , contributed to the American entry into World War I and became an iconic symbol in military recruiting campaigns of why the war was being fought .   Lusitania had the misfortune to fall victim to torpedo attack relatively early in the First World War , before tactics for evading submarines were properly implemented or understood . The contemporary investigations in both the UK and the United States into the precise causes of the ship 's loss were obstructed by the needs of wartime secrecy and a propaganda campaign to ensure all blame fell upon Germany . Argument over whether the ship was a legitimate military target raged back and forth throughout the war as both sides made misleading claims about the ship . Before Lusitania sailed , the German embassy had placed warnings in American newspapers that the ship would be targeted as it was carrying war munitions . At the time she was sunk , she was carrying over 4 million rounds of small-arms ammunition ( .303 caliber ) , almost 5,000 shrapnel shell casings ( for a total of some fifty tons ) , and 3,240 brass percussion fuses , in addition to 1,266 passengers and a crew of 696 . Several attempts have been made over the years since the sinking to dive to the wreck seeking information about precisely how the ship sank , and argument continues to the present day ."}
{"_id": "Sinking_of_the_RMS_Titanic", "title": "Sinking of the RMS Titanic", "headings": "", "text": "The sinking of the RMS Titanic occurred on the night of 14 April through to the morning of 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean , four days into the ship 's maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City . The largest passenger liner in service at the time , Titanic had an estimated 2,224 people on board when she struck an iceberg at around 23:40 ( ship 's time ) on Sunday , 14 April 1912 . Her sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02:20 ( 05:18 GMT ) on Monday , 15 April resulted in the deaths of more than 1,500 people , which made it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history .   Titanic received six warnings of sea ice on 14 April but was travelling near her maximum speed when her lookouts sighted the iceberg . Unable to turn quickly enough , the ship suffered a glancing blow that buckled her starboard ( right ) side and opened five of her sixteen compartments to the sea . Titanic had been designed to stay afloat with four of her forward compartments flooded but no more , and the crew soon realised that the ship would sink . They used distress flares and radio ( wireless ) messages to attract help as the passengers were put into lifeboats . In accordance with existing practice , Titanic 's lifeboat system was designed to ferry passengers to nearby rescue vessels , not to hold everyone on board simultaneously ; therefore with the ship sinking rapidly and help still hours away , there was no safe refuge for many of the passengers and crew . Compounding this , poor management of the evacuation meant many boats were launched before they were completely full .   Thus , when Titanic sank , over a thousand passengers and crew were still on board . Almost all those who jumped or fell into the water drowned within minutes due to the effects of hypothermia . arrived on the scene about an hour and a half after the sinking and rescued the last of the survivors by 09:15 on 15 April , some nine and a half hours after the collision . The disaster caused widespread outrage over the lack of lifeboats , lax regulations , and the unequal treatment of the three passenger classes during the evacuation . Subsequent inquiries recommended sweeping changes to maritime regulations , leading to the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) , which still governs maritime safety today ."}
{"_id": "Situation_awareness", "title": "Situation awareness", "headings": "", "text": "Situational awareness or situation awareness ( SA ) is the perception of environmental elements and events with respect to time or space , the comprehension of their meaning , and the projection of their status after some variable has changed , such as time , or some other variable , such as a predetermined event . It is also a field of study concerned with understanding of the environment critical to decision-makers in complex , dynamic areas from aviation , air traffic control , ship navigation , power plant operations , military command and control , and emergency services such as fire fighting and policing ; to more ordinary but nevertheless complex tasks such as driving an automobile or riding a bicycle .   Situation awareness involves being aware of what is happening in the vicinity to understand how information , events , and one 's own actions will impact goals and objectives , both immediately and in the near future . One with an adept sense of situation awareness generally has a high degree of knowledge with respect to inputs and outputs of a system , an innate `` feel '' for situations , people , and events that play out because of variables the subject can control . Lacking or inadequate situation awareness has been identified as one of the primary factors in accidents attributed to human error . Thus , situation awareness is especially important in work evironments where the information flow can be quite high and poor decisions may lead to serious consequences ( such as piloting an airplane , functioning as a soldier , or treating critically ill or injured patients ) .   As outlined below , three facets of SA have been in focus in research , namely SA States , SA Systems , and SA processes . SA States refers to the actual awareness of the situation . SA Systems refers to the distribution of SA in teams and between objects in the environment , and to the exchange of SA between system parts . SA Processes refers to the updating of SA States , and what guides the moment-to-moment change of SA .   Having complete , accurate , and up-to-the-minute SA is essential where technological and situational complexity on the human decision-maker are a concern . Situation awareness has been recognized as a critical , yet often elusive , foundation for successful decision-making across a broad range of complex and dynamic systems , including aviation , air traffic control , ship navigation , health care , emergency response , military command and control operations , and offshore oil and nuclear power plant management ."}
{"_id": "Six_degrees_of_separation", "title": "Six degrees of separation", "headings": "", "text": "Six degrees of separation is the idea that all living things and everything else in the world are six or fewer steps away from each other so that a chain of `` a friend of a friend '' statements can be made to connect any two people in a maximum of six steps . It was originally set out by Frigyes Karinthy in 1929 and popularized in an eponymous 1990 play written by John Guare ."}
{"_id": "Skepticism", "title": "Skepticism", "headings": "", "text": "Skepticism ( American English ) or scepticism ( British English ; see spelling differences ) is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more items of putative knowledge or belief . It is often directed at domains , such as morality ( moral skepticism ) , religion ( skepticism about the existence of God ) , or knowledge ( skepticism about the possibility of knowledge , or of certainty ) . Formally , skepticism as a topic occurs in the context of philosophy , particularly epistemology , although it can be applied to any topic such as politics , religion , and pseudoscience .   Philosophical skepticism comes in various forms . Radical forms of skepticism deny that knowledge or rational belief is possible and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters . More moderate forms of skepticism claim only that nothing can be known with certainty , or that we can know little or nothing about the `` big questions '' in life , such as whether God exists or whether there is an afterlife . Religious skepticism is `` doubt concerning basic religious principles ( such as immortality , providence , and revelation ) '' . Scientific skepticism concerns testing beliefs for reliability , by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method , to discover empirical evidence for them ."}
{"_id": "Smart_grid", "title": "Smart grid", "headings": "", "text": "A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operational and energy measures including smart meters , smart appliances , renewable energy resources , and energy efficient resources . Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid .   Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform . Policy in the United States is described in § 17381 .   Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-engineering of the electricity services industry , although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical infrastructure ."}
{"_id": "Smog", "title": "Smog", "headings": "", "text": "Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions .   Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death ."}
{"_id": "Snow", "title": "Snow", "headings": "", "text": "Snow pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle , starting when it precipitates from clouds and accumulates on surfaces , then metamorphoses in place , and ultimately melts , slides or sublimates away . Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air . Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets , which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals . Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes , basic among these are platelets , needles , columns and rime . As snow accumulates into a snowpack , it may blow into drifts . Over time , accumulated snow metamorphoses , by sintering , sublimation and freeze-thaw . Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation , a glacier may form . Otherwise , snow typically melts seasonally , causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater .   Major snow-prone areas include the polar regions , the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture and cold temperatures . In the Southern Hemisphere , snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas , apart from Antarctica .   Snow affects such human activities as transportation : creating the need for keeping roadways , wings , and windows clear ; agriculture : providing water to crops and safeguarding livestock ; such sports as skiing , snowboarding , snowmachine travel ; and warfare : impairing target acquisition , degrading the performance of combatants and materiel , and impeding mobility . Snow affects ecosystems , as well , by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold ."}
{"_id": "Snowball_Earth", "title": "Snowball Earth", "headings": "", "text": "The Snowball Earth hypothesis proposes that Earth 's surface became entirely or nearly entirely frozen at least once , sometime earlier than 650 Mya ( million years ago ) . Proponents of the hypothesis argue that it best explains sedimentary deposits generally regarded as of glacial origin at tropical palaeolatitudes , and other enigmatic features in the geological record . Opponents of the hypothesis contest the implications of the geological evidence for global glaciation and the geophysical feasibility of an ice - or slush-covered ocean , and emphasize the difficulty of escaping an all-frozen condition . A number of unanswered questions remain , including whether the Earth was a full snowball , or a `` slushball '' with a thin equatorial band of open ( or seasonally open ) water .   The snowball Earth episodes occurred before the sudden radiation of multicellular bioforms , known as the Cambrian explosion . The most recent snowball episode may have triggered the evolution of multicellularity . Another , much earlier and longer snowball episode , the Huronian glaciation , which occurred 2400 to 2100 Mya , may have been triggered by the first appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere , the `` Great Oxygenation Event . ''"}
{"_id": "Sociology", "title": "Sociology", "headings": "", "text": "Sociology is the study of social behavior or society , including its origins , development , organization , networks , and institutions . It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order , disorder , and change . Many sociologists aim to conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare , while others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes . Subject matter ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and the social structure .   The traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification , social class , social mobility , religion , secularization , law , sexuality and deviance . As all spheres of human activity are affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency , sociology has gradually expanded its focus to further subjects , such as health , medical , military and penal institutions , the Internet , education , social capital and the role of social activity in the development of scientific knowledge .   The range of social scientific methods has also expanded . Social researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques . The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-twentieth century led to increasingly interpretative , hermeneutic , and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society . Conversely , the end of the 1990s and the beginning of 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically , mathematically and computationally rigorous techniques , such as agent-based modelling and social network analysis .   Social research informs politicians and policy makers , educators , planners , legislators , administrators , developers , business magnates , managers , social workers , non-governmental organizations , non-profit organizations , and people interested in resolving social issues in general . There is often a great deal of crossover between social research , market research , and other statistical fields ."}
{"_id": "Socompa", "title": "Socompa", "headings": "", "text": "Socompa is a large complex stratovolcano at the border of Argentina and Chile . It is best known for its large debris avalanche deposit , which is widely accepted as the best-preserved example of this type of deposit in the world , and also notable as the home of the world 's most elevated known microbial ecosystems .   The western rim of the volcano borders the Monturaqui Basin , which is draped with the aforementioned deposit . Escondida Mining currently has a network of roads throughout this area , from beneath which they pump ground water for use at the nearby copper mine . The southern margin of the deposit is bordered by the Antofagasta to Salta trans-Andean railway , although this is rarely used .   The volcano is difficult to reach - either from the north along dirt tracks south of the Miscanti Pass , or from the west via the Escondida copper mine . Both routes require a full-day 's driving and for any reasonable amount of time to be spent at Socompa would need significant planning ."}
{"_id": "Soil", "title": "Soil", "headings": "", "text": "Soil is a mixture of minerals , organic matter , gases , liquids , and countless organisms that together support life on Earth . Soil is a natural body called the pedosphere which has four important functions : it is a medium for plant growth ; it is a means of water storage , supply and purification ; it is a modifier of Earth 's atmosphere ; it is a habitat for organisms ; all of which , in turn , modify the soil .   Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere , the hydrosphere , the atmosphere , and the biosphere . The term pedolith , used commonly to refer to the soil , literally translates ground stone . Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals ( the soil matrix ) and organic matter , as well as a porous phase that holds gases ( the soil atmosphere ) and water ( the soil solution ) . Accordingly , soils are often treated as a three-state system of solids , liquids , and gases .   Soil is a product of the influence of climate , relief ( elevation , orientation , and slope of terrain ) , organisms , and its parent materials ( original minerals ) interacting over time . Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical , chemical and biological processes , which include weathering with associated erosion . Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists .   Most soils have a dry bulk density ( density of soil taking into account voids when dry ) between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3 , while the soil particle density is much higher , in the range of 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm3 . Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic , although fossilized soils are preserved from as far back as the Archean .   Soil science has two basic branches of study : edaphology and pedology . Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things . Pedology is focused on the formation , description ( morphology ) , and classification of soils in their natural environment . In engineering terms , soil is referred to as regolith , or loose rock material that lies above the solid geology . Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt ; technically , the term dirt should be restricted to displaced soil .   As soil resources serve as a basis for food security , the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance ."}
{"_id": "Soil_respiration", "title": "Soil respiration", "headings": "", "text": "Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna .   Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration .   The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures .   Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth .   Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change ."}
{"_id": "Solar_System", "title": "Solar System", "headings": "", "text": "The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies . The International Astronomical Union , the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature , specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects , but uses mixed `` Solar System '' and `` solar system '' in their naming guidelines document . The name is commonly rendered in lower case ( `` solar system '' ) , as , for example , in the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster 's 11th Collegiate Dictionary . is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it , either directly or indirectly.The natural satellites ( moons ) orbiting the Solar System 's planets are an example of the latter . Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly , the largest eight are the planets , Historically , several other bodies were once considered planets , including , from its discovery in 1930 until 2006 , Pluto . See Former planets . with the remainder being significantly smaller objects , such as dwarf planets and small Solar System bodies . Of the objects that orbit the Sun indirectly , the moons , two are larger than the smallest planet , Mercury.The two moons larger than Mercury are Ganymede , which orbits Jupiter , and Titan , which orbits Saturn . Although bigger than Mercury , both moons have less than half the mass of Mercury .   The Solar System formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant interstellar molecular cloud . The vast majority of the system 's mass is in the Sun , with the majority of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter . The four smaller inner planets , Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars , are terrestrial planets , being primarily composed of rock and metal . The four outer planets are giant planets , being substantially more massive than the terrestrials . The two largest , Jupiter and Saturn , are gas giants , being composed mainly of hydrogen and helium ; the two outermost planets , Uranus and Neptune , are ice giants , being composed mostly of substances with relatively high melting points compared with hydrogen and helium , called volatiles , such as water , ammonia and methane . All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic .   The Solar System also contains smaller objects . The asteroid belt , which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter , mostly contains objects composed , like the terrestrial planets , of rock and metal . Beyond Neptune 's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc , which are populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices , and beyond them a newly discovered population of sednoids . Within these populations are several dozen to possibly tens of thousands of objects large enough that they have been rounded by their own gravity . Such objects are categorized as dwarf planets . Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto and Eris . In addition to these two regions , various other small-body populations , including comets , centaurs and interplanetary dust clouds , freely travel between regions . Six of the planets , at least four of the dwarf planets , and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites , See List of natural satellites of the Solar System for the full list of natural satellites of the eight planets and first five dwarf planets usually termed `` moons '' after the Moon . Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects .   The solar wind , a stream of charged particles flowing outwards from the Sun , creates a bubble-like region in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere . The heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of the interstellar medium ; it extends out to the edge of the scattered disc . The Oort cloud , which is thought to be the source for long-period comets , may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere . The Solar System is located in the Orion Arm , 26,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way ."}
{"_id": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "title": "Solar activity and climate", "headings": "", "text": "Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant ."}
{"_id": "Solar_cycle", "title": "Solar cycle", "headings": "", "text": "The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) .   They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries .   The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur ."}
{"_id": "Solar_eclipse_of_August_21,_2017", "title": "Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017", "headings": "", "text": "A total solar eclipse will take place on Monday , August 21 , 2017 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometers wide .   This eclipse is the 22nd of the 77 members of Saros series 145 , the one that also produced the solar eclipse of August 11 , 1999 . Members of this series are increasing in duration . The longest eclipse in this series will occur on June 25 , 2522 and last for 7 minutes and 12 seconds ."}
{"_id": "Solar_energy", "title": "Solar energy", "headings": "", "text": "Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating , photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture , molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis .   It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power . Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems , concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy . Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun , selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties , and designing spaces that naturally circulate air .   The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity . The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575 -- 49,837 exajoules ( EJ ) . This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption , which was 559.8 EJ in 2012 .   In 2011 , the International Energy Agency said that `` the development of affordable , inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits . It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous , inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource , enhance sustainability , reduce pollution , lower the costs of mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise . These advantages are global . Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments ; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared '' ."}
{"_id": "Solar_irradiance", "title": "Solar irradiance", "headings": "", "text": "Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument . Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth 's surface after atmospheric absorption and scattering . It is measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight . Total solar irradiance ( TSI ) , is a measure of the solar power over all wavelengths per unit area incident on the Earth 's upper atmosphere . The solar constant is a conventional measure of mean TSI at a distance of one astronomical Unit ( AU ) . Irradiance is a function of distance from the Sun , the solar cycle , and cross-cycle changes . Irradiance on Earth is also measured perpendicular to the incoming sunlight . Insolation is the power received on Earth per unit area on a horizontal surface . It depends on the height of the Sun above the horizon ."}
{"_id": "Solar_minimum", "title": "Solar minimum", "headings": "", "text": "Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns .   Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots ."}
{"_id": "Solar_panel", "title": "Solar panel", "headings": "", "text": "Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity or heat .   A photovoltaic ( PV ) module is a packaged , connect assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells . Photovoltaic modules constitute the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications . Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions ( STC ) , and typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts ( W ) . The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output an 8 % efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16 % efficient 230 W module . There are a few commercially available solar modules that exceed efficiency of 22 % and reportedly also exceeding 24 % . A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power ; most installations contain multiple modules . A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules , an inverter , a battery pack for storage , interconnection wiring , and optionally a solar tracking mechanism .   The most common application of solar panels is solar water heating systems .   The price of solar power has continued to fall so that in many countries it is cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the grid ( there is `` grid parity '' ) ."}
{"_id": "Solar_particle_event", "title": "Solar particle event", "headings": "", "text": "A solar proton event ( SPE ) , or `` proton storm '' , occurs when particles ( mostly protons ) emitted by the Sun become accelerated either close to the Sun during a flare or in interplanetary space by CME shocks . The events can include other nuclei such as helium ions and HZE ions . These particles cause multiple effects . They can penetrate the Earth 's magnetic field and cause ionization in the ionosphere . The effect is similar to auroral events , except that protons rather than electrons are involved . Energetic protons are a significant radiation hazard to spacecraft and astronauts ."}
{"_id": "Solar_phenomena", "title": "Solar phenomena", "headings": "", "text": "Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots .   These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations .   The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth .   Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight ."}
{"_id": "Solar_power", "title": "Solar power", "headings": "", "text": "Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics ( PV ) , or indirectly using concentrated solar power . Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect .   Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium-sized applications , from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off-grid rooftop PV system . Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s . The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world , located in the Mojave Desert of California .   As the cost of solar electricity has fallen , the number of grid-connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility-scale solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built . Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive , low-carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun . The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park , in Qinghai , China .   The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its `` high renewables '' scenario , by 2050 , solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16 and 11 percent , respectively , of the worldwide electricity consumption , and solar would be the world 's largest source of electricity . Most solar installations would be in China and India . Currently , as of 2016 , solar power provides just 1 % of total worldwide electricity production but growing 33 % per annum ."}
{"_id": "Solar_power_in_Florida", "title": "Solar power in Florida", "headings": "", "text": "Solar power in Florida has been increasing , as the cost of solar power systems using photovoltaics ( PV ) has decreased in recent years . In 2008 , Florida adopted a net metering rule that allows any electric utility customer generating up to 2 MW ( 2,000 kW ) of power to use net metering , which provides a retail rate credit for kilowatt-hours of electricity delivered to the utility , rolled over from month to month , and paid out in cash by the utility once a year at the avoided cost rate .   In 2006 , the State of Florida enacted the Florida Renewable Energy Technologies and Energy Efficiency Act , which provided consumers with rebates and tax credits for solar photovoltaic systems . The program was closed in 2010 . Later , the Florida Public Service Commission mandated that the state 's large utilities offer individual solar rebates . The program opened in 2011 and was closed in 2015 after the Commission deemed it to not be cost-effective for non-solar customers .   The federal Residential Energy Efficient Property Credit ( income tax credit on IRS Form 5695 ) for residential PV and solar thermal was extended in December 2015 to remain at 30 % of system cost ( parts and installation ) for systems put into service by the end of 2019 , then 26 % until the end of 2020 , and then 22 % until the end of 2021 . It applies to a taxpayer 's principal and/or second residences , but not to a property that is rented out . There is no maximum cap on the credit , and the credit can be applied toward the Alternative Minimum Tax , and any excess credit ( greater than that year 's tax liability ) can be rolled into the following year .   In 2009 , Florida Power & Light built the state 's first solar power plant , the FPL DeSoto Next Generation Solar Energy Center . At the time , the 25-MW plant was the largest of its kind . In 2010 , FPL built the world 's first hybrid solar-natural gas energy center .   Florida has low electricity costs compared with other states , which makes individual solar investment less attractive . Florida ranks ninth nationally in solar resource strength according to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and tenth in solar generation by the Solar Energy Industries Association ."}
{"_id": "Solar_power_in_the_United_States", "title": "Solar power in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Solar power in the United States includes utility-scale solar power plants as well as local distributed generation , mostly from rooftop photovoltaics . As of the end of 2016 , the U.S. had 40 gigawatts ( GW ) of installed photovoltaic capacity , having almost doubled in capacity from the previous year . In the twelve months through March 2017 , utility scale solar power generated 38.3 terawatt-hours ( TWh ) , 0.94 % of total U.S. electricity . During the same time period total solar generation , including estimated distributed solar photovoltaic generation , was 59.8 TWh , 1.47 % of total U.S. electricity . In terms of total installed capacity , by year end 2015 the USA ranked 4th in the world behind China , Germany , and Japan . In 2016 , 39 % of all new electricity generation capacity in the country came from solar , more than any other source and ahead of natural gas ( 29 % ) . By 2015 , solar employment had overtaken oil and gas as well as coal employment in the U.S.   The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power . The U.S. is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the Sun and several of the world 's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest . The oldest solar power plant in the world is the 354-megawatt ( MW ) SEGS thermal power plant , in California . The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert , 40 miles ( 64 km ) southwest of Las Vegas , with a gross capacity of 392 MW . The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend , Arizona , about 70 mi southwest of Phoenix , completed in 2013 . When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage .   There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States . Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions . Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California 's utilities to obtain 50 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2030 ."}
{"_id": "Solar_water_heating", "title": "Solar water heating", "headings": "", "text": "Solar water heating ( SWH ) is the conversion of sunlight into heat for water heating using a solar thermal collector . A variety of configurations are available at varying cost to provide solutions in different climates and latitudes . SWHs are widely used for residential and some industrial applications .   A sun-facing collector heats a working fluid that passes into a storage system for later use . SWH are active ( pumped ) and passive ( convection-driven ) . They use water only , or both water and a working fluid . They are heated directly or via light-concentrating mirrors . They operate independently or as hybrids with electric or gas heaters . In large-scale installations , mirrors may concentrate sunlight onto a smaller collector .   The global solar thermal market is dominated by China , Europe , Japan and India , although Israel was one of the first countries to mandate installation of SWH in 1980 , leading to a flourishing industry ."}
{"_id": "Soldering", "title": "Soldering", "headings": "", "text": "Soldering ( AmE : -LSB- ˈsɒdərɪŋ -RSB- , BrE : -LSB- ˈsɒldərɪŋ -RSB- ) , is a process in which two or more items ( usually metal ) are joined together by melting and putting a filler metal ( solder ) into the joint , the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal . Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the work pieces . In brazing , the filler metal melts at a higher temperature , but the work piece metal does not melt . In the past , nearly all solders contained lead , but environmental and health concerns have increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for electronics and plumbing purposes ."}
{"_id": "Solubility", "title": "Solubility", "headings": "", "text": "Solubility is the property of a solid , liquid , or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid , liquid , or gaseous solvent . The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature , pressure and the pH of the solution . The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration , where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount of solute . The solubility of a substance is an entirely different property from the rate of solution , which is how fast it dissolves .   Most often , the solvent is a liquid , which can be a pure substance or a mixture . One may also speak of solid solution , but rarely of solution in a gas ( see vapor -- liquid equilibrium instead ) .   The extent of solubility ranges widely , from infinitely soluble ( without limit ) ( fully miscible ) such as ethanol in water , to poorly soluble , such as silver chloride in water . The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds . A common threshold to describe something as insoluble is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent .   Under certain conditions , the equilibrium solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution , which is metastable . Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its crystalline form or particle size . A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when ` seed ' crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs . Phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point .   Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to ` dissolve ' a substance , because the solution might also occur because of a chemical reaction . For example , zinc ` dissolves ' ( with effervescence ) in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction . The zinc ions are soluble in the acid .   The smaller a particle is , the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization .   Crucially solubility applies to all areas of chemistry , geochemistry , inorganic , physical , organic and biochemistry . In all cases it will depend on the physical conditions ( temperature , pressure and concentration ) and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned .  By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a wide range of organic substances . This is a crucial factor in acidity/alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work ."}
{"_id": "Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy", "title": "Soon and Baliunas controversy", "headings": "", "text": "The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas in the journal Climate Research , which was quickly taken up by the G.W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment .   The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies , prompting concerns about the peer review process of the paper . The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher Otto Kinne that the paper should not have been published as it was ."}
{"_id": "Soot", "title": "Soot", "headings": "", "text": "Soot -LSB- ˈsʊt -RSB- is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons . It is more properly restricted to the product of the gas-phase combustion process but is commonly extended to include the residual pyrolysed fuel particles such as coal , cenospheres , charred wood , and petroleum coke that may become airborne during pyrolysis and that are more properly identified as cokes or chars .   Soot causes cancer and lung disease , and is the second-biggest human cause of global warming ."}
{"_id": "Sound_reinforcement_system", "title": "Sound reinforcement system", "headings": "", "text": "A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphones , signal processors , amplifiers , and loudspeakers in speaker cabinets all controlled by an audio mixing board that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds to a larger or more distant audience . In many situations , a sound reinforcement system is also used to enhance or alter the sound of the sources on the stage , typically by using electronic effects , such as reverb , as opposed to simply amplifying the sources unaltered .   A sound reinforcement system for a rock concert in a stadium may be very complex , including hundreds of microphones , complex live sound mixing and signal processing systems , tens of thousands of watts of amplifier power , and multiple loudspeaker arrays , all overseen by a team of audio engineers and technicians . On the other hand , a sound reinforcement system can be as simple as a small public address ( PA ) system , consisting of , for example , a single microphone connected to a 100 watt amplified loudspeaker for a singer-guitarist playing in a small coffeehouse . In both cases , these systems reinforce sound to make it louder or distribute it to a wider audience .   Some audio engineers and others in the professional audio industry disagree over whether these audio systems should be called sound reinforcement ( SR ) systems or PA systems . Distinguishing between the two terms by technology and capability is common , while others distinguish by intended use ( e.g. , SR systems are for live event support and PA systems are for reproduction of speech and recorded music in buildings and institutions ) . In some regions or markets , the distinction between the two terms is important , though the terms are considered interchangeable in many professional circles ."}
{"_id": "South_Australia", "title": "South Australia", "headings": "", "text": "South Australia ( abbreviated as SA ) is a state in the southern central part of Australia . It covers some of the most arid parts of the country . With a total land area of 983482 km2 , it is the fourth-largest of Australia 's states and territories . It has a total of 1.7 million people , and its population is the most highly centralised of any state in Australia , with more than 75 percent of South Australians living in the capital , Adelaide , or its environs . Other population centres in the state are relatively small .   South Australia shares borders with all of the other mainland states , and with the Northern Territory ; it is bordered to the west by Western Australia , to the north by the Northern Territory , to the north-east by Queensland , to the east by New South Wales , to the south-east by Victoria , and to the south by the Great Australian Bight . The state comprises less than 8 percent of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories . The majority of its people reside in Adelaide . Most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast and River Murray . The state 's colonial origins are unique in Australia as a freely settled , planned British province , rather than as a convict settlement . Official settlement began on 28 December 1836 , when the colony was proclaimed at the Old Gum Tree by Governor John Hindmarsh .   As with the rest of the continent , the region had been long occupied by Aboriginal peoples , who were organised into numerous tribes and languages . The first British settlement to be established was Kingscote , Kangaroo Island , on 26 July 1836 , five months before Adelaide was founded . The guiding principle behind settlement was that of systematic colonisation , a theory espoused by Edward Gibbon Wakefield that was later employed by the New Zealand Company . The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants , promising civil liberties and religious tolerance . Although its history is marked by economic hardship , South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant . Today , it is known for its fine wine and numerous cultural festivals . The state 's economy is dominated by the agricultural , manufacturing and mining industries . The state has an increasingly significant finance sector as well ."}
{"_id": "South_Pacific_convergence_zone", "title": "South Pacific convergence zone", "headings": "", "text": "The South Pacific Convergence Zone ( SPCZ ) , a reverse-oriented monsoon trough , is a band of low-level convergence , cloudiness and precipitation extending from the Western Pacific Warm Pool at the maritime continent south-eastwards towards French Polynesia and as far as the Cook Islands ( 160W , 20S ) . The SPCZ is a portion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) which lies in a band extending east-west near the Equator but can be more extratropical in nature , especially east of the International Date Line . It is considered the largest and most important piece of the ITCZ , and has the least dependence upon heating from a nearby landmass during the summer than any other portion of the monsoon trough . The SPCZ can affect the precipitation on Polynesian islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean , so it is important to understand how the SPCZ behaves with large-scale , global climate phenomenon , such as the ITCZ , El Niño -- Southern Oscillation , and the Interdecadal Pacific oscillation ( IPO ) , a portion of the Pacific decadal oscillation ."}
{"_id": "South_Pole", "title": "South Pole", "headings": "", "text": "The South Pole , also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole , is one of the two points where the Earth 's axis of rotation intersects its surface . It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth and lies on the opposite side of the Earth from the North Pole .   Situated on the continent of Antarctica , it is the site of the United States Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station , which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year . The Geographic South Pole should not be confused with the South Magnetic Pole , which is defined based on the Earth 's magnetic field . The South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere ."}
{"_id": "Southern_Ocean", "title": "Southern Ocean", "headings": "", "text": "The Southern Ocean , also known as the Antarctic Ocean or the Austral Ocean , comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean , generally taken to be south of 60 ° S latitude and encircling Antarctica . As such , it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions : smaller than the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean . This ocean zone is where cold , northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters .   By way of his voyages in the 1770s , Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe . Since then , geographers have disagreed on the Southern Ocean 's northern boundary or even existence , considering the waters part of the Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans , instead . This remains the current official policy of the International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) , since a 2000 revision of its definitions including the Southern Ocean as the waters south of the 60th parallel has not yet been adopted . Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary ."}
{"_id": "Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster", "title": "Space Shuttle Challenger disaster", "headings": "", "text": "On January 28 , 1986 , the NASA shuttle orbiter mission STS-51-L and the tenth flight of Space Shuttle Challenger ( OV-99 ) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight , killing all seven crew members , which consisted of five NASA astronauts and two payload specialists . The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean , off the coast of Cape Canaveral , Florida , at 11:39 EST ( 16:39 UTC ) . Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its right solid rocket booster ( SRB ) failed at liftoff . The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch . Its failure caused a breach in the SRB joint it sealed , allowing pressurized burning gas from within the solid rocket motor to reach the outside and impinge upon the adjacent SRB aft field joint attachment hardware and external fuel tank . This led to the separation of the right-hand SRB 's aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank . Aerodynamic forces broke up the orbiter .   The crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor after a lengthy search and recovery operation . The exact timing of the death of the crew is unknown ; several crew members are known to have survived the initial breakup of the spacecraft . The shuttle had no escape system , and the impact of the crew compartment with the ocean surface was too violent to be survivable .   The disaster resulted in a 32-month hiatus in the shuttle program and the formation of the Rogers Commission , a special commission appointed by United States President Ronald Reagan to investigate the accident . The Rogers Commission found NASA 's organizational culture and decision-making processes had been key contributing factors to the accident , with the agency violating its own safety rules . NASA managers had known since 1977 that contractor Morton Thiokol 's design of the SRBs contained a potentially catastrophic flaw in the O-rings , but they had failed to address this problem properly . NASA managers also disregarded warnings ( an example of `` go fever '' ) from engineers about the dangers of launching posed by the low temperatures of that morning , and failed to adequately report these technical concerns to their superiors .   As a result of the disaster , the Air Force decided to cancel its plans to use the Shuttle for classified military satellite launches from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California , deciding to use the Titan IV instead .   Approximately 17 percent of Americans witnessed the launch live because of the presence of Payload Specialist Christa McAuliffe , who would have been the first teacher in space . Media coverage of the accident was extensive : one study reported that 85 percent of Americans surveyed had heard the news within an hour of the accident . The Challenger '' disaster has been used as a case study in many discussions of engineering safety and workplace ethics ."}
{"_id": "Space_and_survival", "title": "Space and survival", "headings": "", "text": "Space and survival refers to the idea that the long-term survival of the human species and civilization requires proper use of the resources of outer space and the need for space colonization and space science . The concept posits that inaction could lead to human extinction . A related observation is that limited time and resources may be available for the colonization of space . Various scenarios for human survival have been discussed in science and popular culture , particularly humanity 's prospects after catastrophic events in the solar system and factors that could help or hinder survival .   The earliest appearance of a connection between space exploration and human survival appears in Louis J. Halle 's 1980 article in Foreign Affairs , in which he stated colonization of space will keep humanity safe should global nuclear warfare occur . This idea has received more attention in recent years as advancing technology makes cheap space travel more feasible ."}
{"_id": "Spain", "title": "Spain", "headings": "", "text": "Spain ( España -LSB- esˈpaɲa -RSB- ) , officially the Kingdom of Spain ( -LSB- Reino de España , links = no -RSB- ) , is a sovereign state located on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe , with two large archipelagoes , the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea and the Canary Islands off the North African Atlantic coast , two cities Ceuta and Melilla in the North African mainland and several small islands in the Alboran Sea near the Moroccan coast . Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar ; to the north and northeast by France , Andorra , and the Bay of Biscay ; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean . It is the only European country to have a border with an African country ( Morocco ) and its African territory accounts for nearly 5 % of its population , mostly in the Canary Islands but also in Ceuta and Melilla .   With an area of 505990 km2 , Spain is the largest country in Southern Europe , the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union , and the fourth largest country in the European continent . By population , Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union . Spain 's capital and largest city is Madrid ; other major urban areas include Barcelona , Valencia , Seville , Bilbao and Málaga .   Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago . Iberian cultures along with ancient Phoenician , Greek and Carthaginian settlements developed on the peninsula until it came under Roman rule around 200 BCE , after which the region was named Hispania , based on the earlier Phoenician name Span or Spania . In the Middle Ages , the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors . Spain emerged as a unified country in the 15th century , following the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs and the completion of the eight centuries-long reconquest , or Reconquista from the Moors in 1492 . In the early modern period , Spain became one of history 's first global colonial empires , leaving a vast cultural and linguistic legacy that includes over 500 million Spanish speakers , making Spanish the world 's second most spoken first language , after Mandarin Chinese .   Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a parliamentary government under a constitutional monarchy . It is a middle power and a major developed country with the world 's fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and sixteenth largest by purchasing power parity . It is a member of the United Nations ( UN ) , the European Union ( EU ) , the Eurozone , the Council of Europe ( CoE ) , the Organization of Ibero-American States ( OEI ) , the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) and many other international organisations ."}
{"_id": "Spanish_flu", "title": "Spanish flu", "headings": "", "text": "The Spanish flu, also known as the 1918 flu pandemic, was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic caused by the H1N1 influenza A virus. Lasting from February 1918 to April 1920, it infected 500 million people – about a third of the world's population at the time – in four successive waves. The death toll is typically estimated to have been somewhere between 17 million and 50 million, and possibly as high as 100 million, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. The first observations of illness and mortality were documented in the United States (in Kansas and New York City, and months before, in December 1917, at Camp Greene, North Carolina), France, Germany, and the United Kingdom. To maintain morale, World War I censors minimized these early reports. Newspapers were free to report the epidemic's effects in neutral Spain, such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII, and these stories created a false impression of Spain as especially hard hit. This gave rise to the name \"Spanish\" flu. Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify with certainty the pandemic's geographic origin, with varying views as to its location."}
{"_id": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "title": "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C", "headings": "", "text": "The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world."}
{"_id": "Species", "title": "Species", "headings": "", "text": "In biology , a species ( abbreviated sp. , with the plural form species abbreviated spp . ) is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank . A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring , typically by sexual reproduction . While this definition is often adequate , looked at more closely it is problematic . For example , with hybridisation , in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies , or in a ring species , the boundaries between closely related species become unclear . Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA , morphology , or ecological niche .   All species are given a two-part name , a `` binomial '' . The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs . The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet ( in botany , also sometimes in zoology ) . For example , Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus .   Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy , the great chain of being . In the 19th century , biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time . Charles Darwin 's 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection . Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal gene transfer ; and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons ."}
{"_id": "Speleothem", "title": "Speleothem", "headings": "", "text": "Speleothems ( -LSB- pronˈspiːliːəθɛm -RSB- Ancient Greek : `` cave deposit '' ) -- commonly known as a cave formations -- are secondary mineral deposits formed in a cave . Speleothems typically form in limestone or dolostone solutional caves . The term `` speleothem '' as first introduced by Moore ( 1952 ) , is derived from the Greek words spēlaion `` cave '' + théma `` deposit '' . The definition of `` speleothem '' in most publications , specifically excludes secondary mineral deposits in mines , tunnels and on man-made structures . Hill and Forti more concisely defined `` secondary minerals '' which create speleothems in caves as ;  A `` secondary '' mineral is one which is derived by a physicochemical reaction from a primary mineral in bedrock or detritus and/or deposited because of a unique set of conditions in a cave ; i.e. , the cave environment has influenced the mineral 's deposition ."}
{"_id": "Sperm_whale", "title": "Sperm whale", "headings": "", "text": "The sperm whale ( Physeter macrocephalus ) , or cachalot , is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator . It is the only living member of genus Physeter , and one of three extant species in the sperm whale family , along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus Kogia .   The sperm whale is a pelagic mammal with a worldwide range , and will migrate seasonally for feeding and breeding . Females and young males live together in groups while mature males live solitary lives outside of the mating season . The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young . Females give birth every four to twenty years , and care for the calves for more than a decade . A mature sperm whale has few natural predators , although calves and weakened adults are sometimes killed by pods of orcas .   Mature males average 16 m in length but some may reach 20.5 m , with the head representing up to one-third of the animal 's length . Plunging to 2250 m , it is the second deepest diving mammal , following only the Cuvier 's beaked whale .   The sperm whale is a prominent user of echolocation and communication , with vocalization as loud as 230 decibels ( re 1 µPa at 1 m ) underwater . It has the largest brain of any animal on Earth , more than five times heavier than a human 's . Sperm whales can live for more than 60 years .   The spermaceti oil from which the whale derives its name was a prime target of the whaling industry , and was dominant for use in oil lamps , lubricants , and candles . Ambergris is a solid waxy waste product from its digestive system . It is still highly valued as a fixative in perfumes and other uses . It remains as flotsam from deceased whales , and is sought by beachcombers . The species is now protected by a whaling moratorium , and is currently listed as vulnerable by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) ."}
{"_id": "Spirit_(rover)", "title": "Spirit (rover)", "headings": "", "text": "Spirit , also known as MER-A ( Mars Exploration Rover -- A ) or MER-2 , is a robotic rover on Mars , active from 2004 to 2010 . It was one of two rovers of NASA 's ongoing Mars Exploration Rover Mission . It landed successfully on Mars at 04:35 Ground UTC on January 4 , 2004 , three weeks before its twin , Opportunity ( MER-B ) , landed on the other side of the planet . Its name was chosen through a NASA-sponsored student essay competition . The rover became stuck in late 2009 , and its last communication with Earth was sent on March 22 , 2010 .   The rover completed its planned 90-sol mission . Aided by cleaning events that resulted in more energy from its solar panels , Spirit went on to function effectively over twenty times longer than NASA planners expected . Spirit also logged 7.73 km of driving instead of the planned 600 m , allowing more extensive geological analysis of Martian rocks and planetary surface features . Initial scientific results from the first phase of the mission ( the 90-sol prime mission ) were published in a special issue of the journal Science .   On May 1 , 2009 ( 5 years , 3 months , 27 Earth days after landing ; 21.6 times the planned mission duration ) , Spirit became stuck in soft soil . This was not the first of the mission 's `` embedding events '' and for the following eight months NASA carefully analyzed the situation , running Earth-based theoretical and practical simulations , and finally programming the rover to make extrication drives in an attempt to free itself . These efforts continued until January 26 , 2010 when NASA officials announced that the rover was likely irrecoverably obstructed by its location in soft soil ,  though it continued to perform scientific research from its current location .   The rover continued in a stationary science platform role until communication with Spirit stopped on sol 2210 ( March 22 , 2010 ) . JPL continued to attempt to regain contact until May 24 , 2011 , when NASA announced that efforts to communicate with the unresponsive rover had ended , calling the mission complete . A formal farewell took place at NASA headquarters after the 2011 Memorial Day holiday and was televised on NASA TV .   The Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) , a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena , manages the  Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA 's Office of Space Science , Washington ."}
{"_id": "Sport_utility_vehicle", "title": "Sport utility vehicle", "headings": "", "text": "A sport utility vehicle or suburban utility vehicle ( SUV ) is a vehicle classified as a light truck , but operated as a family vehicle . SUV 's are similar to a large station wagon or estate car , though typically featuring tall interior packaging , high H-point seating , high center of gravity , high ground-clearance and especially four - or all-wheel-drive capability for on - or off-road ability . Some SUVs include the towing capacity of a pickup truck with the passenger-carrying space of a minivan or large sedan .   Popular in the late-1990s and early -- mid-2000s , SUVs sales temporarily declined due to high oil prices and a declining economy . The traditional truck-based SUV is gradually being supplanted by the crossover SUV , which uses an automobile platform for lighter weight and better fuel efficiency . By 2010 , SUV sales around the world were growing , in spite of high gas prices ."}
{"_id": "St._Louis", "title": "St. Louis", "headings": "", "text": "St. Louis '' ' ( -LSB- seɪnt_ˈluːɪs -RSB- ) is an independent city and major U.S. port in the state of Missouri , built along the western bank of the Mississippi River , on the border with Illinois . The city had an estimated 2016 population of 311,404 , and is the cultural and economic center of the Greater St. Louis area ( home to 2,916,447 people ) , making it the largest metropolitan area in Missouri and the 19th-largest in the United States .   Prior to European settlement , the area was a major regional center of Native American Mississippian culture . The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau , and named after Louis IX of France . In 1764 , following France 's defeat in the Seven Years ' War , the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800 . In 1803 , the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase . During the 19th century , St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River . In the 1870 Census , St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States . It separated from St. Louis County in 1877 , becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries . In 1904 , it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics .   The economy of metro St. Louis relies on service , manufacturing , trade , transportation of goods , and tourism . Its metro area is home to major corporations , including Anheuser-Busch , Express Scripts , Centene , Boeing Defense , Emerson , Energizer , Panera , Enterprise , Peabody Energy , Ameren , Ralcorp , Monsanto , Scottrade , Edward Jones , Go Jet , Purina and Sigma-Aldrich . This city has also become known for its growing medical , pharmaceutical and research presence . St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams : the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball and the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League . The city is commonly identified with the 630 ft tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis ."}
{"_id": "Star", "title": "Star", "headings": "", "text": "A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity . The nearest star to Earth is the Sun . Many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night , appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth . Historically , the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms , the brightest of which gained proper names . Astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations . However , most of the stars in the Universe , including all stars outside our galaxy , the Milky Way , are invisible to the naked eye from Earth . Indeed , most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes .   For at least a portion of its life , a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium in its core , releasing energy that traverses the star 's interior and then radiates into outer space . Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the star 's lifetime , and for some stars by supernova nucleosynthesis when it explodes . Near the end of its life , a star can also contain degenerate matter . Astronomers can determine the mass , age , metallicity ( chemical composition ) , and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space , its luminosity , and spectrum respectively . The total mass of a star is the main factor that determines its evolution and eventual fate . Other characteristics of a star , including diameter and temperature , change over its life , while the star 's environment affects its rotation and movement . A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram ( H -- R diagram ) . Plotting a particular star on that diagram allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined .   A star 's life begins with the gravitational collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen , along with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements . When the stellar core is sufficiently dense , hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion , releasing energy in the process . The remainder of the star 's interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes . The star 's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity . A star with mass greater than 0.4 times the Sun 's will expand to become a red giant when the hydrogen fuel in its core is exhausted . In some cases , it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core . As the star expands it throws a part of its mass , enriched with those heavier elements , into the interstellar environment , to be recycled later as new stars . Meanwhile , the core becomes a stellar remnant : a white dwarf , a neutron star , or if it is sufficiently massive a black hole .   Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits . When two such stars have a relatively close orbit , their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution . Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure , such as a star cluster or a galaxy ."}
{"_id": "Statistical_hypothesis_testing", "title": "Statistical hypothesis testing", "headings": "", "text": "A statistical hypothesis , sometimes called confirmatory data analysis , is a hypothesis that is testable on the basis of observing a process that is modeled via a set of random variables . A statistical hypothesis test is a method of statistical inference . Commonly , two statistical data sets are compared , or a data set obtained by sampling is compared against a synthetic data set from an idealized model . A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data sets , and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null hypothesis that proposes no relationship between two data sets . The comparison is deemed statistically significant if the relationship between the data sets would be an unlikely realization of the null hypothesis according to a threshold probability -- the significance level . Hypothesis tests are used in determining what outcomes of a study would lead to a rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified level of significance . The process of distinguishing between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis is aided by identifying two conceptual types of errors ( type 1 & type 2 ) , and by specifying parametric limits on e.g. how much type 1 error will be permitted .   An alternative framework for statistical hypothesis testing is to specify a set of statistical models , one for each candidate hypothesis , and then use model selection techniques to choose the most appropriate model . The most common selection techniques are based on either Akaike information criterion or Bayes factor .   Confirmatory data analysis can be contrasted with exploratory data analysis , which may not have pre-specified hypotheses ."}
{"_id": "Steele_dossier", "title": "Steele dossier", "headings": "", "text": "The Steele dossier, also known as the Trump–Russia dossier, is a political opposition research report written from June to December 2016 containing allegations of misconduct, conspiracy, and co-operation between Donald Trump's presidential campaign and the government of Russia during the 2016 election. The Guardian has described the controversial opposition research as \"one of the most explosive documents in modern political history\". The dossier, leaked without permission, is an unfinished 35-page compilation of raw intelligence based on information from witting and unwitting anonymous sources known to the author, counterintelligence specialist Christopher Steele, a former head of the Russia Desk for British intelligence (MI6), written for the private investigative firm Fusion GPS. The dossier's 17 unredacted reports allege that Trump campaign members and Russian operatives had conspired to co-operate in Russia's election interference to benefit Trump. It also alleges that Russia sought to damage Hillary Clinton's candidacy, including sharing negative information about Clinton with the Trump campaign. The draft dossier was published in full by BuzzFeed News on January 10, 2017, noting that it was unverified. This was done without permission from Orbis Business Intelligence or Steele. Several mainstream media outlets criticized BuzzFeed's decision to publish the reports without verifying their allegations, while others defended its decision."}
{"_id": "Stephen_Harper", "title": "Stephen Harper", "headings": "", "text": "Stephen Joseph Harper ( born April 30 , 1959 ) is a Canadian entrepreneur and retired politician who served as the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada , from February 6 , 2006 to November 4 , 2015 . He was the first prime minister to come from the modern Conservative Party of Canada , which was formed by a merger of the Progressive Conservative Party and the Canadian Alliance .   Harper was member of parliament for the riding of Calgary Heritage in Alberta from 2002 to 2016 ( previously known as Calgary Southwest from 2002 to 2015 ) . Earlier , from 1993 to 1997 , he was the MP for Calgary West , representing the Reform Party of Canada . He was one of the founding members of the Reform Party , but did not seek re-election in the 1997 federal election . Harper instead joined and later led the National Citizens Coalition , a conservative lobbyist group . In 2002 , he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance , the successor to the Reform Party and returned to parliament as Leader of the Opposition . In 2003 , he reached an agreement with Progressive Conservative leader Peter MacKay for the merger of their two parties to form the Conservative Party of Canada . He was elected as the party 's first leader , in March 2004 . Harper stepped down as MP on August 26 , 2016 .   The 2006 federal election resulted in a minority government led by the Conservative Party with Harper becoming the 22nd Prime Minister of Canada . By proportion of seats , this was Canada 's smallest minority government since Confederation . Despite this , it was the longest-serving minority government overall . In the 2008 federal election , the Conservative Party won a stronger minority , showing a small increase in the percentage of the popular vote and increased representation in the Canadian House of Commons , with 143 of 308 seats . The 40th Canadian Parliament was dissolved in March , 2011 , after a no-confidence vote that deemed the Cabinet to be in contempt of parliament . In the federal election that followed , the Conservatives won a majority government , the first since the 2000 federal election ; the party won 166 seats , an increase of 23 seats from the October 2008 election .   Though Harper won his seat of Calgary-Heritage in the October 19 , 2015 , federal election , the Conservative Party was defeated by the Liberal Party of Canada , led by Justin Trudeau , who was sworn-in as Harper 's successor on November 4 , 2015 . Harper resigned as party leader on October 19 , 2015 , and the Conservative Party caucus chose an interim leader , Rona Ambrose , on November 5 , 2015 , to serve until a leadership election . Harper moved back to Calgary , Alberta , and commuted to Ottawa as an opposition backbench member of parliament ."}
{"_id": "Stern_Review", "title": "Stern Review", "headings": "", "text": "The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind .   The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . ''   The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change .   There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) ."}
{"_id": "Steve_McIntyre", "title": "Steve McIntyre", "headings": "", "text": "Steven McIntyre ( born c. 1947 ) is a Canadian mining exploration company director , a former minerals prospector and semi-retired mining consultant whose work has included statistical analysis . He is best known as the founder and editor of Climate Audit , a blog devoted to the analysis and discussion of climate data . He is most prominent as a critic of the temperature record of the past 1000 years and the data quality of NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies . He is known in particular for his statistical critique , with economist Ross McKitrick , of the hockey stick graph which appears to show that the increase in late 20th century global temperatures is unprecedented in the past 1,000 years ."}
{"_id": "Stoma", "title": "Stoma", "headings": "", "text": "In botany , a stoma ( plural `` stomata '' ) , also called a stomate ( plural `` stomates '' ) ( from Greek στόμα , `` mouth '' ) , is a pore , found in the epidermis of leaves , stems , and other organs , that facilitates gas exchange . The pore is bordered by a pair of specialized parenchyma cells known as guard cells that are responsible for regulating the size of the stomatal opening .   The term is usually used collectively to refer to the entire stomatal complex , consisting of the paired guard cells and the pore itself , which is referred to as the stomatal aperture . Air enters the plant through these openings by gaseous diffusion , and contains carbon dioxide and oxygen , which are used in photosynthesis and respiration , respectively . Oxygen produced as a by-product of photosynthesis diffuses out to the atmosphere through these same openings . Also , water vapor diffuses through the stomata into the atmosphere in a process called transpiration .   Stomata are present in the sporophyte generation of all land plant groups except liverworts . In vascular plants the number , size and distribution of stomata varies widely . Dicotyledons usually have more stomata on the lower surface of the leaves than the upper surface . Monocotyledons such as onion , oat and maize may have about the same number of stomata on both leaf surfaces . In plants with floating leaves , stomata may be found only on the upper epidermis and submerged leaves may lack stomata entirely . Most tree species have stomata only on the lower leaf surface . Leaves with stomata on both the upper and lower leaf are called amphistomatous leaves ; leaves with stomata only on the lower surface are hypostomatous , and leaves with stomata only on the upper surface are epistomatous or hyperstomatous . Size varies across species , with end-to-end lengths ranging from 10 to 80 µm and width ranging from a few to 50 µm ."}
{"_id": "Storm", "title": "Storm", "headings": "", "text": "A storm is any disturbed state of an environment or astronomical body 's atmosphere especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . It may be marked by significant disruptions to normal conditions such as strong wind , hail , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation ( snowstorm , rainstorm ) , heavy freezing rain ( ice storm ) , strong winds ( tropical cyclone , windstorm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere as in a dust storm , blizzard , sandstorm , etc. .   Storms have the potential to harm lives and property via storm surge , heavy rain or snow causing flooding or road impassibility , lightning , wildfires , and vertical wind shear ; however , systems with significant rainfall and duration help alleviate drought in places they move through . Heavy snowfall can allow special recreational activities to take place which would not be possible otherwise , such as skiing and snowmobiling .   The English word comes from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz meaning `` noise , tumult '' ."}
{"_id": "Storm_surge", "title": "Storm surge", "headings": "", "text": "A storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low pressure weather systems ( such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical cyclones ) , the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body relative to storm path , and the timing of tides . Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as the result of storm surges .   The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of winds spiraling inward toward the storm , and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up under and trailing the storm 's center ."}
{"_id": "Stratosphere", "title": "Stratosphere", "headings": "", "text": "The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes ."}
{"_id": "Subantarctic", "title": "Subantarctic", "headings": "", "text": "The Subantarctic is a region in the southern hemisphere , located immediately north of the Antarctic region . This translates roughly to a latitude of between 46 ° -- 60 ° south of the Equator . The subantarctic region includes many islands in the southern parts of the Indian Ocean , Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean , especially those situated north of the Antarctic Convergence . Subantarctic glaciers are , by definition , located on islands within the subantarctic region . All glaciers located on the continent of Antarctica are by definition considered to be Antarctic glaciers ."}
{"_id": "Sulfur_dioxide", "title": "Sulfur dioxide", "headings": "", "text": "Sulfur dioxide ( also sulphur dioxide ) is the chemical compound with the formula . At standard atmosphere , it is a toxic gas with a pungent , irritating smell . The triple point is 197.69 K and 1.67 kPa . It is released naturally by volcanic activity .   Sulfur dioxide was used by the Romans in winemaking when they discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from vinegar smell ."}
{"_id": "Summit_Series", "title": "Summit Series", "headings": "", "text": "The Summit Series , or Super Series ( in Russian Суперсерия СССР -- Канада ; Superseriya SSSR -- Canada ) , known at the time simply as the Canada -- USSR Series , was an eight-game series of ice hockey between the Soviet Union and Canada , held in September 1972 . It was the first competition between the Soviet national team and a Canadian team represented by professional players of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , known as Team Canada . It was the first international ice hockey competition for Canada after Canada had withdrawn from international ice hockey competitions in a dispute with the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . The series was organized with the intention to create a true best-on-best competition in the sport of ice hockey . The Soviets had become the dominant team in international competitions , which disallowed the professional players of Canada . Canada had had a long history of dominance of the sport prior to the Soviets ' rise .   The first four games of the series were held in Canada and the final four in Moscow . The Soviet Union surprised the Canadian team and most of the hockey media with an opening game victory , 7 -- 3 . Many sportswriters had predicted an overwhelming victory for Canada in the series . Canada won the next game 4 -- 1 ; the third game was a tie and the Soviets won game four to take a two games to one lead after the Canadian segment . The series resumed two weeks later in Moscow . The Soviets won game five to take a three games to one series lead . The Canadians won the final three games in Moscow to win the series four games to three , with one tie . The final game was won in dramatic fashion , with the Canadians overcoming a two-goal Soviet lead after two periods . The Canadians scored three in the third , the final one scored with 34 seconds left , by Paul Henderson .   The series was played during the Cold War , and intense feelings of nationalism were aroused in both Canada and the Soviet Union , as well as on the ice . The games introduced several talented Soviet players to North America , such as Alexander Yakushev , Valeri Kharlamov and goaltender Vladislav Tretiak ; the latter two are Hockey Hall of Fame inductees . Team Canada , the first NHL and professional all-star team formed for international play , was led by Phil Esposito , who led the series in scoring , as well as contributing in other roles . The Canadian line of Bobby Clarke , Ron Ellis and Henderson , which was not expected to start for the team , as none were yet stars , played a surprisingly large role in the Canadian win . The series was filled with controversy , starting with the exclusion of top Canadian player Bobby Hull and including disputes over officiating , dirty play on the part of both teams and the deliberate injury of Kharlamov by Clarke in game six ."}
{"_id": "Sun", "title": "Sun", "headings": "", "text": "The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma , with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process . It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth , and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth , accounting for about 99.86 % of the total mass of the Solar System .  About three quarters of the Sun 's mass consists of hydrogen ( ~ 73 % ) ; the rest is mostly helium ( ~ 25 % ) , with much smaller quantities of heavier elements , including oxygen , carbon , neon , and iron .   The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star ( G2V ) based on its spectral class . As such , it is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf . It formed approximately 4.6 billionAll numbers in this article are short scale . One billion is 109 , or 1,000,000,000 . years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud . Most of this matter gathered in the center , whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System . The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core . It is thought that almost all stars form by this process .   The Sun is roughly middle-aged ; it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years , and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years . After hydrogen fusion in its core has diminished to the point at which it is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium , the core of the Sun will experience a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand to eventually become a red giant . It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury and Venus , and render Earth uninhabitable .   The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times , and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity . The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar , which is the predominant calendar in use today ."}
{"_id": "Sunlight", "title": "Sunlight", "headings": "", "text": "Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' .   The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen .   Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface .   Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities ."}
{"_id": "Sunspot", "title": "Sunspot", "headings": "", "text": "Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear as dark spots compared with surrounding regions . They are areas of reduced surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection . Sunspots usually appear in pairs of opposite magnetic polarity . Their number varies according to the approximately 11-year solar cycle .   Individual sunspots may endure anywhere from a few days to a few months , but eventually decay . Sunspots expand and contract as they move across the surface of the Sun with sizes ranging from 16 km to 160000 km in diameter . The larger variety are visible from Earth without the aid of a telescope . They may travel at relative speeds , or proper motions of a few hundred meters per second when they first emerge .   Indicating intense magnetic activity , sunspots accompany secondary phenomena such as coronal loops ( prominences ) and reconnection events . Most solar flares and coronal mass ejections originate in magnetically active regions around visible sunspot groupings . Similar phenomena indirectly observed on stars other than the sun are commonly called starspots and both light and dark spots have been measured ."}
{"_id": "Supercell", "title": "Supercell", "headings": "", "text": "A supercell is a thunderstorm characterized by the presence of a mesocyclone : a deep , persistently rotating updraft . For this reason , these storms are sometimes referred to as rotating thunderstorms . Of the four classifications of thunderstorms ( supercell , squall line , multi-cell , and single-cell ) , supercells are the overall least common and have the potential to be the most severe . Supercells are often isolated from other thunderstorms , and can dominate the local weather up to 32 km away .   Supercells are often put into three classification types : Classic , Low-precipitation ( LP ) , and High-precipitation ( HP ) . LP supercells are usually found in climates that are more arid , such as the high plains of the United States , and HP supercells are most often found in moist climates . Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right pre-existing weather conditions , but they are most common in the Great Plains of the United States in an area known as Tornado Alley and in the Tornado Corridor of Argentina , Uruguay and southern Brazil ."}
{"_id": "Supercontinent", "title": "Supercontinent", "headings": "", "text": "In geology , a supercontinent is the assembly of most or all of Earth 's continental blocks or cratons to form a single large landmass . However , the definition of a supercontinent can be ambiguous . Many earth scientists use the term `` supercontinent '' to mean `` a clustering of nearly all continents '' . This definition leaves room for interpretation when labeling a continental body and is easier to apply to Precambrian times . Using the first definition provided here , Gondwana is not considered a supercontinent , because the landmasses of Baltica , Laurentia and Siberia also existed at the same time but physically separate from each other . The landmass of Pangaea is the collective name describing all of these continental masses when they were most recently in proximity to one another . This would classify Pangaea as a supercontinent . According to the modern definitions , a supercontinent does not exist today . Supercontinents have assembled and dispersed multiple times in the geologic past ( see table ) . The positions of continents have been accurately determined back to the early Jurassic . However , beyond , continental positions are much less certain ."}
{"_id": "Surveying", "title": "Surveying", "headings": "", "text": "Surveying or land surveying is the technique , profession , and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of points and the distances and angles between them . A land surveying professional is called a land surveyor . These points are usually on the surface of the Earth , and they are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership , locations like building corners or the surface location of subsurface features , or other purposes required by government or civil law , such as property sales .   Surveyors work with elements of geometry , trigonometry , regression analysis , physics , engineering , metrology , programming languages and the law . They use equipment like total stations , robotic total stations , GPS receivers , retroreflectors , 3D scanners , radios , handheld tablets , digital levels , subsurface locators , drones , GIS and surveying software .   Surveying has been an element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history . The planning and execution of most forms of construction require it . It is also used in transport , communications , mapping , and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership . It is an important tool for research in many other scientific disciplines ."}
{"_id": "Survivalism", "title": "Survivalism", "headings": "", "text": "Survivalism is a primarily American movement of individuals or groups ( called survivalists or preppers ) who are actively preparing for emergencies , including possible disruptions in social or political order , on scales from local to international . Survivalists often acquire emergency medical and self-defense training , stockpile food and water , prepare to become self-sufficient , and build structures ( e.g. , a survival retreat or an underground shelter ) that may help them survive a catastrophe .   Use of the term survivalist dates from 1976 . The terms prepper and prep #Verb are derived from the word prepare #Verb , and have grown in popularity since the 1990s , partly as a reaction to terrorists like Ted Kaczynski and Timothy McVeigh and stereotypes connected with them ."}
{"_id": "Sustainability", "title": "Sustainability", "headings": "", "text": "In ecology , sustainability ( from sustain and ability ) is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinite #Adjective . Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems . In more general terms , sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science .   Sustainability can also be defined as a socio-ecological process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal .  An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given time and space . However , by persistently and dynamically approaching it , the process results in a sustainable system .   Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and other organisms . Ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering , environmental resources management and environmental protection . Information is gained from green chemistry , earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems .   Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganizing living conditions ( e.g. , ecovillages , eco-municipalities and sustainable cities ) , reappraising economic sectors ( permaculture , green building , sustainable agriculture ) , or work practices ( sustainable architecture ) , using science to develop new technologies ( green technologies , renewable energy and sustainable fission and fusion power ) , or designing systems in a flexible and reversible manner , and adjusting individual lifestyles that conserve natural resources .   `` The term ` sustainability ' should be viewed as humanity 's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium ( homeostasis ) , while ` sustainable development ' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability . '' ( 305 ) Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term `` sustainability '' , the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been , and continues to be , questioned -- in light of environmental degradation , climate change , overconsumption , population growth and societies ' pursuit of unlimited economic growth in a closed system ."}
{"_id": "Sustainable_Development_Goals", "title": "Sustainable Development Goals", "headings": "", "text": "The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) , officially known as Transforming our world : the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is a set of 17 `` Global Goals '' with 169 targets between them . Spearheaded by the United Nations through a deliberative process involving its 193 Member States , as well as global civil society , the goals are contained in paragraph 54 United Nations Resolution A/RES/70 / 1 of 25 September 2015 . The Resolution is a broader intergovernmental agreement that acts as the Post 2015 Development Agenda ( successor to the Millennium Development Goals ) . The SDGs build on the Principles agreed upon under Resolution A/RES/66 / 288 , popularly known as The Future We Want .   The SDGs were in large measure informed by the often quoted assertion by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon that `` we do n't have plan B because there is no planet B '' .   On 19 July 2014 , the UN General Assembly 's Open Working Group ( OWG ) on Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) forwarded a proposal for the SDGs to the Assembly . The proposal contained 17 goals with 169 targets covering a broad range of sustainable development issues . These included ending poverty and hunger , improving health and education , making cities more sustainable , combating climate change , and protecting oceans and forests . On 5 December 2014 , the UN General Assembly accepted the Secretary-General 's Synthesis Report which stated that the agenda for the post-2015 SDG process would be based on the OWG proposals .   The Intergovernmental Negotiations on the Post 2015 Development Agenda ( IGN ) began in January 2015 and ended in August 2015 . Following the negotiations , a final document was adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit September 25 -- 27 , 2015 in New York , USA . The title of the agenda is Transforming our world : the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ."}
{"_id": "Sustainable_development", "title": "Sustainable development", "headings": "", "text": "Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depends . The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems .   While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report , it is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and twentieth century environmental concerns . As the concept developed , it has shifted to focus more on economic development , social development and environmental protection for future generations . It has been suggested that `` the term ` sustainability ' should be viewed as humanity 's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium ( homeostasis ) , while ` sustainable development ' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability '' .   The concept of sustainable development has been -- and still is -- subject to criticism . What , exactly , is to be sustained in sustainable development ? It has been argued that there is no such thing as a sustainable use of a non-renewable resource , since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of Earth 's finite stock ; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable . It has also been argued that the meaning of the concept has opportunistically been stretched from ` conservation management ' to ` economic development ' , and that the Brundtland Report promoted nothing but a business as usual strategy for world development , with an ambiguous and insubstantial concept attached as a public relations slogan ( see below ) ."}
{"_id": "Sustainable_energy", "title": "Sustainable energy", "headings": "", "text": "Sustainable energy is energy that is consumed at insignificant rates compared to its supply and with manageable collateral effects , especially environmental effects . Another common definition of sustainable energy is an energy system that serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science .   Technologies promote sustainable energy including renewable energy sources , such as hydroelectricity , solar energy , wind energy , wave power , geothermal energy , bioenergy , tidal power and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency . Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years , and continue to fall . Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so . Increasingly , effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding . Considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems , to the point where many studies support 100 % renewable energy ."}
{"_id": "Svante_Arrhenius", "title": "Svante Arrhenius", "headings": "", "text": "Svante August Arrhenius ( 19 February 1859 -- 2 October 1927 ) was a Nobel-Prize winning Swedish scientist , originally a physicist , but often referred to as a chemist , and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry . He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 , becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate , and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death . His lasting contributions to science are exemplified and memorialized by the Arrhenius equation , Arrhenius definition of an acid , lunar crater Arrhenius , the mountain of Arrheniusfjellet and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University , all named after him . He was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide increase Earth 's surface temperature through the Arrhenius effect , leading Keeling to conclude that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions are large enough to cause global warming ."}
{"_id": "Sweden", "title": "Sweden", "headings": "", "text": "Sweden ( Konungariket Sverige ) , is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe . It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east , and is connected to Denmark in the southwest by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund . At 450295 km2 , Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area , with a total population of 10.0 million . Sweden consequently has a low population density of 22 PD/km2 , with the highest concentration in the southern half of the country . Approximately 85 % of the population lives in urban areas .   Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times , emerging into history as the Geats/G ötar and Swedes/Svear and constituting the sea peoples known as the Norsemen . Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural , while the north is heavily forested . Sweden is part of the geographical area of Fennoscandia . The climate is in general very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence , that in spite of this still retains warm continental summers . Today , Sweden is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy , with a monarch as head of state . The capital city is Stockholm , which is also the most populous city in the country . Legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag . Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister . Sweden is a unitary state , currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities .   Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages . In the 17th century , it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire , which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century . Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries , ending with the annexation of present-day Finland by Russia in 1809 . The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814 , when Norway was militarily forced into personal union . Since then , Sweden has been at peace , maintaining an official policy of neutrality in foreign affairs . The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905 , leading to Sweden 's current borders . Though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars , Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts , such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe .   After the end of the Cold War , Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 , but declined NATO membership , as well as Eurozone membership following a referendum . It is also a member of the United Nations , the Nordic Council , Council of Europe , the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) . Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides universal health care and tertiary education for its citizens . It has the world 's eighth-highest per capita income and ranks highly in numerous metrics of national performance , including quality of life , health , education , protection of civil liberties , economic competitiveness , equality , prosperity and human development ."}
{"_id": "Sydney", "title": "Sydney", "headings": "", "text": "Sydney is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania . Located on Australia 's east coast , the metropolis surrounds the world 's largest natural harbour , and sprawls towards the Blue Mountains to the west . Residents of Sydney are known as `` Sydneysiders '' . Sydney is the location of the secondary official residences of the Governor-General of Australia and the Prime Minister of Australia , Admiralty House and Kirribilli House respectively .   The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years . The first British settlers , led by Captain Arthur Phillip , arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony , the first European settlement in Australia . Since convict transportation ended in the mid-19th century , the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural and economic centre . As at June 2016 Sydney 's estimated population was 5,005,358 . In the , 34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas , representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world . There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home .   Despite being one of the most expensive cities in the world , the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living , making it one of the most livable cities . It is classified as an Alpha + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network , indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world . Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity , Sydney has an advanced market economy with strengths in finance , manufacturing and tourism . Its gross regional product was $ 337 billion in 2013 , the largest in Australia . There is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacific 's leading financial hubs .   In addition to hosting events such as the 2000 Summer Olympics , Sydney is amongst the top fifteen most-visited cities in the world , with millions of tourists coming each year to see the city 's landmarks . Its natural features include Sydney Harbour , the Royal National Park , and the Royal Botanic Garden . Man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House , Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors ."}
{"_id": "Syracuse,_New_York", "title": "Syracuse, New York", "headings": "", "text": "Syracuse ( -LSB- localˈsɛrəkjuːs -RSB- ) is a city in , and the county seat of , Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . It is the largest U.S. city with the name `` Syracuse '' , and is the fifth most populous city in the state of New York following New York City , Buffalo , Rochester , and Yonkers . At the 2010 census , the city population was 145,170 , and its metropolitan area had a population of 662,577 . It is the economic and educational hub of Central New York , a region with over a million inhabitants . Syracuse is also well-provided with convention sites , with a downtown convention complex . Syracuse was named after the original Greek city Syracuse ( Siracusa in Italian ) , a city on the eastern coast of the Italian island of Sicily .   The city has functioned as a major crossroads over the last two centuries , first between the Erie Canal and its branch canals , then of the railway network . Today , Syracuse is located at the intersection of Interstates 81 and 90 , and its airport is the largest in the region . Syracuse is home to Syracuse University , a major research university , as well as Le Moyne College , a nationally recognized liberal arts college . In 2010 , Forbes rated Syracuse 4th in the top 10 places in the U.S. to raise a family ."}
{"_id": "Taiga", "title": "Taiga", "headings": "", "text": "Taiga ( -LSB- ˈtaɪɡə -RSB- -LSB- тайга́ , p = tɐjˈɡa -RSB- from Turkic ) also known as boreal forest or snow forest , is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines , spruces and larches .   The taiga is the world 's largest biome apart from the oceans . In North America it covers most of inland Canada and Alaska as well as parts of the extreme northern continental United States ( northern Minnesota through the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to Upstate New York and northern New England ) , where it is known as the Northwoods or `` North woods '' . In Eurasia , it covers most of Sweden , Finland , much of Norway , some of the Scottish Highlands , some lowland/coastal areas of Iceland , much of Russia from Karelia in the west to the Pacific Ocean ( including much of Siberia ) , and areas of northern Kazakhstan , northern Mongolia , and northern Japan ( on the island of Hokkaidō ) . However , the main tree species , the length of the growing season and summer temperatures vary . For example , the taiga of North America mostly consists of spruces ; Scandinavian and Finnish taiga consists of a mix of spruce , pines and birch ; Russian taiga has spruces , pines and larches depending on the region , while the Eastern Siberian taiga is a vast larch forest .   A different use of the term taiga is often encountered in the English language , with `` boreal forest '' used in the United States and Canada to refer to only the more southerly part of the biome , while `` taiga '' is used to describe the more barren areas of the northernmost part of the biome approaching the tree line and the tundra biome . Hoffman ( 1958 ) discusses the origin of this differential use in North America and why it is an inappropriate differentiation of the Russian term . Although at high elevations taiga grades into alpine tundra through Krummholz , it is not exclusively an alpine biome ; and unlike subalpine forest , much of taiga is lowlands ."}
{"_id": "Tax", "title": "Tax", "headings": "", "text": "A tax ( from the Latin en : taxo #Latin ) is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer ( an individual or legal entity ) by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures . A failure to pay , or evasion of or resistance to taxation , is usually punishable by law . Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent . Most countries have a tax system in place to pay for public/common/agreed national needs and government functions : some levy a flat percentage rate of taxation on personal annual income , some on a scale based on annual income amounts , and some countries impose almost no taxation at all , or a very low tax rate for a certain area of taxation . Some countries charge a tax both on corporate income and dividends ; this is often referred to as double taxation as the individual shareholder ( s ) receiving this payment from the company will also be levied some tax on that personal income ."}
{"_id": "Technological_and_industrial_history_of_China", "title": "Technological and industrial history of China", "headings": "", "text": "The technological and industrial history of China is extremely varied , and extensive . China 's industrial sector has shown great progress using most of its technology from the 1950s ."}
{"_id": "Ted_Cruz", "title": "Ted Cruz", "headings": "", "text": "Rafael Edward `` Ted '' Cruz -LSB- ˈkruːz -RSB- ( born December 22 , 1970 ) is an American politician and attorney , who has served as the junior United States Senator from Texas since 2013 . He was a candidate for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 election .   Cruz graduated from Princeton University , New Jersey , in 1992 , and from Harvard Law School , Massachusetts , in 1995 . From 1999 to 2003 , he served in various political appointee positions : the Director of the Office of Policy Planning at the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) , an Associate Deputy Attorney General at the United States Department of Justice , and a Domestic Policy Advisor to George W. Bush on the 2000 George W. Bush Presidential campaign .   Cruz served as Solicitor General of Texas , from 2003 to 2008 , appointed by Texas Attorney General , Greg Abbott . He was the first Hispanic , and the longest-serving , Solicitor General in Texas history . From 2004 to 2009 , Cruz was an Adjunct Professor at the University of Texas School of Law in Austin , Texas , where he taught U.S. Supreme Court litigation .   Cruz ran for the Senate seat vacated by fellow Republican Kay Bailey Hutchison and , in July 2012 , defeated Lieutenant Governor David Dewhurst during the Republican primary runoff , 57 -- 43 % . He defeated former State Representative Paul Sadler in the November 2012 general election , winning 56 -- 41 % . He is the first Hispanic American to serve as a U.S. Senator representing Texas , and is one of three senators of Cuban descent . He chairs the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Oversight , Federal Rights and Agency Activities , and is the Chairman of the Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Space , Science and Competitiveness . In November 2012 , he was appointed Vice-Chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee .   Cruz began campaigning for the Republican presidential nomination in March 2015 . During the primary campaign , his base of support was strongest with `` women , white evangelical Protestants , people over the age of 50 , and those who identified themselves as conservatives '' , though he had crossover appeal to other factions within his party , including libertarian conservatives and millennials .   Cruz 's victory in the February 2016 Iowa caucuses marked the first time a Hispanic person won a U.S. presidential caucus or primary . He eventually emerged as the main challenger to frontrunner Donald Trump . He suspended his campaign for president on May 3 , 2016 , after losing the Republican primary in Indiana to Trump ."}
{"_id": "Temperate_climate", "title": "Temperate climate", "headings": "", "text": "In geography , temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions . The temperatures in these regions are generally relatively moderate , rather than extremely hot or cold , and the changes between summer and winter are also usually moderate ."}
{"_id": "Temperature", "title": "Temperature", "headings": "", "text": "A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) .   The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale .   The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material .   Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life ."}
{"_id": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "title": "Temperature record of the past 1000 years", "headings": "", "text": "For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods .   Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models .   During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions ."}
{"_id": "Temperatures_Rising", "title": "Temperatures Rising", "headings": "", "text": "Temperatures Rising is an American television sitcom that aired on the ABC network from September 12 , 1972 to August 29 , 1974 . During its 46-episode run , it was presented in three different formats and cast line-ups . The series was developed for the network by William Asher and Harry Ackerman for Ashmont Productions and Screen Gems . Set in a fictional Washington , D.C. hospital , the series featured James Whitmore as a no-nonsense chief of staff , forced to deal with the outlandish antics of a young intern ( Cleavon Little ) and three nurses ( Joan Van Ark , Reva Rose , and Nancy Fox ) .   For the first season , 26 episodes were produced and broadcast . In the second season , Whitmore was replaced in the lead role by comedian Paul Lynde , and Asher was replaced as producer by Duke Vincent and Bruce Johnson . The series was re-titled The New Temperatures Rising Show , and featured a new supporting cast : Sudie Bond , Barbara Cason , Jennifer Darling , Jeff Morrow , and John Dehner . Cleavon Little was the only returning member of the original cast . In this season , Lynde was presented as the penny-pinching chief of staff , with Bond as his nagging mother and owner of the hospital .   The New Temperatures Rising Show ran for 13 episodes before being placed on hiatus in January 1974 due to poor ratings . It returned in July in yet another incarnation . Asher returned as producer and restored the series to its original format -- albeit with Lynde continuing in the lead . Reverting to the original title of Temperatures Rising , Little remained in the show 's cast , accompanied by a new line-up of supporting players : Alice Ghostley , Barbara Rucker and , returning from the first season 's cast , Nancy Fox . Offered as a summer replacement on Thursday nights , the third version of the sitcom ran for seven episodes , after which it was cancelled permanently ."}
{"_id": "Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall", "title": "Tendency of the rate of profit to fall", "headings": "", "text": "The tendency of the rate of profit to fall ( TRPF ) is a hypothesis in economics and political economy , most famously expounded by Karl Marx in chapter 13 of Capital , Volume III . Although not accepted in 20th century mainstream economics , the existence of such a tendency was widely accepted in the 19th century . Economists as diverse as Adam Smith , John Stuart Mill , David Ricardo and Stanley Jevons referred explicitly to the TRPF as an empirical phenomenon . They differed in their explanation about why the TRPF might occur .   In his 1857 Grundrisse manuscript , Karl Marx called the tendency of the rate of profit to fall `` the most important law of political economy '' and sought to give a causal explanation for it , in terms of his theory of capital accumulation . The tendency is already foreshadowed in chapter 25 of Capital , Volume I ( on the `` general law of capital accumulation '' ) , but in Part 3 of the draft manuscript of Marx 's Capital , Volume III , edited posthumously for publication by Friedrich Engels , an extensive analysis is provided of the tendency . Marx regarded the TRPF as proof that capitalist production could not be an everlasting form of production , since , in the end , the profit principle itself would suffer a breakdown . However , because Marx never published any finished manuscript on the TRPF himself , because the tendency is hard to prove or disprove theoretically , and because it is hard to test and measure the rate of profit , Marx 's TRPF theory has been a topic of controversy for more than a century ."}
{"_id": "Terra_Nova_Expedition", "title": "Terra Nova Expedition", "headings": "", "text": "The Terra Nova Expedition , officially the British Antarctic Expedition , was an expedition to Antarctica which took place between 1910 and 1913 . It was led by Robert Falcon Scott and had various scientific and geographical objectives . Scott wished to continue the scientific work that he had begun when leading the Discovery Expedition to the Antarctic in 1901 -- 04 . He also wanted to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole . He and four companions attained the pole on 17 January 1912 , where they found that the Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen had preceded them by 34 days . Scott 's entire party died on the return journey from the pole ; some of their bodies , journals , and photographs were found by a search party eight months later .   The expedition , named after its supply ship , was a private venture , financed by public contributions augmented by a government grant . It had further backing from the Admiralty , which released experienced seamen to the expedition , and from the Royal Geographical Society . The expedition 's team of scientists carried out a comprehensive scientific programme , while other parties explored Victoria Land and the Western Mountains . An attempted landing and exploration of King Edward VII Land was unsuccessful . A journey to Cape Crozier in June and July 1911 was the first extended sledging journey in the depths of the Antarctic winter .   For many years after his death , Scott 's status as tragic hero was unchallenged , and few questions were asked about the causes of the disaster which overcame his polar party . In the final quarter of the 20th century the expedition came under closer scrutiny , and more critical views were expressed about its organization and management . The degree of Scott 's personal culpability , and more recently , the culpability of certain expedition members , remain controversial ."}
{"_id": "Terraforming_of_Mars", "title": "Terraforming of Mars", "headings": "", "text": "Terraforming of Mars is a process by which the surface and climate of Mars would be deliberately changed to make large areas of the environment hospitable to humans , thus making the colonization of Mars safer and sustainable ( see Planetary engineering ) .   There are a few proposed terraforming concepts , some of which present prohibitive economic and natural resource costs , and others that may be achievable with foreseeable technology ."}
{"_id": "Terraforming_of_Venus", "title": "Terraforming of Venus", "headings": "", "text": "The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere :  Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C.  Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form .  Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere ."}
{"_id": "Terrestrial_television", "title": "Terrestrial television", "headings": "", "text": "Terrestrial television or broadcast television is a type of television broadcasting in which the television signal is transmitted by radio waves from the terrestrial ( Earth based ) transmitter of a television station to a TV receiver having an antenna . The term is more common in Europe , while in North America it is referred to as broadcast television or sometimes over-the-air television ( OTA ) . The term `` terrestrial '' is used to distinguish this type from the newer technologies of satellite television ( direct broadcast satellite or DBS television ) , in which the television signal is transmitted to the receiver from an overhead satellite , and cable television , in which the signal is carried to the receiver through a cable .   Terrestrial television was the first technology used for television broadcasting , with the first long-distance public television broadcast from Washington , D.C. , on 7 April 1927 . The BBC began broadcasting in 1929 and had a regular schedule of television programmes in 1930 . However , these early experimental systems had insufficient picture quality to attract the public , due to their mechanical scan technology , and television did n't become widespread until after World War II with the advent of electronic scan technology . The television broadcasting business followed the model of radio networks , with local television stations in cities and towns affiliated with television networks , either commercial ( in USA ) or government-controlled ( in Europe ) , which provided content . Television broadcasts were in black and white until the 1960s , when color television broadcasting began .   There was no other method of television delivery until the 1950s with the beginnings of cable television and community antenna television ( CATV ) . CATV was , initially , only a re-broadcast of over-the-air signals . With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 1980s , viewing of terrestrial television broadcasts has been in decline ; in 2013 , it was estimated that about 7 % of US households used an antenna . A slight increase in use began after the 2009 final conversion to digital terrestrial television broadcasts , which offer HDTV image quality as an alternative to CATV for cord cutters ."}
{"_id": "Texaco", "title": "Texaco", "headings": "", "text": "Texaco , Inc. ( `` The Texas Company '' ) is an American oil subsidiary of Chevron Corporation . Its flagship product is its fuel `` Texaco with Techron '' . It also owns the Havoline motor oil brand . Texaco was an independent company until its refining operations merged into Chevron Corporation in 2001 , at which time most of its station franchises were divested to the Shell Oil Company . It began as the Texas Fuel Company , founded in 1901 in Beaumont , Texas , by Joseph S. Cullinan , Thomas J. Donoghue , Walter Benona Sharp , and Arnold Schlaet upon the discovery of oil at Spindletop .   For many years , Texaco was the only company selling gasoline under the same brand name in all 50 US states , as well as Canada , making it the most truly national brand among its competitors . It was also one of the Seven Sisters which dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the 1970s . Its current logo features a white star in a red circle ( a reference to the lone star of Texas ) , leading to the long-running advertising jingles `` You can trust your car to the man who wears the star '' and `` Star of the American Road . '' The company was headquartered in Harrison , New York , near White Plains , prior to the merger with Chevron .   Texaco gasoline comes with Techron , an additive developed by Chevron , as of 2005 , replacing the previous CleanSystem3 . The Texaco brand is strong in the U.S. , Latin America and West Africa . It has a presence in Europe as well ; for example , it is a well-known retail brand in the UK , with around 1,100 Texaco-branded service stations ."}
{"_id": "Texas", "title": "Texas", "headings": "", "text": "Texas ( -LSB- ˈtɛksəs -RSB- , -LSB- localˈtɛksᵻz -RSB- Texas or Tejas -LSB- ˈtexas -RSB- ) is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population . Geographically located in the South Central region of the country , Texas shares borders with the U.S. states of Louisiana to the east , Arkansas to the northeast , Oklahoma to the north , New Mexico to the west , and the Mexican states of Chihuahua , Coahuila , Nuevo León , and Tamaulipas to the southwest , while the Gulf of Mexico is to the southeast .   Houston is the most populous city in Texas and the fourth largest in the U.S. , while San Antonio is the second most populous in the state and seventh largest in the U.S. Dallas -- Fort Worth and Greater Houston are the fourth and fifth largest metropolitan statistical areas in the country , respectively . Other major cities include Austin , the second most populous state capital in the U.S. , and El Paso . Texas is nicknamed `` The Lone Star State '' to signify its former status as an independent republic , and as a reminder of the state 's struggle for independence from Mexico . The `` Lone Star '' can be found on the Texan state flag and on the Texan state seal . The origin of Texas 's name is from the word `` Tejas , '' which means `` friends '' in the Caddo language .   Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault , Texas contains diverse landscapes that resemble both the U.S. Southern and Southwestern regions . Although Texas is popularly associated with the U.S. southwestern deserts , less than 10 % of Texas ' land area is desert . Most of the population centers are located in areas of former prairies , grasslands , forests , and the coastline . Traveling from east to west , one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods , to rolling plains and rugged hills , and finally the desert and mountains of the Big Bend .   The term `` six flags over Texas `` For example , as used by the large Grand Prairie -- based national and international amusement park operator Six Flags refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory . Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas . France held a short-lived colony . Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence , becoming an independent Republic . In 1845 , Texas joined the union as the 28th state . The state 's annexation set off a chain of events that led to the Mexican -- American War in 1846 . A slave state before the American Civil War , Texas declared its secession from the U.S. in early 1861 , and officially joined the Confederate States of America on March 2 of the same year . After the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government , Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation .   One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle . Due to its long history as a center of the industry , Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy . The state 's economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century , when oil discoveries initiated an economic boom in the state . With strong investments in universities , Texas developed a diversified economy and high tech industry in the mid-20th century . As of 2015 , it is second on the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with 54 . With a growing base of industry , the state leads in many industries , including agriculture , petrochemicals , energy , computers and electronics , aerospace , and biomedical sciences . Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product ."}
{"_id": "That_Hideous_Strength", "title": "That Hideous Strength", "headings": "", "text": "That Hideous Strength ( subtitled A Modern Fairy-Tale for Grown-Ups ) is a 1945 novel by C. S. Lewis , the final book in Lewis 's theological science fiction Space Trilogy . The events of this novel follow those of Out of the Silent Planet and Perelandra ( also titled Voyage to Venus ) and once again feature the philologist Elwin Ransom . Yet unlike the principal events of those two novels , the story takes place on Earth rather than in space or on other planets in the solar system . The story involves an ostensibly scientific institute , the N.I.C.E. , which is a front for sinister supernatural forces .   The novel was heavily influenced by the writing of Lewis 's friend and fellow Inkling Charles Williams , and is markedly dystopian in style . In the book 's preface Lewis acknowledges science-fiction writer Olaf Stapledon and his work : `` Mr. Stapledon is so rich in invention that he can well afford to lend , and I admire his invention ( though not his philosophy ) so much that I should feel no shame to borrow . ''   In the foreword , Lewis states that the novel 's point is the same as that in his non-fiction work The Abolition of Man , which argues that there are natural laws and objective values , which education should teach children to recognise .   The novel 's title is taken from a poem written by David Lyndsay in 1555 , Ane Dialog betuix Experience and ane Courteour , also known as The Monarche . The couplet in question , `` The shadow of that hyddeous strength , sax myle and more it is of length '' , refers to the Tower of Babel ."}
{"_id": "Thaumasia_quadrangle", "title": "Thaumasia quadrangle", "headings": "", "text": "The Thaumasia quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) Astrogeology Research Program . The Thaumasia quadrangle is also referred to as MC-25 ( Mars Chart-25 ) .  The name comes from Thaumas , the god of the clouds and celestial apparitions .   The Thaumasia quadrangle covers the area from 60 ° to 120 ° west longitude and 30 ° to 65 ° south latitude on Mars . The Thaumasia quadrangle contains many different regions or parts of many regions : Solis Planum , Icaria Planum , , Aonia Planum , Bosporus Planum , and Thaumasia Planum . One of the first major networks of stream channels , called Warrego Valles , were discovered here by early orbiters . Another sign of water is the presence of gullies carved into steep slopes ."}
{"_id": "The_Carpenters", "title": "The Carpenters", "headings": "", "text": "The Carpenters were an American vocal and instrumental duo consisting of siblings Karen and Richard Carpenter . Producing a distinctively soft musical style , they became one of the best-selling music artists of all time . During their 14-year career , the Carpenters recorded 11 albums , 31 singles , five television specials , and a short-lived television series . Their career ended in 1983 by Karen 's death from heart failure brought on by complications of anorexia . Extensive news coverage surrounding the circumstances of her death increased public awareness of eating disorders .   The duo 's brand of melodic pop produced a record-breaking run of hit recordings on the American Top 40 and Adult Contemporary charts , and they became leading sellers in the soft rock , easy listening and adult contemporary genres . The Carpenters had three No. 1 singles and five No. 2 singles on the Billboard Hot 100 and fifteen No. 1 hits on the Adult Contemporary chart . In addition , they had twelve top 10 singles . To date , the Carpenters ' album and single sales total more than 100 million units ."}
{"_id": "The_Daily_Caller", "title": "The Daily Caller", "headings": "", "text": "The Daily Caller is an American news and opinion website based in Washington , D.C. . It was founded by Tucker Carlson , a libertarian conservative political pundit , and Neil Patel , former adviser to former Vice President Dick Cheney . The site 's coverage includes politics , business , world news , entertainment , sports , education , technology , outdoors , and energy .   The Daily Caller launched on January 11 , 2010 as a more politically conservative news and commentary outlet and alternative to the liberal The Huffington Post , similarly featuring sections in broad range of subjects beyond politics . By late 2012 , The New York Times reported that the site had quadrupled its page view and total audience and had become profitable without ever buying an advertisement for itself .   Vince Coglianese has served as the publication 's editor-in-chief since Carlson left to focus on his television program Tucker Carlson Tonight ."}
{"_id": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle", "title": "The Great Global Warming Swindle", "headings": "", "text": "The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King .   The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols .   The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . ''   Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film ."}
{"_id": "The_New_York_Times", "title": "The New York Times", "headings": "", "text": "The New York Times ( sometimes abbreviated NYT and The Times ) is an American daily newspaper , founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18 , 1851 , by The New York Times Company . The New York Times has won 122 Pulitzer Prizes , more than any other newspaper .   The paper 's print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation , behind The Wall Street Journal , and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the United States . The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation . Following industry trends , its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million .   Nicknamed `` The Gray Lady '' , The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a national `` newspaper of record '' . It has been owned by the Ochs-Sulzberger family since 1896 ; Arthur Ochs Sulzberger Jr. , the publisher of the Times and the chairman of the New York Times Company , is the fourth generation of the family to helm the paper . The New York Times international version , formerly the International Herald Tribune , is now called the New York Times International Edition .   The paper 's motto , `` All the News That 's Fit to Print '' , appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page . Since the mid-1970s , The New York Times has greatly expanded its layout and organization , adding special weekly sections on various topics supplementing the regular news , editorials , sports , and features . Since 2008 , The New York Times has been organized into the following sections : News , Editorials/Opinions-Columns/Op-Ed , New York ( metropolitan ) , Business , Sports of The Times , Arts , Science , Styles , Home , Travel , and other features .   On Sunday , The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review ( formerly the Week in Review ) , The New York Times Book Review , The New York Times Magazine and T : The New York Times Style Magazine ( T is published 13 times a year ) . The New York Times stayed with the broadsheet full page set-up ( as some others have changed into a tabloid lay-out ) and an eight-column format for several years , after most papers switched to six , and was one of the last newspapers to adopt color photography , especially on the front page ."}
{"_id": "The_Rolling_Stones", "title": "The Rolling Stones", "headings": "", "text": "The Rolling Stones are an English rock band formed in London in 1962 . The original line-up consisted of Brian Jones ( rhythm guitar , harmonica ) , Mick Jagger ( lead vocals ) , Keith Richards ( lead guitar , backing vocals ) , Bill Wyman ( bass ) , Charlie Watts ( drums ) , and Ian Stewart ( piano ) . Stewart was removed from the official line-up in 1963 but continued as a touring member until his death in 1985 . Jones left the band less than a month prior to his death in 1969 , having already been replaced by Mick Taylor , who remained until 1974 . After Taylor left the band , Ronnie Wood took his place in 1975 and has been on guitar in tandem with Richards ever since . Following Wyman 's departure in 1993 , Darryl Jones joined as their touring bassist . Other touring keyboardists for the band have been Nicky Hopkins ( 1967 -- 82 ) , Billy Preston ( through the mid-1970s ) and Chuck Leavell ( 1982-present ) . The band was first led by Jones , but after teaming as the band 's songwriters , Jagger and Richards assumed leadership while Jones dealt with legal and personal troubles .   The Rolling Stones were at the forefront of the British Invasion of bands that became popular in the US in 1964 , and identified with the youthful and rebellious counterculture of the 1960s . Rooted in blues and early rock and roll , the group began a short period of musical experimentation in the mid-1960s that peaked with the psychedelic album Their Satanic Majesties Request ( 1967 ) . Subsequently , the group returned to its `` bluesy '' roots with Beggars Banquet ( 1968 ) which along with its follow-ups Let It Bleed ( 1969 ) , Sticky Fingers ( 1971 ) and Exile on Main St. ( 1972 ) is generally considered to be the band 's best work and is seen as their `` Golden Age '' . During this period , they were first introduced on stage as `` The World 's Greatest Rock and Roll Band '' . Musicologist Robert Palmer attributed the `` remarkable endurance '' of the Rolling Stones to being `` rooted in traditional verities , in rhythm-and-blues and soul music '' , while `` more ephemeral pop fashions have come and gone '' .   The band continued to release commercially successful records in the 1970s and sold many albums , including Some Girls ( 1978 ) and Tattoo You ( 1981 ) , which were their most popular albums worldwide . From 1983 to 1987 , tensions between Jagger and Richards almost caused the band to split . However , they managed to patch up their friendship in 1987 . They separated temporarily to work on solo projects and experienced a comeback with Steel Wheels ( 1989 ) , which was followed by a large stadium and arena tour . Since the 1990s , new recorded material from the group has been less well-received and less frequent . Despite this , the Rolling Stones have continued to be a huge attraction on the live circuit , with stadium tours in the 1990s and 2000s . By 2007 , the band had four of the top five highest-grossing concert tours of all time : Voodoo Lounge Tour ( 1994 -- 95 ) , Bridges to Babylon Tour ( 1997 -- 98 ) , Licks Tour ( 2002 -- 03 ) and A Bigger Bang Tour ( 2005 -- 07 ) .   The Rolling Stones were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2004 . Rolling Stone magazine ranked them fourth on the `` 100 Greatest Artists of All Time '' list and their estimated album sales are above 250 million . They have released 30 studio albums , 18 live albums and numerous compilations . Let It Bleed ( 1969 ) was their first of five consecutive No. 1 studio and live albums in the UK . Sticky Fingers ( 1971 ) was the first of eight consecutive No. 1 studio albums in the US . In 2008 , the band ranked 10th on the Billboard Hot 100 All-Time Top Artists chart . In 2012 , the band celebrated its 50th anniversary ."}
{"_id": "The_Simpsons", "title": "The Simpsons", "headings": "", "text": "The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The series is a satirical depiction of working-class life epitomized by the Simpson family , which consists of Homer , Marge , Bart , Lisa , and Maggie . The show is set in the fictional town of Springfield and parodies American culture , society , television , and the human condition .   The family was conceived by Groening shortly before a solicitation for a series of animated shorts with producer James L. Brooks . Groening created a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family , substituting Bart for his own name . The shorts became a part of The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19 , 1987 . After a three-season run , the sketch was developed into a half-hour prime time show and became an early hit for Fox , becoming the network 's first series to land in the Top 30 ratings in a season ( 1989 -- 90 ) .   Since its debut on December 17 , 1989 , episodes of The Simpsons have been broadcast . Its 28th season began on September 25 , 2016 . It is the longest-running American sitcom and the longest-running American animated program , and , in 2009 , it surpassed Gunsmoke as the longest-running American scripted primetime television series . The Simpsons Movie , a feature-length film , was released in theaters worldwide on July 27 , 2007 , and grossed over $ 527 million . On November 4 , 2016 , the series was renewed for a twenty-ninth and thirtieth season of 22 episodes each , extending the show to 2019 .   The Simpsons received widespread critical acclaim throughout its first nine seasons , which are generally considered its `` Golden Age '' . Time named it the 20th century 's best television series , and Erik Adams of The A.V. Club named it `` television 's crowning achievement regardless of format '' . On January 14 , 2000 , the Simpson family was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . It has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series , including 31 Primetime Emmy Awards , 30 Annie Awards , and a Peabody Award . Homer 's exclamatory catchphrase `` D'oh ! '' has been adopted into the English language , while The Simpsons has influenced many adult-oriented animated sitcoms . Despite this , the show has also been criticized for what many perceive as a decline in quality over the years ."}
{"_id": "The_Sixth_Extinction:_An_Unnatural_History", "title": "The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History", "headings": "", "text": "The Sixth Extinction : An Unnatural History is a 2014 non-fiction book written by Elizabeth Kolbert and published by Henry Holt & Company . The book demonstrates that the Earth is in the midst of a modern , man-made , sixth extinction . In the book , Kolbert chronicles previous mass extinction events , and compares them to the accelerated , widespread extinctions during our present time . She also describes specific species extinguished by humans , as well as the ecologies surrounding prehistoric and near-present extinction events . The author received the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for the book in 2015 .   The target audience is the general reader , and scientific descriptions are rendered in understandable prose . The clear writing blends explanations of her treks to remote areas with interviews of scientists , researchers , and guides , without advocating a position , and maintaining objectivity . Hence , the sixth mass extinction theme is applied to flora and fauna existing in diverse habitats , such as the Panamanian rainforest , the Great Barrier Reef , the Andes , Bikini Atoll , city zoos , and the author 's own backyard . The book also applies this theme to a number of other habitats and organisms throughout the world . After researching the current mainstream view of the relevant peer reviewed science , Kolbert estimates flora and fauna loss by the end of the 21st century to be between 20 % to 50 % `` of all living species on earth '' .   __ TOC __"}
{"_id": "The_Washington_Times", "title": "The Washington Times", "headings": "", "text": "The Washington Times is an American daily newspaper . It is published as a broadsheet at 3600 New York Avenue NE , Washington , D.C. . The paper covers general interest topics with a particular emphasis on American politics . Its slogan is `` America 's Newspaper '' .   One of the first broadsheets in the United States to adopt color photography , its daily edition is distributed throughout the District of Columbia and sections of Maryland and Virginia . A weekly tabloid edition aimed at a national audience is also published . A typical issue includes sections for world and national news , business , politics , editorials and opinion pieces , local news , sports , entertainment , and travel . Periodically , the paper publishes large , 30 -- 40 page special sections devoted to specific policy topics that include reports and commentary from a variety of experts on the subject .   Founded on May 17 , 1982 , by Unification Church leader Sun Myung Moon , the Times was owned by News World Communications , an international media conglomerate associated with the church until 2010 , in which Moon and a group of former executives purchased the paper . It is currently owned by diversified conglomerate Operations Holdings , which is a wholly owned subsidiary of the church ."}
{"_id": "The_Weather_Channel", "title": "The Weather Channel", "headings": "", "text": "The Weather Channel is an American basic cable and satellite television channel , owned by a consortium made up of The Blackstone Group , Bain Capital , and NBCUniversal . Its headquarters are located in Atlanta , Georgia .   Launched on May 2 , 1982 , the channel broadcasts weather forecasts and weather-related news and analysis , along with documentaries and entertainment programming related to weather . A sister network , Weatherscan , is a digital cable and satellite service that offers 24-hour automated local forecasts and radar imagery .   In addition to its programming on the cable channel , TWC also provided forecasts for terrestrial and satellite radio stations , newspapers and websites , and maintained an extensive online presence at weather.com and through a set of mobile applications for smartphones and tablet computers . These services are now administered by The Weather Channel 's former parent company , The Weather Company , which was sold to IBM in 2016 . The Weather Channel continues to license its brand assets and weather data from IBM .   , The Weather Channel was received by approximately 89.7 million American households that subscribe to a pay television service ( 77.1 % of U.S. households with at least one television set ) . As recently as February 2015 , the network was the most distributed cable network in the United States with 97.3 million subscribers ( or 83.6 % of US households ) . However , it was subsequently dropped by Verizon FiOS ( losing its approximately 5.5 million subscribers ) , giving the title of most distributed network to HLN . Actual viewership of the channel averaged 210,000 during 2013 and has been declining for several years ."}
{"_id": "The_Western_Journal", "title": "The Western Journal", "headings": "", "text": "The Western Journal, previously known as Western Journalism, is an American conservative news and political website based in Phoenix, Arizona. The site was founded by political consultant Floyd Brown in 2008."}
{"_id": "The_Wizard_of_Oz_(1939_film)", "title": "The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)", "headings": "", "text": "The Wizard of Oz is a 1939 American musical fantasy comedy-drama film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer , and the best-known and most commercially successful adaptation based on the 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum . The film stars Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale . The co-stars are Ray Bolger , Jack Haley , Bert Lahr , Frank Morgan , Billie Burke , and Margaret Hamilton , with Charley Grapewin , Pat Walshe and Clara Blandick , Terry the dog ( billed as Toto ) , and the Singer Midgets as the Munchkins .   Notable for its use of Technicolor , fantasy storytelling , musical score , and unusual characters , over the years it has become an icon of American popular culture . It was nominated for six Academy Awards , including Best Picture , but lost to Gone with the Wind . It did win in two other categories , including Best Original Song for `` Over the Rainbow '' and Best Original Score by Herbert Stothart . However , the film was a box office disappointment on its initial release , earning only $ 3,017,000 on a $ 2,777,000 budget , despite receiving largely positive reviews . It was MGM 's most expensive production to date and did not completely recoup the studio 's investment nor turn a profit until theatrical re-releases starting in 1949 .   The 1956 broadcast television premiere of the film on the CBS network reintroduced the film to the wider public and eventually made the presentation an annual tradition , making it one of the best known films in movie history . The film was named the most-viewed motion picture on television syndication by the Library of Congress , which also included the film in its National Film Registry in its inaugural year in 1989 . Designation on the registry calls for efforts to preserve it for being `` culturally , historically , and aesthetically significant '' . It is also one of the few films on UNESCO 's Memory of the World Register .   The Wizard of Oz is often ranked on best-movie lists in critics ' and public polls . It is the source of many quotes referenced in contemporary popular culture . It was directed primarily by Victor Fleming ( who left production to take over direction on the troubled Gone with the Wind production ) . Noel Langley , Florence Ryerson , and Edgar Allan Woolf received credit for the screenplay , but uncredited contributions were made by others . The songs were written by Edgar `` Yip '' Harburg ( lyrics ) and Harold Arlen ( music ) . The musical score and the incidental music were composed by Stothart ."}
{"_id": "Theoretical_physics", "title": "Theoretical physics", "headings": "", "text": "Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize , explain and predict natural phenomena . This is in contrast to experimental physics , which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena .   The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory . In some cases , theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations.There is some debate as to whether or not theoretical physics uses mathematics to build intuition and illustrativeness to extract physical insight ( especially when normal experience fails ) , rather than as a tool in formalizing theories . This links to the question of it using mathematics in a less formally rigorous , and more intuitive or heuristic way than , say , mathematical physics . For example , while developing special relativity , Albert Einstein was concerned with the Lorentz transformation which left Maxwell 's equations invariant , but was apparently uninterested in the Michelson -- Morley experiment on Earth 's drift through a luminiferous ether . Conversely , Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect , previously an experimental result lacking a theoretical formulation ."}
{"_id": "Theory", "title": "Theory", "headings": "", "text": "A theory is a contemplative and rational type of abstract or generalizing thinking , or the results of such thinking . Depending on the context , the results might , for example , include generalized explanations of how nature works . The word has its roots in ancient Greek , but in modern use it has taken on several different related meanings .   Theories guide the enterprise of finding facts rather than of reaching goals , and are neutral concerning alternatives among values . A theory can be a body of knowledge , which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models . To theorize is to develop this body of knowledge .   As already in Aristotle 's definitions , theory is very often contrasted to `` practice '' ( from Greek praxis , πρᾶξις ) a Greek term for doing , which is opposed to theory because pure theory involves no doing apart from itself . A classical example of the distinction between `` theoretical '' and `` practical '' uses the discipline of medicine : medical theory involves trying to understand the causes and nature of health and sickness , while the practical side of medicine is trying to make people healthy . These two things are related but can be independent , because it is possible to research health and sickness without curing specific patients , and it is possible to cure a patient without knowing how the cure worked .   It is possible to distinguish between three types of theories . Explanatory theory , also known as descriptive or empirical , helps to explain why and under what conditions , certain situations take place . The second type is interpretive theory or constitutive theory and this imposes meaning on events and issues with the objective to understand , instead of explaining , the world . The last one is called normative theory , also referred to as prescriptive , which prescribes values and standards of conduct : that means dealing with how the world should be instead of what it is .   In modern science , the term `` theory '' refers to scientific theories , a well-confirmed type of explanation of nature , made in a way consistent with scientific method , and fulfilling the criteria required by modern science . Such theories are described in such a way that any scientist in the field is in a position to understand and either provide empirical support ( `` verify '' ) or empirically contradict ( `` falsify '' ) it . Scientific theories are the most reliable , rigorous , and comprehensive form of scientific knowledge , in contrast to more common uses of the word `` theory '' that imply that something is unproven or speculative ( which is better characterized by the word ` hypothesis ' ) . Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses , which are individual empirically testable conjectures , and from scientific laws , which are descriptive accounts of how nature behaves under certain conditions ."}
{"_id": "Thermal_energy_storage", "title": "Thermal energy storage", "headings": "", "text": "Thermal energy storage ( TES ) is achieved with greatly differing technologies that collectively accommodate a wide range of needs . It allows excess thermal energy to be collected for later use , hours , days or many months later , at individual building , multiuser building , district , town , or even regional scale depending on the specific technology . As examples : energy demand can be balanced between daytime and nighttime ; summer heat from solar collectors can be stored interseasonally for use in winter ; and cold obtained from winter air can be provided for summer air conditioning . Storage media include : water or ice-slush tanks ranging from small to massive , masses of native earth or bedrock accessed with heat exchangers in clusters of small-diameter boreholes ( sometimes quite deep ) ; deep aquifers contained between impermeable strata ; shallow , lined pits filled with gravel and water and top-insulated ; and eutectic , phase-change materials .   Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold produced with heat pumps from off-peak , lower cost electric power , a practice called peak shaving ; heat from combined heat and power ( CHP ) power plants ; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that exceeds grid demand and waste heat from industrial processes . Heat storage , both seasonal and short term , is considered an important means for cheaply balancing high shares of variable renewable electricity production and integration of electricity and heating sectors in energy systems almost or completely fed by renewable energy ."}
{"_id": "Thermodynamic_equilibrium", "title": "Thermodynamic equilibrium", "headings": "", "text": "Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics . It is an internal state of a single thermodynamic system , or a relation between several thermodynamic systems connected by more or less permeable or impermeable walls . In thermodynamic equilibrium there are no net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy , either within a system or between systems . In a system in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium , no macroscopic change occurs . Systems in mutual thermodynamic equilibrium are simultaneously in mutual thermal , mechanical , chemical , and radiative equilibria . Systems can be in one kind of mutual equilibrium , though not in others . In thermodynamic equilibrium , all kinds of equilibrium hold at once and indefinitely , until disturbed by a thermodynamic operation . In a macroscopic equilibrium , almost or perfectly exactly balanced microscopic exchanges occur ; this is the physical explanation of the notion of macroscopic equilibrium .   A thermodynamic system in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium has a spatially uniform temperature . Its intensive properties , other than temperature , may be driven to spatial inhomogeneity by an unchanging long range force field imposed on it by its surroundings .   In non-equilibrium systems , by contrast , there are net flows of matter or energy . If such changes can be triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring , it is said to be in a metastable equilibrium .   Though it is not a widely named law , it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium . The second law of thermodynamics states that when a body of material starts from an equilibrium state , in which portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions , and a thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable and it is isolated , then it spontaneously reaches its own new state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium , and this is accompanied by an increase in the sum of the entropies of the portions ."}
{"_id": "Thermodynamic_temperature", "title": "Thermodynamic temperature", "headings": "", "text": "Thermodynamic temperature is the absolute measure of temperature and is one of the principal parameters of thermodynamics .   Thermodynamic temperature is defined by the third law of thermodynamics in which the theoretically lowest temperature is the null or zero point . At this point , absolute zero , the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and can become no colder . In the quantum-mechanical description , matter at absolute zero is in its ground state , which is its state of lowest energy . Thermodynamic temperature is often also called absolute temperature , for two reasons : one , proposed by Kelvin , that it does not depend on the properties of a particular material ; two that it refers to an absolute zero according to the properties of the ideal gas .   The International System of Units specifies a particular scale for thermodynamic temperature . It uses the kelvin scale for measurement and selects the triple point of water at 273.16 K as the fundamental fixing point . Other scales have been in use historically . The Rankine scale , using the degree Fahrenheit as its unit interval , is still in use as part of the English Engineering Units in the United States in some engineering fields . ITS-90 gives a practical means of estimating the thermodynamic temperature to a very high degree of accuracy .   Roughly , the temperature of a body at rest is a measure of the mean of the energy of the translational , vibrational and rotational motions of matter 's particle constituents , such as molecules , atoms , and subatomic particles . The full variety of these kinetic motions , along with potential energies of particles , and also occasionally certain other types of particle energy in equilibrium with these , make up the total internal energy of a substance . Internal energy is loosely called the heat energy or thermal energy in conditions when no work is done upon the substance by its surroundings , or by the substance upon the surroundings . Internal energy may be stored in a number of ways within a substance , each way constituting a `` degree of freedom '' . At equilibrium , each degree of freedom will have on average the same energy : where is the Boltzmann constant , unless that degree of freedom is in the quantum regime . The internal degrees of freedom ( rotation , vibration , etc. ) may be in the quantum regime at room temperature , but the translational degrees of freedom will be in the classical regime except at extremely low temperatures ( fractions of kelvins ) and it may be said that , for most situations , the thermodynamic temperature is specified by the average translational kinetic energy of the particles ."}
{"_id": "Thermodynamics", "title": "Thermodynamics", "headings": "", "text": "Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work . The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics , irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the material or system in question . The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics . Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering , especially physical chemistry , chemical engineering and mechanical engineering .   Historically , thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines , particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot ( 1824 ) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars . Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854 which stated , `` Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies , and the relation of heat to electrical agency . ''   The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions . Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field . Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades . Statistical thermodynamics , or statistical mechanics , concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior . In 1909 , Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach to the field in his axiomatic formulation of thermodynamics , a description often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics ."}
{"_id": "Thermohaline_circulation", "title": "Thermohaline circulation", "headings": "", "text": "Thermohaline circulation ( THC ) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes . The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo - referring to temperature and referring to salt content , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Wind-driven surface currents ( such as the Gulf Stream ) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean , cooling en route , and eventually sinking at high latitudes ( forming North Atlantic Deep Water ) . This dense water then flows into the ocean basins . While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean , the oldest waters ( with a transit time of around 1000 years ) upwell in the North Pacific . Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins , reducing differences between them and making the Earth 's oceans a global system . On their journey , the water masses transport both energy ( in the form of heat ) and matter ( solids , dissolved substances and gases ) around the globe . As such , the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth .   The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt , the great ocean conveyor , or the global conveyor belt . On occasion , it is used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation ( often abbreviated as MOC ) . The term MOC is more accurate and well defined , as it is difficult to separate the part of the circulation which is driven by temperature and salinity alone as opposed to other factors such as the wind and tidal forces . Moreover , temperature and salinity gradients can also lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself ."}
{"_id": "They", "title": "They", "headings": "", "text": "They is the third-person plural personal pronoun ( subjective case ) in Modern English . It can also be used with singular meaning , particularly in informal contexts , sometimes to avoid specifying the gender of the person referred to ."}
{"_id": "Thirty_Years'_War", "title": "Thirty Years' War", "headings": "", "text": "The Thirty Years ' War was a series of wars in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648 . It was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history , as well as the deadliest European religious war , resulting in eight million casualties .   Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire , it gradually developed into a more general conflict involving most of the great powers . These states employed relatively large mercenary armies , and the war became less about religion and more of a continuation of the France -- Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence . In the 17th century , religious beliefs and practices were a much larger influence on an average European than they are today . During that era , almost everyone was vested on one side of the dispute or another , which was also closely tied to people 's ethnicities and loyalties , as religious beliefs affected ideas of the legitimacy of the political status of rulers .   The war was preceded by the election of the new Holy Roman Emperor , Ferdinand II , who tried to impose religious uniformity on his domains , forcing Roman Catholicism on its peoples . The northern Protestant states , angered by the violation of their rights to choose that had been granted in the Peace of Augsburg , banded together to form the Protestant Union . Ferdinand II was a devout Roman Catholic and relatively intolerant when compared to his predecessor , Rudolf II , who ruled from Protestant Prague . Ferdinand 's policies were considered strongly pro-Catholic .   These events caused widespread fears throughout northern and central Europe , and triggered the Protestant Bohemians living in the then relatively loose dominion of Habsburg Austria to revolt against their nominal ruler , Ferdinand II . After the so-called Prague Defenestration deposed the emperor 's representatives in Prague , the Protestant estates and Catholic Habsburgs started gathering allies for war . They ousted the Habsburgs and elected the Calvinist Frederick V , Elector of the Rhenish Palatinate as the new king of the Kingdom of Bohemia . Frederick took the offer without the support of the union . The southern states , mainly Roman Catholic , were angered by this . Led by Bavaria , these states formed the Catholic League to expel Frederick in support of the Emperor . The Empire soon crushed this perceived rebellion in the Battle of White Mountain , executing leading Czech aristocrats shortly after . The Protestant world condemned the Emperor 's action .   After the atrocities committed in Bohemia , Saxony finally gave its support to the union and decided to fight back . Sweden , at the time a major military power , soon intervened in 1630 under its king Gustavus Adolphus , transforming what had been simply the Emperor 's attempt to curb the Protestant states into a full-scale war in Europe . Spain , wishing to finally crush the Dutch rebels in the Netherlands and the Dutch Republic , intervened under the pretext of helping its dynastic Habsburg ally , Austria . No longer able to tolerate the encirclement of two major Habsburg powers on its borders , Catholic France entered the coalition on the side of the Protestants in order to counter the Habsburgs .   The Thirty Years ' War devastated entire regions , with famine and disease resulting in high mortality in the populations of the German and Italian states , the Crown of Bohemia , and the Southern Netherlands . Both mercenaries and soldiers in fighting armies traditionally looted or extorted tribute to get operating funds , which imposed severe hardships on the inhabitants of occupied territories . The war also bankrupted most of the combatant powers .   The Dutch Republic enjoyed contrasting fortune ; it ended its revolt against Spain in 1648 and subsequently enjoyed a time of great prosperity and development , known as the Dutch Golden Age , during which it became one of the world 's foremost economic and naval powers . The Thirty Years ' War ended with the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster , part of the wider Peace of Westphalia . The war altered the previous political order of European powers . The rise of Bourbon France , the curtailing of Habsburg ambition , and the ascendancy of Sweden as a great power created a new balance of power on the continent , with France emerging from the war strengthened and increasingly dominant in the latter part of the 17th century ."}
{"_id": "Thomas_Kuhn", "title": "Thomas Kuhn", "headings": "", "text": "Thomas Samuel Kuhn ( -LSB- ˈkuːn -RSB- July 18 , 1922 -- June 17 , 1996 ) was an American physicist , historian and philosopher of science whose controversial 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was influential in both academic and popular circles , introducing the term paradigm shift , which has since become an English-language idiom .   Kuhn made several notable claims concerning the progress of scientific knowledge : that scientific fields undergo periodic `` paradigm shifts '' rather than solely progressing in a linear and continuous way , and that these paradigm shifts open up new approaches to understanding what scientists would never have considered valid before ; and that the notion of scientific truth , at any given moment , can not be established solely by objective criteria but is defined by a consensus of a scientific community . Competing paradigms are frequently incommensurable ; that is , they are competing and irreconcilable accounts of reality . Thus , our comprehension of science can never rely wholly upon `` objectivity '' alone . Science must account for subjective perspectives as well , since all objective conclusions are ultimately founded upon the subjective conditioning/worldview of its researchers and participants ."}
{"_id": "Three_Mile_Island_accident", "title": "Three Mile Island accident", "headings": "", "text": "The Three Mile Island accident was caused by a nuclear meltdown that occurred on March 28 , 1979 , in reactor number 2 of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station ( TMI-2 ) in Dauphin County , Pennsylvania , United States . It was the most significant accident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history . The incident was rated a five on the seven-point International Nuclear Event Scale : Accident With Wider Consequences .   The accident began with failures in the non-nuclear secondary system , followed by a stuck-open pilot-operated relief valve in the primary system , which allowed large amounts of nuclear reactor coolant to escape . The mechanical failures were compounded by the initial failure of plant operators to recognize the situation as a loss-of-coolant accident due to inadequate training and human factors , such as human-computer interaction design oversights relating to ambiguous control room indicators in the power plant 's user interface . In particular , a hidden indicator light led to an operator manually overriding the automatic emergency cooling system of the reactor because the operator mistakenly believed that there was too much coolant water present in the reactor and causing the steam pressure release .   The accident crystallized anti-nuclear safety concerns among activists and the general public , resulted in new regulations for the nuclear industry , and has been cited as a contributor to the decline of a new reactor construction program that was already underway in the 1970s . The partial meltdown resulted in the release of radioactive gases and radioactive iodine into the environment . Worries were expressed by anti-nuclear movement activists ; however , epidemiological studies analyzing the rate of cancer in and around the area since the accident , determined there was a small statistically non-significant increase in the rate and thus no causal connection linking the accident with these cancers has been substantiated . Cleanup started in August 1979 , and officially ended in December 1993 , with a total cleanup cost of about $ 1 billion ."}
{"_id": "Thunderstorm", "title": "Thunderstorm", "headings": "", "text": "A thunderstorm , also known as an electrical storm , lightning storm , or thundershower , is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth 's atmosphere , known as thunder . Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus . They are usually accompanied by strong winds , heavy rain , and sometimes snow , sleet , hail , or , in contrast , no precipitation at all . Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband , known as a squall line . Strong or severe thunderstorms , known as supercells , rotate as do cyclones . While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy , vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction .   Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm , moist air , sometimes along a front . As the warm , moist air moves upward , it cools , condenses , and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 km . As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature , water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice , reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell . Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth 's surface . As the droplets fall , they collide with other droplets and become larger . The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it , and this cold air spreads out at the Earth 's surface , occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms .   Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the mid-latitude , where warm , moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes . Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena . Thunderstorms , and the phenomena that occur along with them , pose great hazards . Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds , large hailstones , and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation . Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts .   There are four types of thunderstorms : single-cell , multi-cell cluster , multi-cell lines , and supercells . Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and the most associated with severe weather phenomena . Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes . Dry thunderstorms , with no precipitation , can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud-to-ground lightning that accompanies them . Several means are used to study thunderstorms : weather radar , weather stations , and video photography . Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century . Beyond the Earth 's atmosphere , thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and , probably , Venus ."}
{"_id": "Tibetan_calendar", "title": "Tibetan calendar", "headings": "", "text": "The Tibetan calendar is a lunisolar calendar , that is , the Tibetan year is composed of either 12 or 13 lunar months , each beginning and ending with a new moon . A thirteenth month is added every two or three years , so that an average Tibetan year is equal to the solar year .   The Tibetan New Year celebration is Losar . According to almanacs the year starts with the third Hor month . There were many different traditions in Tibet to fix the beginning of the year . The dates of Mongolian calendar are all the same with it ."}
{"_id": "Tide", "title": "Tide", "headings": "", "text": "Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth .   The times and amplitude of tides at any given locale are influenced by the alignment of the Sun and Moon , by the pattern of tides in the deep ocean , by the amphidromic systems of the oceans , and the shape of the coastline and near-shore bathymetry ( see Timing ) . Some shorelines experience a semi-diurnal tide -- two nearly equal high and low tides each day . Other locations experience a diurnal tide -- only one high and low tide each day . A `` mixed tide '' -- two uneven tides a day , or one high and one low -- is also possible .   Tides vary on timescales ranging from hours to years due to a number of factors . To make accurate records , tide gauges at fixed stations measure water level over time . Gauges ignore variations caused by waves with periods shorter than minutes . These data are compared to the reference ( or datum ) level usually called mean sea level .   While tides are usually the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations , sea levels are also subject to forces such as wind and barometric pressure changes , resulting in storm surges , especially in shallow seas and near coasts .   Tidal phenomena are not limited to the oceans , but can occur in other systems whenever a gravitational field that varies in time and space is present . For example , the solid part of the Earth is affected by tides , though this is not as easily seen as the water tidal movements ."}
{"_id": "Tide_gauge", "title": "Tide gauge", "headings": "", "text": "A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum .   Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer .   Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data .   Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis .  The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected .   A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful ."}
{"_id": "Tide_pool", "title": "Tide pool", "headings": "", "text": "Tide pools , or rock pools , are rocky pools on the sea shore which are filled with seawater . Many of these pools exist as separate pools only at low tide .   Many tide pools are habitats of especially adaptable animals that have engaged the attention of naturalists and marine biologists , as well as philosophical essayists : John Steinbeck wrote in The Log from the Sea of Cortez , `` It is advisable to look from the tide pool to the stars and then back to the tide pool . ''"}
{"_id": "Tincture_(heraldry)", "title": "Tincture (heraldry)", "headings": "", "text": "Tinctures constitute the limited palette of colours and patterns used in heraldry . The use of these tinctures dates back to the formative period of European heraldry , in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries , but the range of tinctures and the manner of depicting and describing them has evolved over time , as new variations and practices have developed . The need to define , depict , and correctly blazon the various tinctures is therefore one of the most important aspects of heraldic art and design ."}
{"_id": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "title": "Tipping points in the climate system", "headings": "", "text": "A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible."}
{"_id": "Titan_(moon)", "title": "Titan (moon)", "headings": "", "text": "Titan is the largest moon of Saturn . It is the only moon known to have a dense atmosphere , and the only object in space other than Earth where clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found .   Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn . Frequently described as a planet-like moon , Titan is 50 % larger than Earth 's Moon , and it is 80 % more massive . It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System , after Jupiter 's moon Ganymede , and is larger than the smallest planet , Mercury , but only 40 % as massive . Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens , Titan was the first known moon of Saturn , and the sixth known planetary satellite ( after Earth 's Moon and the four Galilean moons of Jupiter ) . Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii . From Titan 's surface , Saturn subtends an arc of 5.09 degrees and would appear 11.4 times larger in the sky than the Moon from Earth .   Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material . Much as with Venus before the Space Age , the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan 's surface until new information from the Cassini -- Huygens mission in 2004 , including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan 's polar regions . The geologically young surface is generally smooth , with few impact craters , although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found .   The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen ; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen-rich organic smog . The climate -- including wind and rain -- creates surface features similar to those of Earth , such as dunes , rivers , lakes , seas ( probably of liquid methane and ethane ) , and deltas , and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth . With its liquids ( both surface and subsurface ) and robust nitrogen atmosphere , Titan 's methane cycle is analogous to Earth 's water cycle , at the much lower temperature of about 94 K."}
{"_id": "Tony_Abbott", "title": "Tony Abbott", "headings": "", "text": "Anthony John `` Tony '' Abbott ( born 4 November 1957 ) is an Australian politician who was the 28th Prime Minister of Australia , from 18 September 2013 to 15 September 2015 . Abbott was leader of the Liberal Party of Australia from 2009 to 2015 , and has been a member of parliament for Warringah since 1994 .   Abbott was born in London , to an Australian mother and a British father , and emigrated to Sydney , Australia , with his parents in 1960 . Prior to entering Parliament , Abbott took the degrees of Bachelor of Economics and Bachelor of Laws at the University of Sydney , then attended The Queen 's College , Oxford , as a Rhodes Scholar , graduating as a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy , Politics and Economics . He later proceeded by seniority to Master of Arts .   After graduating from Oxford , Abbott trained as a Roman Catholic seminarian , and later worked as a journalist , a manager , and a political adviser . In 1992 , he was appointed Director of Australians for Constitutional Monarchy , a position he held until his election to Parliament in 1994 . Abbott was first appointed to Cabinet following the 1998 election , as part of the Second Howard Ministry , becoming Minister for Employment , Workplace Relations and Small Business .   In 2003 , Abbott became Minister for Health and Ageing , retaining this position until the defeat of the Howard Government at the 2007 election . Initially serving in the Shadow Cabinets of Brendan Nelson and then Malcolm Turnbull , Abbott resigned from the front bench in November 2009 , in protest against Turnbull 's support for the Rudd Government 's proposed Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . Forcing a leadership ballot on the subject , Abbott defeated Turnbull by 42 votes to 41 , to become the Party 's leader and Leader of the Opposition .   Abbott led the Coalition at the 2010 election , which resulted in a hung parliament . Following negotiations , Labor formed a Government , with the support of one Greens MP and three Independent MPs . Abbott was re-elected as Liberal Leader unopposed . Abbott went on to lead the Coalition to victory in the 2013 election and was sworn in as the 28th Prime Minister of Australia on 18 September 2013 . On 14 September 2015 , Abbott was defeated in a vote for the Liberal leadership ( 54 votes to 44 ) by Malcolm Turnbull , who replaced Abbott as Prime Minister the following day ."}
{"_id": "Toy_Story", "title": "Toy Story", "headings": "", "text": "Toy Story is a 1995 American computer-animated buddy comedy adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . The directorial debut of John Lasseter , Toy Story was the first feature-length computer-animated film and the first theatrical film produced by Pixar .   Taking place in a world where anthropomorphic toys pretend to be lifeless whenever humans are present , the film 's plot focuses on the relationship between Woody , an old-fashioned pullstring cowboy doll ( voiced by Tom Hanks ) , and Buzz Lightyear , an astronaut action figure ( voiced by Tim Allen ) , as they evolve from rivals competing for the affections of Andy , their owner , to friends who work together to be reunited with Andy as his family prepares to move to a new home . The screenplay was written by Joss Whedon , Andrew Stanton , Joel Cohen and Alec Sokolow , based on a story by Lasseter , Pete Docter , Stanton and Joe Ranft . The film features music by Randy Newman , and was executive-produced by Steve Jobs and Edwin Catmull .   Pixar , which produced short animated films to promote their computers , was approached by Disney to produce a computer-animated feature after the success of their short film Tin Toy ( 1988 ) , which is told from a small toy 's perspective . Lasseter , Stanton and Docter wrote early story treatments which were thrown out by Disney , as they wanted the film to be edgier . After disastrous story reels , production was halted and the script was re-written , better reflecting the tone and theme Pixar desired : that `` toys deeply want children to play with them , and that this desire drives their hopes , fears , and actions '' . The studio , then consisting of a relatively small number of employees , produced the film under minor financial constraints .   Released in theaters on November 22 , 1995 , Toy Story was the highest-grossing film on its opening weekend and earned over $ 373 million worldwide . The film was widely acclaimed by critics , who praised the animation 's technical innovation , the wit and thematic sophistication of the screenplay , and the performances of Hanks and Allen . It is now considered by many critics to be one of the best animated films ever made . The film received three Academy Award nominations , including Best Original Screenplay , Best Original Score , and Best Original Song for `` You 've Got a Friend in Me '' , as well as winning a Special Achievement Academy Award . It was inducted into the National Film Registry as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' in 2005 , its first year of eligibility .   In addition to home media releases and theatrical re-releases , Toy Story-inspired material has run the gamut from toys , video games , theme park attractions , spin-offs , merchandise , and two sequels -- Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) and Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) -- both of which also garnered massive commercial success and critical acclaim , with a third sequel , Toy Story 4 , slated for a 2019 release ."}
{"_id": "Triage", "title": "Triage", "headings": "", "text": "Triage ( -LSB- ˈtriːɑːʒ -RSB- or / -LSB- triːˈɑːʒ -RSB- / ) is the process of determining the priority of patients ' treatments based on the severity of their condition . This rations patient treatment efficiently when resources are insufficient for all to be treated immediately . The term comes from the French verb trier , meaning to separate , sift or select . Triage may result in determining the order and priority of emergency treatment , the order and priority of emergency transport , or the transport destination for the patient .   Triage may also be used for patients arriving at the emergency department , or telephoning medical advice systems , among others . This article deals with the concept of triage as it occurs in medical emergencies , including the prehospital setting , disasters , and emergency room treatment .   The term triage may have originated during the Napoleonic Wars from the work of Dominique Jean Larrey . The term was used further during World War I by French doctors treating the battlefield wounded at the aid stations behind the front . Those responsible for the removal of the wounded from a battlefield or their care afterwards would divide the victims into three categories :  Those who are likely to live , regardless of what care they receive ;  Those who are unlikely to live , regardless of what care they receive ;  Those for whom immediate care might make a positive difference in outcome .   For many emergency medical services ( EMS ) systems , a similar model may sometimes still be applied . In the earliest stages of an incident , such as when one or two paramedics exist to twenty or more patients , practicality demands that the above , more `` primitive '' model will be used . However once a full response has occurred and many hands are available , paramedics will usually use the model included in their service policy and standing orders .   As medical technology has advanced , so have modern approaches to triage , which are increasingly based on scientific models . The categorizations of the victims are frequently the result of triage scores based on specific physiological assessment findings . Some models , such as the START model may be algorithm-based . As triage concepts become more sophisticated , triage guidance is also evolving into both software and hardware decision support products for use by caregivers in both hospitals and the field ."}
{"_id": "Triassic", "title": "Triassic", "headings": "", "text": "The Triassic ( -LSB- prontraɪˈæsɪk -RSB- ) is a geologic period and system which spans 50.9 million years from the end of the Permian Period million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Jurassic Period Mya . The Triassic is the first period of the Mesozoic Era . Both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events .   The Triassic began in the wake of the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , which left the earth 's biosphere impoverished ; it would take well into the middle of this period for life to recover its former diversity . Therapsids and archosaurs were the chief terrestrial vertebrates during this time . A specialized subgroup of archosaurs , called dinosaurs , first appeared in the Late Triassic but did not become dominant until the succeeding Jurassic Period .   The first true mammals , themselves a specialized subgroup of Therapsids , also evolved during this period , as well as the first flying vertebrates , the pterosaurs , who like the dinosaurs were a specialized subgroup of archosaurs . The vast supercontinent of Pangaea existed until the mid-Triassic , after which it began to gradually rift into two separate landmasses , Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south .   The global climate during the Triassic was mostly hot and dry , with deserts spanning much of Pangaea 's interior . However , the climate shifted and became more humid as Pangaea began to drift apart . The end of the period was marked by yet another major mass extinction , the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event , that wiped out many groups and allowed dinosaurs to assume dominance in the Jurassic .   The Triassic was named in 1834 by Friedrich von Alberti , after the three distinct rock layers ( tri meaning `` three '' ) that are found throughout Germany and northwestern Europe -- red beds , capped by marine limestone , followed by a series of terrestrial mud - and sandstones -- called the `` Trias '' ."}
{"_id": "Triassic–Jurassic_extinction_event", "title": "Triassic–Jurassic extinction event", "headings": "", "text": "The Triassic -- Jurassic extinction event marks the boundary between the Triassic and Jurassic periods , , and is one of the major extinction events of the Phanerozoic eon , profoundly affecting life on land and in the oceans . In the seas , a whole class ( conodonts ) and 34 % of marine genera disappeared . On land , all archosaurs other than crocodylomorphs ( Sphenosuchia and Crocodyliformes ) and Avemetatarsalia ( pterosaurs and dinosaurs ) , some remaining therapsids , and many of the large amphibians became extinct ."}
{"_id": "Triton_(moon)", "title": "Triton (moon)", "headings": "", "text": "Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune . It was discovered on October 10 , 1846 , by English astronomer William Lassell . It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit , an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet 's rotation . At 2700 km in diameter , it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System . Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto 's , Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt . Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen , a mostly water-ice crust , an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal . The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass . Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm3 and is composed of approximately 15 -- 35 % water ice .   Triton is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to be geologically active ( the others being Jupiter 's Io and Saturn 's Enceladus ) . As a consequence , its surface is relatively young with sparse impact craters , and a complex geological history revealed in intricate cryovolcanic and tectonic terrains . Part of its surface has geysers erupting sublimated nitrogen gas , contributing to a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere less than 1/70 ,000 the pressure of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level ."}
{"_id": "Trophic_cascade", "title": "Trophic cascade", "headings": "", "text": "Trophic cascades occur when predators in a food web suppress the abundance or alter the behavior of their prey , thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation ( or herbivory if the intermediate trophic level is a herbivore ) . For example , if the abundance of large piscivorous fish is increased in a lake , the abundance of their prey , smaller fish that eat zooplankton , should decrease . The resulting increase in zooplankton should , in turn , cause the biomass of its prey , phytoplankton , to decrease .   The trophic cascade is an ecological concept which has stimulated new research in many areas of ecology . For example , it can be important for understanding the knock-on effects of removing top predators from food webs , as humans have done in many places through hunting and fishing .   A top-down cascade is a trophic cascade where the food chain or food web is disrupted by the removal of a top predator , or a third or fourth level consumer . On the other hand , a bottom-up cascade occurs when a primary producer , or primary consumer is removed , and there is a reduction of population size through the community ."}
{"_id": "Tropical_cyclone", "title": "Tropical cyclone", "headings": "", "text": "A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center , a closed low-level atmospheric circulation , strong winds , and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain . Depending on its location and strength , a tropical cyclone is referred to by names such as hurricane ( -LSB- ˈhʌrᵻkən -RSB- or -LSB- ˈhʌrᵻkeɪn -RSB- ) , typhoon -LSB- taɪ ` fuːn -RSB- , tropical storm , cyclonic storm , tropical depression , and simply cyclone . A hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean and northeastern Pacific Ocean , a typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , and a cyclone occurs in the south Pacific or Indian Ocean .   Tropical cyclones typically form over large bodies of relatively warm water . They derive their energy through the evaporation of water from the ocean surface , which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain when moist air rises and cools to saturation . This energy source differs from that of mid-latitude cyclonic storms , such as nor'easter s and European windstorms , which are fueled primarily by horizontal temperature contrasts . The strong rotating winds of a tropical cyclone are a result of the conservation of angular momentum imparted by the Earth 's rotation as air flows inwards toward the axis of rotation . As a result , they rarely form within 5 ° of the equator . Tropical cyclones are typically between 100 and in diameter .   Tropical refers to the geographical origin of these systems , which form almost exclusively over tropical seas . Cyclone refers to their cyclonic nature , with wind blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere . The opposite direction of circulation is due to the Coriolis effect .   In addition to strong winds and rain , tropical cyclones are capable of generating high waves , damaging storm surge , and tornadoes . They typically weaken rapidly over land where they are cut off from their primary energy source . For this reason , coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to damage from a tropical cyclone as compared to inland regions . Heavy rains , however , can cause significant flooding inland , and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 km from the coastline . Though their effects on human populations are often devastating , tropical cyclones can relieve drought conditions . They also carry heat energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes , which may play an important role in modulating regional and global climate ."}
{"_id": "Tropical_monsoon_climate", "title": "Tropical monsoon climate", "headings": "", "text": "A Tropical monsoon climate , occasionally known as a tropical wet climate or a tropical monsoon and trade-wind littoral climate , is a type of climate that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification category `` Am '' .   Tropical monsoon climates have monthly mean temperatures above 18 ° C in every month of the year and feature wet and dry seasons , as Tropical savanna climates do . Tropical monsoon climates however features its driest month seeing on average less than 60 mm but more than 100 -- -LSB- total annual precipitation -LCB- mm -RCB- / 25 -RSB- of precipitation . This latter fact is in direct contrast to a tropical savanna climate , whose driest month sees less than 60 mm of precipitation and also less than 100 -- -LSB- total annual precipitation -LCB- mm -RCB- / 25 -RSB- of precipitation . In essence , a tropical monsoon climate tends to either see more rainfall than a tropical savanna climate or have less pronounced dry seasons . Additionally , a tropical monsoon climate tends to see less variance in temperatures during the course of the year than a tropical savanna climate . This climate has a driest month which nearly always occurs at or soon after the `` winter '' solstice for that side of the equator ."}
{"_id": "Tropical_rainforest", "title": "Tropical rainforest", "headings": "", "text": "Tropical rainforests occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season -- all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm -- and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest . True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator ( see map ) ; they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28 degree latitudes ( in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn ) . Within the World Wildlife Fund 's biome classification , tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest ( or tropical wet forest ) that also includes the more extensive tropical seasonal forests ."}
{"_id": "Tropical_savanna_climate", "title": "Tropical savanna climate", "headings": "", "text": "Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a type of climate that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories `` Aw '' and `` As '' .  Tropical savanna climates have monthly mean temperatures above 18 ° C in every month of the year and typically a pronounced dry season , with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm and also less than 100 -- -LSB- total annual precipitation -LCB- mm -RCB- / 25 -RSB- of precipitation . This latter fact is in direct contrast to a tropical monsoon climate , whose driest month sees less than 60 mm of precipitation but has more than 100 -- -LSB- total annual precipitation -LCB- mm -RCB- / 25 -RSB- of precipitation . In essence , a tropical savanna climate tends to either see less rainfall than a tropical monsoon climate or have more pronounced dry seasons .   There are generally four types of tropical savanna climate :   1 . Distinct wet and dry seasons of relatively equal duration . Most of the region 's annual rainfall is experienced during the wet season and very little precipitation falls during the dry season .  2 . A lengthy dry season and a relatively short wet season . This version features seven or more dry season months and five or less wet season months . There are variations within this version :  On one extreme , the region receives just enough precipitation during the short wet season to preclude it from a semi-arid climate classification . This drier variation of the tropical savanna climate is typically found adjacent to regions with semi-arid climates .  On the other extreme , the climate features a lengthy dry season followed by a short but extremely rainy wet season . However , regions with this variation of the climate do not experience enough rainfall during the wet season to qualify as a tropical monsoon climate .  3 . A lengthy wet season and a relatively short dry season . This version features seven or more wet season months and five or less dry season months . This version 's precipitation pattern is similar to precipitation patterns observed in some tropical monsoon climates , but does not experience enough rainfall during the wet season to be classified as such .  4 . A dry season with a noticeable amount of rainfall followed by a rainy wet season . In essence , this version mimics the precipitation patterns more commonly found in a tropical monsoon climate , but do not receive enough precipitation during either the dry season or the year to be classified as such ."}
{"_id": "Tropical_year", "title": "Tropical year", "headings": "", "text": "A tropical year ( also known as a solar year ) , for general purposes , is the time that the Sun takes to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons , as seen from Earth ; for example , the time from vernal equinox to vernal equinox , or from summer solstice to summer solstice . Because of the precession of the equinoxes , the seasonal cycle does not remain exactly synchronized with the position of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun . As a consequence , the tropical year is about 20 minutes shorter than the time it takes Earth to complete one full orbit around the Sun as measured with respect to the fixed stars ( the sidereal year ) .   Since antiquity , astronomers have progressively refined the definition of the tropical year . The entry for `` year , tropical '' in the Astronomical Almanac Online Glossary 2015 states :   the period of time for the ecliptic longitude of the Sun to increase 360 degrees . Since the Sun 's ecliptic longitude is measured with respect to the equinox , the tropical year comprises a complete cycle of seasons , and its length is approximated in the long term by the civil ( Gregorian ) calendar . The mean tropical year is approximately 365 days , 5 hours , 48 minutes , 45 seconds .   An equivalent , more descriptive , definition is `` The natural basis for computing passing tropical years is the mean longitude of the Sun reckoned from the precessionally moving equinox ( the dynamical equinox or equinox of date ) . Whenever the longitude reaches a multiple of 360 degrees the mean Sun crosses the vernal equinox and a new tropical year begins '' . ( Borkowski 1991 , p. 122 )   The mean tropical year in 2000 was 365.24219 ephemeris days ; each ephemeris day lasting 86,400 SI seconds . This is 365.24217 mean solar days . ( Richards , 2013 , p. 587 )"}
{"_id": "Tropics", "title": "Tropics", "headings": "", "text": "The tropics are a region of the Earth surrounding the equator . They are delimited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in  the Southern Hemisphere at S ; these latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the Earth . The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone ( see geographical zone ) . The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun is at a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year ( which is a subsolar point ) .   The tropics are distinguished from the other climatic and biomatic regions of Earth , which are the middle latitudes and the polar regions on either side of the equatorial zone ."}
{"_id": "Troposphere", "title": "Troposphere", "headings": "", "text": "The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness .   The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere ."}
{"_id": "Tsunami", "title": "Tsunami", "headings": "", "text": "A tsunami ( from 津波 , `` harbour wave '' ;  English pronunciation : -LSB- tsuːˈnɑːmi -RSB- ) or tidal wave , also known as a seismic sea wave , is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water , generally in an ocean or a large lake . Earthquakes , volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions ( including detonations of underwater nuclear devices ) , landslides , glacier calvings , meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami . Unlike normal ocean waves which are generated by wind , or tides which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun , a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water .   Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves , because their wavelength is far longer . Rather than appearing as a breaking wave , a tsunami may instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide , and for this reason they are often referred to as tidal waves , although this usage is not favoured by the scientific community because tsunamis are not tidal in nature . Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves with periods ranging from minutes to hours , arriving in a so-called `` internal wave train '' . Wave heights of tens of metres can be generated by large events . Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas , their destructive power can be enormous and they can affect entire ocean basins ; the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human history with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the Indian Ocean .   Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his late-5th century BC History of the Peloponnesian War , that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes , but the understanding of a tsunami 's nature remained slim until the 20th century and much remains unknown . Major areas of current research include trying to determine why some large earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do ; trying to accurately forecast the passage of tsunamis across the oceans ; and also to forecast how tsunami waves interact with specific shorelines ."}
{"_id": "Tucson,_Arizona", "title": "Tucson, Arizona", "headings": "", "text": "Tucson ( -LSB- ˈtuːsɒn -RSB- -LSB- tuːˈsɒn -RSB- ) is a city and the county seat of Pima County , Arizona , United States , and home to the University of Arizona . The 2010 United States Census put the population at 520,116 , while the 2015 estimated population of the entire Tucson metropolitan statistical area ( MSA ) was 980,263 . The Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area ( CSA ) , with a total population of 1,010,025 as of the 2010 Census . Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix , both of which anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor . The city is located 108 mi southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi north of the U.S. -- Mexico border . Tucson is the 33rd largest city and the 53rd largest metropolitan area in the United States .   Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city , Sahuarita south of the city , and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown . Communities in the vicinity of Tucson ( some within or overlapping the city limits ) include Casas Adobes , Catalina Foothills , Flowing Wells , Midvale Park , Tanque Verde , Tortolita , and Vail . Towns outside the Tucson metro area include Benson to the southeast , Catalina and Oracle to the north , and Green Valley to the south .   The Spanish name of the city , Tucsón -LSB- tukˈson -RSB- , is derived from the O'odham Cuk Ṣon -LSB- - azctʃʊk ʂɔːn -RSB- , meaning '' ( at the ) base of the black -LSB- hill -RSB- '' , a reference to a basalt-covered hill now known as Sentinel Peak , also known as `` A '' Mountain . Tucson is sometimes referred to as `` The Old Pueblo '' ."}
{"_id": "Tundra", "title": "Tundra", "headings": "", "text": "In physical geography , tundra is a type of biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons . The term tundra comes through Russian тундра ( tûndra ) from the Kildin Sami word tūndâr `` uplands '' , `` treeless mountain tract '' . There are three types of tundra : Arctic tundra , alpine tundra , and Antarctic tundra . In tundra , the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs , sedges and grasses , mosses , and lichens . Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions . The ecotone ( or ecological boundary region ) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline ."}
{"_id": "Tuvalu", "title": "Tuvalu", "headings": "", "text": "Tuvalu ( -LSB- tᵿˈvɑːlu -RSB- or -LSB- ˈtuːvəˌluː -RSB- ) , formerly known as the Ellice Islands , is a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean , about midway between Hawaii and Australia , lying east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands ( belonging to the Solomons ) , southeast of Nauru , south of Kiribati , west of Tokelau , northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna and north of Fiji . It comprises three reef islands and six true atolls spread out between the latitude of 5 ° to 10 ° south and longitude of 176 ° to 180 ° , west of the International Date Line . Tuvalu has a population of 10,640 ( 2012 census ) . The total land area of the islands of Tuvalu is 26 km2 .   The first inhabitants of Tuvalu were Polynesians . The pattern of settlement that is believed to have occurred is that the Polynesians spread out from Samoa and Tonga into the Tuvaluan atolls , with Tuvalu providing a stepping stone to migration into the Polynesian Outlier communities in Melanesia and Micronesia .   In 1568 , Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to sail through the archipelago , sighting the island of Nui during his expedition in search of Terra Australis . In 1819 the island of Funafuti was named Ellice 's Island ; the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands after the work of English hydrographer Alexander George Findlay . The islands came under Britain 's sphere of influence in the late 19th century , when each of the Ellice Islands was declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson of between 9 and 16 October 1892 . The Ellice Islands were administered as British protectorate by a Resident Commissioner from 1892 to 1916 as part of the British Western Pacific Territories ( BWPT ) , and then as part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony from 1916 to 1974 .   A referendum was held in December 1974 to determine whether the Gilbert Islands and Ellice Islands should each have their own administration . As a consequence of the referendum , the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony ceased to exist on 1 January 1976 and the separate British colonies of Kiribati and Tuvalu came into existence . Tuvalu became fully independent within the Commonwealth on 1 October 1978 . On 5 September 2000 Tuvalu became the 189th member of the United Nations ."}
{"_id": "Twitter", "title": "Twitter", "headings": "", "text": "Twitter ( -LSB- ˈtwɪtər -RSB- ) is an online news and social networking service where users post and interact with messages , `` tweets '' , restricted to 140 characters . Registered users can post tweets , but those who are unregistered can only read them . Users access Twitter through its website interface , SMS or a mobile device app . Twitter Inc. is based in San Francisco , California , United States , and has more than 25 offices around the world .   Twitter was created in March 2006 by Jack Dorsey , Noah Glass , Biz Stone , and Evan Williams and launched in July . The service rapidly gained worldwide popularity . In 2012 , more than 100 million users posted 340 million tweets a day , and the service handled an average of 1.6 billion search queries per day . In 2013 , it was one of the ten most-visited websites and has been described as `` the SMS of the Internet '' . As of 2016 , Twitter had more than 319 million monthly active users . On the day of the 2016 U.S. presidential election , Twitter proved to be the largest source of breaking news , with 40 million election-related tweets sent by 10 p.m. ( Eastern Time ) that day ."}
{"_id": "Type_I_and_type_II_errors", "title": "Type I and type II errors", "headings": "", "text": "In statistical hypothesis testing , a type I error is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis ( a `` false positive '' ) , while a type II error is incorrectly retaining a false null hypothesis ( a `` false negative '' ) . More simply stated , a type I error is detecting an effect that is not present , while a type II error is the failure to detect an effect that is present ."}
{"_id": "U.S._state_and_territory_temperature_extremes", "title": "U.S. state and territory temperature extremes", "headings": "", "text": "The following table lists the highest and lowest temperatures recorded in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and the 5 inhabited U.S. territories during the past two centuries, in both Fahrenheit and Celsius. If two dates have the same temperature record (e.g. record low of 40°F in 1911 in Aibonito and 1966 in San Sebastian in Puerto Rico), only the most recent date is shown."}
{"_id": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "title": "UAH satellite temperature dataset", "headings": "", "text": "The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance .   It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes .  The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer ."}
{"_id": "Under_the_Volcano", "title": "Under the Volcano", "headings": "", "text": "Under the Volcano is a novel by English writer Malcolm Lowry ( 1909 -- 1957 ) published in 1947 . The novel tells the story of Geoffrey Firmin , an alcoholic British consul in the small Mexican town of Quauhnahuac , on the Day of the Dead , 2 November 1938 . The book takes its name from the two volcanoes that overshadow Quauhnahuac and the characters , Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl . Under the Volcano was Lowry 's second and last complete novel .   The novel was adapted for radio on Studio One in 1947 but had gone out of print by the time Lowry died . Its popularity restored , in 1984 it served as the basis of a film of the same name . In 1998 the Modern Library ranked Under the Volcano at number 11 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century ."}
{"_id": "Underwater_diving", "title": "Underwater diving", "headings": "", "text": "Underwater diving is the practice of descending below the water 's surface to conduct underwater activities . In ambient pressure diving , the diver is exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water , and uses breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface supplied diving , or when freediving , will breath-hold . The saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness after long duration deep dives . Atmospheric diving suits may be used to isolate the diver from the effects of high ambient pressure . Although not usually considered to be diving , crewed submersibles can extend depth range , while remotely controlled or robotic diving machines can reduce the risk to human divers .   The diving environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards , and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills , training , types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode , depth and purpose of diving , it remains a relatively dangerous activity . Diving activities are restricted to relatively shallow depths ranging from around 40 m ( 130 ft. ) maximum for recreational Scuba diving to commercial saturation diving maximum around 534 metres ( 1,752 ft ) and 610 metres ( 2,000 ft ) wearing atmospheric diving suits . Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous , though the level of risk acceptable to the diver can vary considerably . Occasionally diving may be done in liquids other than water .   Recreational diving , sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics , is a popular leisure activity . Technical diving is a form of recreational diving that achieves greater depths or endurance in more challenging conditions . Professional diving ( commercial diving , diving for scientific research purposes or diving for financial gain ) takes a range of diving activities to the underwater work site . Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement , fire rescue , and search & rescue/recovery dive teams , and may be done by professionals or volunteers . Military diving includes combat diving , clearance diving and ship 's husbandry diving . Underwater sports is a group of competitive sports using either free-diving , snorkeling or scuba technique , or a combination of these techniques . The term `` deep sea diving '' refers to underwater diving , usually with surface supplied equipment , and often refers specifically to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet . `` Hard hat '' diving is any form of diving with a helmet , including the standard copper helmet , and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets ."}
{"_id": "Unemployment_in_the_United_States", "title": "Unemployment in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Unemployment in the United States discusses the causes and measures of U.S. unemployment and strategies for reducing it . Job creation and unemployment are affected by factors such as economic conditions , global competition , education , automation , and demographics . These factors can affect the number of workers , the duration of unemployment , and wage levels ."}
{"_id": "Unit_731", "title": "Unit 731", "headings": "", "text": "was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War ( 1937 -- 1945 ) of World War II . It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried out by Japan . Unit 731 was based at the Pingfang district of Harbin , the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo ( now Northeast China ) .   It was officially known as the . Originally set up under the Kempeitai military police of the Empire of Japan , Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the end of the war by General Shiro Ishii , an officer in the Kwantung Army . The facility itself was built between 1934 and 1939 and officially adopted the name `` Unit 731 '' in 1941 .   Some historians estimate that up to 250,000 men , women , and children -- from which at least 600 every year were provided by the Kempeitai -- were subjected to experimentation conducted by Unit 731 at the camp based in Pingfang alone , which does not include victims from other medical experimentation sites , such as Unit 100 .   Unit 731 veterans of Japan attest that most of the victims they experimented on were Chinese while a small percentage were Russian , Mongolian , Korean , and Allied POWs . Almost 70 % of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese , including both civilian and military . Close to 30 % of the victims were Russian . Some others were South East Asians and Pacific Islanders , at the time colonies of the Empire of Japan , and a small number of Allied prisoners of war . The unit received generous support from the Japanese government up to the end of the war in 1945 .   Instead of being tried for war crimes , the researchers involved in Unit 731 were secretly given immunity by the U.S. in exchange for the data they gathered through human experimentation . Others that Soviet forces managed to arrest first were tried at the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials in 1949 . Americans did not try the researchers so that the information and experience gained in bio-weapons could be co-opted into the U.S. biological warfare program , as had happened with Nazi researchers in Operation Paperclip . On 6 May 1947 , Douglas MacArthur , as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces , wrote to Washington that `` additional data , possibly some statements from Ishii probably can be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as ` War Crimes ' evidence . '' Victim accounts were then largely ignored or dismissed in the West as communist propaganda ."}
{"_id": "United_Kingdom", "title": "United Kingdom", "headings": "", "text": "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , commonly known as the United Kingdom ( UK ) or Britain , is a sovereign country in western Europe . Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland , the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain , the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands . Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign statethe Republic of Ireland.Although Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state , two of its Overseas Territories also share land borders with other sovereign countries . Gibraltar shares a border with Spain , while the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia share borders with the Republic of Cyprus , the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the UN buffer zone separating the two Cypriot polities . Apart from this land border , the United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , with the North Sea to its east , the English Channel to its south and the Celtic Sea to its south-south-west , giving it the 12th-longest coastline in the world . The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland . With an area of 242500 km2 , the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe . It is also the 21st-most populous country , with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants . Together , this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union ( EU ) .   The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance . The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II , who has reigned since 6 February 1952 . The capital of the United Kingdom and its largest city is London , a global city and financial centre with an urban area population of 10.3 million , the fourth-largest in Europe and second-largest in the European Union . Other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the conurbations centred on Birmingham , Leeds , Glasgow , Liverpool and Manchester . The United Kingdom consists of four countries -- England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . The last three have devolved administrations , each with varying powers , based in their capitals , Edinburgh , Cardiff and Belfast , respectively . The nearby Isle of Man , Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey are not part of the United Kingdom , being Crown dependencies with the British Government responsible for defence and international representation .   The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time . Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 . A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain , which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922 , leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.The Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed on 6 December 1921 to resolve the Irish War of Independence . When it took effect one year later , it established the Irish Free State as a separate dominion within the Commonwealth . The UK 's current name was adopted to reflect the change . There are fourteen British Overseas Territories . These are the remnants of the British Empire which , at its height in the 1920s , encompassed almost a quarter of the world 's land mass and was the largest empire in history . British influence can be observed in the language , culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies .   The United Kingdom is a developed country and has the world 's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest economy by purchasing power parity . The UK is considered to have a high-income economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index , ranking 16th in the world . It was the world 's first industrialised country and the world 's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries . The UK remains a great power with considerable economic , cultural , military , scientific and political influence internationally . It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and is seventh in military expenditure in the world . The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 . It has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor , the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , since 1973 . However , on 23 June 2016 , a national referendum on the UK 's membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave , and its exit from the EU is currently being negotiated . The UK is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations , the Council of Europe , the G7 finance ministers , the G7 forum , the G20 , NATO , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , and the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) ."}
{"_id": "United_Kingdom_enterprise_law", "title": "United Kingdom enterprise law", "headings": "", "text": "United Kingdom enterprise law concerns the ownership , regulation and potentially competition in the provision of public services , private or mutual companies in the United Kingdom ."}
{"_id": "United_Nations", "title": "United Nations", "headings": "", "text": "The United Nations ( UN ) is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation and to create and maintain international order . A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations , the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict . At its founding , the UN had 51 member states ; there are now 193 . The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan , New York City , and experiences extraterritoriality . Further main offices are situated in Geneva , Nairobi , and Vienna . The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states . Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security , promoting human rights , fostering social and economic development , protecting the environment , and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine , natural disaster , and armed conflict . The UN is the largest , most familiar , most internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organisation in the world .   The UN Charter was drafted at a conference between April -- June 1945 in San Francisco , and was signed on 26 June 1945 at the conclusion of the conference ; this charter took effect 24 October 1945 , and the UN began operation . The UN 's mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies . The organization participated in major actions in Korea and the Congo , as well as approving the creation of the state of Israel in 1947 . The organization 's membership grew significantly following widespread decolonization in the 1960s , and by the 1970s its budget for economic and social development programmes far outstripped its spending on peacekeeping . After the end of the Cold War , the UN took on major military and peacekeeping missions across the world with varying degrees of success .   The UN has six principal organs : the General Assembly ( the main deliberative assembly ) ; the Security Council ( for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security ) ; the Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ; for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development ) ; the Secretariat ( for providing studies , information , and facilities needed by the UN ) ; the International Court of Justice ( the primary judicial organ ) ; and the UN Trusteeship Council ( inactive since 1994 ) . UN System agencies include the World Bank Group , the World Health Organization , the World Food Programme , UNESCO , and UNICEF . The UN 's most prominent officer is the Secretary-General , an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017 . Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UN 's work .   The organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001 , and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize . Other evaluations of the UN 's effectiveness have been mixed . Some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development , while others have called the organization ineffective , corrupt , or biased ."}
{"_id": "United_Nations_Development_Programme", "title": "United Nations Development Programme", "headings": "", "text": "The United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ) is the United Nations ' global development network .   Headquartered in New York City , UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge , experience and resources to help people build a better life . It provides expert advice , training and grants support to developing countries , with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries .   The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly . The UNDP Administrator is the third highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General .   To accomplish the MDGs and encourage global development , UNDP focuses on poverty reduction , HIV/AIDS , democratic governance , energy and environment , social development , and crisis prevention and recovery . UNDP also encourages the protection of human rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programmes . The UNDP Human Development Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report ( since 1990 ) to measure and analyse developmental progress . In addition to a global Report , UNDP publishes regional , national , and local Human Development Reports .   UNDP is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from member nations . The organization operates in 177 countries , where it works with local governments to meet development challenges and develop local capacity . Additionally , the UNDP works internationally to help countries achieve the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) . Currently , the UNDP is one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development Agenda .   UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges . As they develop local capacity , they draw on the people of UNDP and its wide range of partners ."}
{"_id": "United_Nations_Environment_Programme", "title": "United Nations Environment Programme", "headings": "", "text": "The United Nations Environment Programme ( UN Environment ) is an agency of United Nations and coordinates its environmental activities , assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices . It was founded by Maurice Strong , its first director , as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment ( Stockholm Conference ) in June 1972 and has its headquarters in the Gigiri neighbourhood of Nairobi , Kenya . UN Environment also has six regional offices and various country offices .   UN Environment has overall responsibility for environmental problems among United Nations agencies but international talks on specialized issues , such as addressing global warming or combating desertification , are overseen by other UN organizations , like the Bonn-based Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification . UN Environment activities cover a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere , marine and terrestrial ecosystems , environmental governance and green economy . It has played a significant role in developing international environmental conventions , promoting environmental science and information and illustrating the way those can be implemented in conjunction with policy , working on the development and implementation of policy with national governments , regional institutions in conjunction with environmental non-governmental organizations ( NGOs ) . UN Environment has also been active in funding and implementing environment related development projects .   UN Environment has aided in the formulation of guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international trade in potentially harmful chemicals , transboundary air pollution , and contamination of international waterways .   The World Meteorological Organization and UN Environment established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) in 1988 . UN Environment is also one of several Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility ( GEF ) and the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol , and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group . The International Cyanide Management Code , a program of best practice for the chemical 's use at gold mining operations , was developed under UN Environment 's aegis ."}
{"_id": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "title": "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change", "headings": "", "text": "The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC .   Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership .   The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 .   One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries .   The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies ."}
{"_id": "United_Nations_Ocean_Conference", "title": "United Nations Ocean Conference", "headings": "", "text": "The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference was a United Nations conference that took place on June 5th-9th 2017 which sought to mobilize action for the conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources.The Earth's waters are said to be \"under threat as never before\", with pollution, overfishing, and the effects of climate change severely damaging the health of our oceans. For instance as oceans are warming and becoming more acidic, biodiversity is becoming reduced and changing currents will cause more frequent storms and droughts. Every year around 8 million metric tons of plastic waste leak into the ocean and make it into the circular ocean currents. This causes contamination of sediments at the sea-bottom and causes plastic waste to be embedded in the aquatic food chain. It could lead to oceans containing more plastics than fish by 2050 if nothing is done. Key habitats such as coral reefs are at risk and noise pollution are a threat to whales, dolphins, and other species. Furthermore almost 90 percent of fish stocks are overfished or fully exploited which cost more than $80 billion a year in lost revenues.UN Secretary-General António Guterres stated that decisive, coordinated global action can solve the problems created by Humanity. Peter Thomson, President of the UN General Assembly, highlighted the conference's significance, saying \"if we want a secure future for our species on this planet, we have to act now on the health of the ocean and on climate change\".The conference sought to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. Its theme is \"Our oceans, our future: partnering for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14\". It also asked governments, UN bodies, and civil society groups to make voluntary commitments for action to improve the health of the oceans with over 1,000 commitments − such as on managing protected areas − being made."}
{"_id": "United_Nations_in_popular_culture", "title": "United Nations in popular culture", "headings": "", "text": "Popular culture references to the United Nations have been made in several media , including film , books , video games , and others . In many instances , the United Nations ( or a fictional agency thereof ) will figure in a storyline . In the case of science fiction , for example , the humans are united under one government that is descended directly from the UN ."}
{"_id": "United_States", "title": "United States", "headings": "", "text": "The United States of America ( USA ) , commonly known as the United States ( U.S. ) or America , is a constitutional federal republic composed of 50 states , a federal district , five major self-governing territories , and various possessions .  Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico . The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America , bordered by Canada to the east and across the Bering Strait from Russia to the west . The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean . The U.S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea . Nine time zones are covered . The geography , climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse .   At 3.8 million square miles ( 9.8 million km2 ) and with over 324 million people , the United States is the world 's third - or fourth-largest country by total area , third-largest by land area , and the third-most populous . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , and is home to the world 's largest immigrant population . The capital is Washington , D.C. , and the largest city is New York City ; nine other major metropolitan areas -- each with at least 4.5 million inhabitants and the largest having more than 13 million people -- are Los Angeles , Chicago , Dallas , Houston , Philadelphia , Miami , Atlanta , Boston , and San Francisco .   Paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago . European colonization began in the 16th century . The United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast . Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the colonies following the Seven Years ' War led to the American Revolution , which began in 1775 . On July 4 , 1776 , during the course of the American Revolutionary War , the colonies unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence . The war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain , representing the first successful war of independence against a European power . The current constitution was adopted in 1788 , after the Articles of Confederation , adopted in 1781 , were felt to have provided inadequate federal powers . The first ten amendments , collectively named the Bill of Rights , were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties .   The United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century , displacing Native American tribes , acquiring new territories , and gradually admitting new states until it spanned the continent by 1848 . During the second half of the 19th century , the American Civil War led to the end of legal slavery in the country . By the end of that century , the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean , and its economy , driven in large part by the Industrial Revolution , began to soar . The Spanish -- American War and confirmed the country 's status as a global military power . The United States emerged from as a global superpower , the first country to develop nuclear weapons , the only country to use them in warfare , and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council . The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the world 's sole superpower . The U.S. is a founding member of the United Nations , World Bank , International Monetary Fund , Organization of American States ( OAS ) , and other international organizations .   The United States is a highly developed country , with the world 's largest economy by nominal GDP and second-largest economy by PPP . Though its population is only 4.3 % of the world total , Americans hold nearly 40 % of the total wealth in the world . The United States ranks among the highest in several measures of socioeconomic performance , including average wage , human development , per capita GDP , and productivity per person . While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial , characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy , the manufacturing sector remains the second-largest in the world . Accounting for approximately a quarter of global GDP and a third of global military spending , the United States is the world 's foremost economic and military power . The United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally , and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations ."}
{"_id": "United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security", "title": "United States Department of Homeland Security", "headings": "", "text": "The United States Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) is a cabinet department of the United States federal government with responsibilities in public security , roughly comparable to the interior or home ministries of other countries . Its stated missions involve anti-terrorism , border security , immigration and customs , cyber security , and disaster prevention and management . It was created in response to the September 11 attacks .   In fiscal year 2017 , it was allocated a net discretionary budget of $ 40.6 billion . With more than 240,000 employees , DHS is the third largest Cabinet department , after the Departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs . Homeland security policy is coordinated at the White House by the Homeland Security Council . Other agencies with significant homeland security responsibilities include the Departments of Health and Human Services , Justice , and Energy .   __ TOC __"}
{"_id": "United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency", "title": "United States Environmental Protection Agency", "headings": "", "text": "The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA or sometimes USEPA ) is an agency of the Federal government of the United States which was created for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress . President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA and it began operation on December 2 , 1970 , after Nixon signed an executive order . The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House and Senate . The agency is led by its Administrator , who is appointed by the President and approved by Congress . The current Administrator is Scott Pruitt . The EPA is not a Cabinet department , but the Administrator is normally given cabinet rank .   The EPA has its headquarters in Washington , D.C. , regional offices for each of the agency 's ten regions , and 27 laboratories . The agency conducts environmental assessment , research , and education . It has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws , in consultation with state , tribal , and local governments . It delegates some permitting , monitoring , and enforcement responsibility to U.S. states and the federally recognized tribes . EPA enforcement powers include fines , sanctions , and other measures . The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a wide variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy conservation efforts .   In 2016 , the agency had 15,376 full-time employees . More than half of EPA 's employees are engineers , scientists , and environmental protection specialists ; other employees include legal , public affairs , financial , and information technologists . In 2017 the Trump administration proposed a 31 % cut to the EPA 's budget to $ 5.7 billion from $ 8.1 billion and to eliminate a quarter of the agency jobs ."}
{"_id": "United_States_Forest_Service", "title": "United States Forest Service", "headings": "", "text": "The United States Forest Service ( USFS ) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture that administers the nation 's 154 national forests and 20 national grasslands , which encompass 193 e6acre . Major divisions of the agency include the National Forest System , State and Private Forestry , Business Operations , and the Research and Development branch . Managing approximately 25 % of federal lands , it is the only major national land agency that is outside the U.S. Department of the Interior ."}
{"_id": "United_States_federal_budget", "title": "United States federal budget", "headings": "", "text": "The United States federal budget comprises the spending and revenues of the US federal government . The budget is the financial representation of the priorities of the government , reflecting historical debates and competing economic philosophies . The government primarily spends on healthcare , retirement , and defense programs . The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office provides extensive analysis of the budget and its economic effects . It has reported that the U.S. is facing a series of long-term financial challenges , as the country ages and healthcare costs continue growing faster than the economy ."}
{"_id": "United_States_labor_law", "title": "United States labor law", "headings": "", "text": "United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees , labor unions , and employers in the United States . Labor law 's basic aim is to remedy the `` inequality of bargaining power '' between employees and employers , especially employers `` organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association '' . Over the 20th century , federal law created a series of minimum social and economic rights , and encouraged state laws to go beyond the minimum to favor employees . The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 requires a federal minimum wage , currently $ 7.25 but higher in 28 states , and discourages unhealthy working weeks over 40 hours through time-and-a-half overtime pay . Unlike every other democratic country , there are no federal or state laws requiring paid holidays or paid family leave : the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 creates a limited right to 12 weeks of unpaid leave in larger employers . There is no automatic right to an occupational pension beyond federally guaranteed social security , but the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 requires standards of prudent management and good governance if employers agree to provide pensions , health plans or other benefits . The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employees have a safe system of work . A contract of employment can always improve standards beyond the minimum statutory rights . To get fair terms beyond the statutory minimum , and improve upon individual contracts , employees must organize a labor union for collective bargaining . The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 creates rights for most employees to organize a labor union , without any detriment through unfair labor practices . Under the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 , labor union governance follows democratic principles . In any workplace where a majority of employees support a union , employing entities have a duty to bargain in good faith . Unions can take collective action to defend their interests , including withdrawing their labor on strike . There are not yet general rights to directly participate in enterprise governance , but many employees and unions have experimented with securing representation on corporate boards .   Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat employees equally , without discrimination based on `` race , color , religion , sex , or national origin . '' There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963 . Additional groups with `` protected status '' were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . There is no federal law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination , but 22 states had passed laws by 2016 . These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring , terms of employment , and make discharge because of a protected characteristic unlawful . There is not a federal law against unjust discharge , and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment . Job security rights in the US are not weaker than in all other industrialized countries . On the other hand , collective agreements made by labor unions and many individual contracts often require people are only discharged for a `` just cause '' . The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs . Federal law has sought to reach full employment through monetary policy and spending on infrastructure . Trade policy has increasingly attempted to put labor rights in international agreements , to ensure that open markets in a global economy do not lead to more unemployment in the United States of America ."}
{"_id": "United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Paris_Agreement", "title": "United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement", "headings": "", "text": "On June 1, 2017, United States President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation, and begin negotiations to re-enter the agreement \"on terms that are fair to the United States, its businesses, its workers, its people, its taxpayers,\" or form a new agreement. In withdrawing from the agreement, Trump stated that \"The Paris accord will undermine (the U.S.) economy,\" and \"puts (the U.S.) at a permanent disadvantage.\" Trump stated that the withdrawal would be in accordance with his America First policy. In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, a country cannot give notice of withdrawal from the agreement before three years of its start date in the relevant country, which was on November 4, 2016 in the case of the United States. The White House later clarified that the U.S. will abide by the four-year exit process. On November 4, 2019, the administration gave a formal notice of intention to withdraw, which takes 12 months to take effect.  Until the withdrawal took effect, the United States was obligated to maintain its commitments under the Agreement, such as the requirement to continue reporting its emissions to the United Nations. The withdrawal took effect on November 4, 2020, one day after the 2020 U.S. presidential election.While celebrated by some members of the Republican Party, international reactions to the withdrawal were overwhelmingly negative from across the political spectrum, and the decision received substantial criticism from religious organizations, businesses, political leaders of all parties, environmentalists, and scientists and citizens from the United States and internationally.Following Trump's announcement, the governors of several U.S. states formed the United States Climate Alliance to continue to advance the objectives of the Paris Agreement at the state level despite the federal withdrawal. As of July 1, 2019, 24 states, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico have joined the alliance, and similar commitments have also been expressed by other state governors, mayors, and businesses.Trump's withdrawal from the Paris agreement will impact other countries by reducing its financial aid to the Green Climate fund. The termination of the $3 billion U.S. funding will ultimately impact climate change research and decrease society's chance of reaching the Paris Agreement goals, as well as omit U.S. contributions to the future IPCC reports. Trump's decision will also affect the carbon emission space as well as the carbon price. The U.S.'s withdrawal will also mean that the spot to take over the global climate regime will be obtainable for China and the EU.President-elect Joe Biden vowed to rejoin the Paris Agreement on his first day in office."}
{"_id": "University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst", "title": "University of Massachusetts Amherst", "headings": "", "text": "The University of Massachusetts Amherst ( abbreviated UMass Amherst and colloquially referred to as UMass or Massachusetts ) is a public research and land-grant university in Amherst , Massachusetts , United States , and the flagship of the University of Massachusetts system . With approximately 1,300 faculty members and more than 29,000 students , UMass Amherst is the largest public university in New England and is ranked as tied for the 27th best public university in the nation .   The university offers bachelor 's degrees , master 's degrees , and doctoral degrees in 111 undergraduate , 75 master 's and 47 doctoral programs in nine schools and colleges . The main campus is situated north of downtown Amherst . In a 2009 article for MSN.com , Amherst was ranked first in Best College Towns in the United States . In 2012 , U.S. News and World Report ranked Amherst among the Top 10 Great College Towns in America . It is also a member of the Five College Consortium .   The University of Massachusetts Amherst is categorized as a Research University with Highest research activity by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching . In fiscal year 2014 , UMass Amherst had research expenditures exceeding $ 200 million .   UMass Amherst sports teams are called the Minutemen and Minutewomen , the colors being maroon , black , and white ; the school mascot is Sam the Minuteman . All teams participate in NCAA Division I . The university is a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference , while playing ice hockey in Hockey East and football as an FBS Independent ."}
{"_id": "University_of_Oxford", "title": "University of Oxford", "headings": "", "text": "The University of Oxford ( informally Oxford University or simply Oxford ) is a collegiate research university located in Oxford , England . It has no known date of foundation , but there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096 , making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world 's second-oldest university in continuous operation . It is one of the world 's most prestigious universities . It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris . After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209 , some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge . The two `` ancient universities '' are frequently jointly referred to as `` Oxbridge '' .   The university is made up of a variety of institutions , including 38 constituent colleges and a full range of academic departments which are organised into four divisions . All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university , each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities . Being a city university , it does not have a main campus ; instead , its buildings and facilities are scattered throughout the city centre . Most undergraduate teaching at Oxford is organised around weekly tutorials at the colleges and halls , supported by classes , lectures and laboratory work provided by university faculties and departments .   Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship , one of the world 's oldest and most prestigious scholarships , which has brought graduate students to study at the university for more than a century . The university operates the world 's oldest university museum , as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain . Oxford has educated many notable alumni , including 28 Nobel laureates , 27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom , and many heads of state and government around the world ."}
{"_id": "Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Satellite", "title": "Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite", "headings": "", "text": "The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth 's atmosphere , particularly the protective ozone layer . The 5900 kg satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991 . It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 km , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees .   The original mission duration was to be only three years , but was extended several times . When the mission finally ended in June 2005 due to funding cuts , 14 years after the satellite 's launch , six of its ten instruments were still operational . A final orbit-lowering burn was performed in early December 2005 to prepare the satellite for deorbit . On 26 October 2010 , the International Space Station performed a debris-avoidance maneuver in response to a conjunction with UARS .   The decommissioned satellite re-entered Earth 's atmosphere on 24 September 2011 . Considerable media attention surrounded the event , largely due to NASA 's predictions that substantial parts of the satellite might reach the ground , potentially endangering inhabited areas . However , the satellite ultimately impacted in a remote area of the Pacific Ocean ."}
{"_id": "Uppsala", "title": "Uppsala", "headings": "", "text": "Uppsala ( -LSB- ² ɵpːsɑːla -RSB- ; older spelling Upsala ) is the capital of Uppsala County and the fourth largest city of Sweden , after Stockholm , Gothenburg and Malmö . It had 149,245 inhabitants in 2015 .   Located 71 km north of the capital Stockholm , it is also the seat of Uppsala Municipality . Since 1164 , Uppsala has been the ecclesiastical centre of Sweden , being the seat of the Archbishop of the Church of Sweden . Uppsala is home to Scandinavia 's largest cathedral -- Uppsala Cathedral . Founded in 1477 , Uppsala University is the oldest centre of higher education in Scandinavia . Among many achievements , the Celsius scale for temperature was invented there ."}
{"_id": "Uptick_rule", "title": "Uptick rule", "headings": "", "text": "The uptick rule is a trading restriction that states that short selling a stock is only allowed on an uptick . For the rule to be satisfied , the short must be either at a price above the last traded price of the security , or at the last traded price when the most recent movement between traded prices was upward ( i.e. the security has traded below the last-traded price more recently than above that price ) .   The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) defined the rule , and summarized it :  `` Rule 10a-1 ( a ) ( 1 ) provided that , subject to certain exceptions , a listed security may be sold short ( A ) at a price above the price at which the immediately preceding sale was effected ( plus tick ) , or ( B ) at the last sale price if it is higher than the last different price ( zero-plus tick ) . Short sales were not permitted on minus ticks or zero-minus ticks , subject to narrow exceptions . ''   The rule went into effect in 1938 and was removed when Rule 201 Regulation SHO became effective in 2007 . In 2009 , the reintroduction of the uptick rule was widely debated , and proposals for a form of its reintroduction by the SEC went into a public comment period on 2009-04-08 . A modified form of the rule was adopted on 2010-02-24 ."}
{"_id": "Uranus", "title": "Uranus", "headings": "", "text": "Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun . It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System . Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune , and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn . For this reason , scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as `` ice giants '' to distinguish them from the gas giants . Uranus 's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter 's and Saturn 's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium , but it contains more `` ices '' such as water , ammonia , and methane , along with traces of other hydrocarbons . It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System , with a minimum temperature of 49 K , and has a complex , layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds . The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock .   Uranus is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek mythology , from the Latinised version of the Greek god of the sky Ouranos . Like the other giant planets , Uranus has a ring system , a magnetosphere , and numerous moons . The Uranian system has a unique configuration among those of the planets because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways , nearly into the plane of its solar orbit . Its north and south poles , therefore , lie where most other planets have their equators . In 1986 , images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as an almost featureless planet in visible light , without the cloud bands or storms associated with the other giant planets . Observations from Earth have shown seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached its equinox in 2007 . Wind speeds can reach 250 m/s ."}
{"_id": "Urban_heat_island", "title": "Urban heat island", "headings": "", "text": "An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area .   Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems .   Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat .   There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change ."}
{"_id": "Urbanization", "title": "Urbanization", "headings": "", "text": "Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas , `` the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas '' , and the ways in which each society adapts to the change . It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas . The United Nations projected that half of the world 's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008 . It is predicted that by 2050 about 64 % of the developing world and 86 % of the developed world will be urbanized . That is equivalent to approximately 3 billion urbanites by 2050 , much of which will occur in Africa and Asia . Notably , the United Nations has also recently projected that nearly all global population growth from 2017 to 2030 will be absorbed by cities , about 1.1 billion new urbanites over the next 13 years .   Urbanization is relevant to a range of disciplines , including geography , sociology , economics , urban planning and public health . The phenomenon has been closely linked to modernization , industrialization and the sociological process of rationalization . Urbanization can be seen as a specific condition at a set time ( e.g. the proportion of total population or area in cities or towns ) or as an increase in that condition over time . So urbanization can be quantified either in terms of , say , the level of urban development relative to the overall population , or as the rate at which the urban proportion of the population is increasing . Urbanization creates enormous social , economic and environmental changes , which provide an opportunity for sustainability with the `` potential to use resources more efficiently , to create more sustainable land use and to protect the biodiversity of natural ecosystems . ''   Urbanization is not merely a modern phenomenon , but a rapid and historic transformation of human social roots on a global scale , whereby predominantly rural culture is being rapidly replaced by predominantly urban culture . The first major change in settlement patterns was the accumulation of hunter-gatherers into villages many thousand years ago . Village culture is characterized by common bloodlines , intimate relationships and communal behavior whereas urban culture is characterized by distant bloodlines , unfamiliar relations and competitive behavior . This unprecedented movement of people is forecast to continue and intensify during the next few decades , mushrooming cities to sizes unthinkable only a century ago .   Today , in Asia the urban agglomerations of Osaka , Karachi , Jakarta , Mumbai , Shanghai , Manila , Seoul and Beijing are each already home to over 20 million people , while Delhi and Tokyo are forecast to approach or exceed 40 million people each within the coming decade . Outside Asia , Mexico City , São Paulo , London , New York City , Istanbul , Lagos and Cairo are , or soon will be , home to over 10 million people ."}
{"_id": "Uruguay", "title": "Uruguay", "headings": "", "text": "Uruguay ( -LSB- ˈjʊərəɡwaɪ -RSB- -LSB- uɾuˈɣwai̯ -RSB- ) , officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( República Oriental del Uruguay ) , is a sovereign State in the southeastern region of South America . It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east , with the Río de la Plata ( River of Silver ) to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast . Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people , of whom 1.8 million live in the metropolitan area of its capital and largest city , Montevideo . With an area of approximately 176000 km2 , Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America , only larger in size than Suriname .   Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento , one of the oldest European settlements in the region , in 1680 . Montevideo was founded as a military stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century , signifying the competing claims over the region . Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828 , following a four-way struggle between Spain , Portugal , Argentina and Brazil . It remained subject to foreign influence and intervention throughout the 19th century , with the military playing a recurring role in domestic politics until the late 20th century . Modern Uruguay is a democratic constitutional republic , with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government .   Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy , peace , lack of corruption , e-government , and is first in South America when it comes to press freedom , size of the middle class and prosperity . On a per-capita basis , Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country . It ranks second in the region on economic freedom , income equality , per-capita income and inflows of FDI . Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI , GDP growth , innovation and infrastructure . It is regarded as a high-income country ( top group ) by the UN . Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation .  Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool , rice , soybeans , frozen beef , malt and milk . Nearly 95 % of Uruguay 's electricity comes from renewable energy , mostly hydroelectric facilities and wind parks .   The Economist named Uruguay `` country of the year '' in 2013 , acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production , sale and consumption of cannabis . Same-sex marriage and abortion are also legal , leading Uruguay to be regarded as one of the most progressive nations in the world , and one of the most socially developed , outstanding regionally , and ranking highly on global measures of personal rights , tolerance , and inclusion issues ."}
{"_id": "Usage_share_of_operating_systems", "title": "Usage share of operating systems", "headings": "", "text": "The usage share of operating systems is the percentage of the operating systems used in computing devices ( approximately market share , also discussed in the article ) .   There are `` three big personal computing platforms '' , two of which claim over 1.4 billion users , Android and Windows . The third `` platform '' or strictly two ( or three ) platformsApple 's iOS and macOS combined , have over 1 billion users . Historically Windows running on desktop computers was dominant ( Macintosh computers were previously the more popular desktop computers , and those followed the mainframe computer-era ) , for a 25 year period from the early 1990s to 2016 . From late 2016 the mobile era took over , with the desktop computers ' market share ( measured by web usage ; including macOS ) was down to 45.22 % in January 2017 , an `` end of an era '' was declared by StatCounter for Windows ( and the desktop in general ) as no longer most popular , since smartphones alone , ( excluding tablets ) , because of Android , have majority use globally .   Different categories of computers use a wide variety of operating systems ( OS ) . Windows gained majority usage share in the 1990s , on desktops ( the computer platform then taking over ) , eventually described as `` dominant '' ( and still has a majority as a `` desktop OS '' ) but is not dominant across all platforms ( while latest version runs on all platforms ) . On smartphones , Android is dominant by any metric ; its installed base is 1.8 billion , which tops Windows on PCs . No operating system has a clear majority across all platforms or all regions ; as judged by web usea proxy for all useAndroid has surpassed Windows , when counted across all platforms and regions . Android is the highest ranked OS in most countries of the world ( even a few in Europe , such as Poland with majority use ) ; leading to it ( with some help from other mobile operating systems such as Apple 's ) eventually , in late 2016 , making the world smartphone-majority . Android alone explains that to a large degree , smartphones alone have majority use , where Android is dominant . Android has over half the usage share across platforms ( even with it not used much on desktops ) in the two biggest continents ( and most populous with 76 % combined ) , Africa and Asia . For brief periods , countries on other continents , such as the United States , have lost desktops-majority share ; that has also happened for South America .   Since 2013 , devices running Android have been selling more than Windows , iOS and macOS devices combined . That made Android the most popular operating system that runs on smartphones , while iOS is more used on tablets . Most desktop and laptop computers use Microsoft Windows , while virtually all supercomputers ( and for over a decade back ) use Linux . In the servers category , there is more diversity , with Linux and Windows Server most popular , and many fewer mainframes . Data about operating system share is difficult to obtain , since in most categories there are few reliable primary sources or agreed methodologies for its collection ."}
{"_id": "Valencia", "title": "Valencia", "headings": "", "text": "Valencia ( -LSB- vəˈlɛnsiə -RSB- -LSB- baˈlenθja -RSB- ) , officially València ( -LSB- vaˈlensia -RSB- ) , is the capital of the autonomous community of Valencia and the third largest city in Spain after Madrid and Barcelona , with around 800,000 inhabitants in the administrative centre . Its urban area extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of around 1.5 -- 1.6 million people . Valencia is Spain 's third largest metropolitan area , with a population ranging from 1.7 to 2.5 million . The Port of Valencia is the 5th busiest container port in Europe and the busiest container port on the Mediterranean Sea . The city is ranked at Gamma in the Globalization and World Cities Research Network .   Valencia was founded as a Roman colony by the consul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 BC , and called Valentia Edetanorum . In 714 Moroccan and Arab Moors occupied the city , introducing their language , religion and customs ; they implemented improved irrigation systems and the cultivation of new crops as well , being capital of the Taifa of Valencia . In 1238 the Christian king James I of Aragon reconquered the city and divided the land among the nobles who helped him conquer it , as witnessed in the Llibre del Repartiment . He also created a new law for the city , the Furs of Valencia , which were extended to the rest of the Kingdom of Valencia . In the 18th century Philip V of Spain abolished the privileges as punishment to the kingdom of Valencia for aligning with the Habsburg side in the War of the Spanish Succession . Valencia was the capital of Spain when Joseph Bonaparte moved the Court there in the summer of 1812 . It also served as capital between 1936 and 1937 , during the Second Spanish Republic .   The city is situated on the banks of the Turia , on the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula , fronting the Gulf of Valencia on the Mediterranean Sea . Its historic centre is one of the largest in Spain , with approximately 169 hectares ; this heritage of ancient monuments , views and cultural attractions makes Valencia one of the country 's most popular tourist destinations .   Valencia is integrated into an industrial area on the Costa del Azahar ( Orange Blossom Coast ) . Valencia 's main festival is the Falles . The traditional Spanish dish , paella , originated in Valencia ."}
{"_id": "Valero_Energy", "title": "Valero Energy", "headings": "", "text": "Valero Energy Corporation is a Fortune 500 international manufacturer and marketer of transportation fuels , other petrochemical products , and power . It is headquartered in San Antonio , Texas , United States . The company owns and operates 16 refineries throughout the United States , Canada , United Kingdom , and the Caribbean with a combined throughput capacity of approximately 3 Moilbbl per day , 11 ethanol plants with a combined production capacity of 1.2 e9USgal per year , and a 50-megawatt wind farm . Before the 2013 spinoff of CST Brands , Valero was one of the United States ' largest retail operators with approximately 6,800 retail and branded wholesale outlets in the United States , Canada , United Kingdom , and the Caribbean under the Valero , Diamond Shamrock , Shamrock , Ultramar , Beacon , and Texaco brands ."}
{"_id": "Variable_renewable_energy", "title": "Variable renewable energy", "headings": "", "text": "Variable renewable energy ( VRE ) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature , like wind power and solar power , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity , or biomass , or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity ."}
{"_id": "Variable_star", "title": "Variable star", "headings": "", "text": "A variable star is a star whose brightness as seen from Earth ( its apparent magnitude ) fluctuates .   This variation may be caused by a change in emitted light or by something partly blocking the light , so variable stars are classified as either :  Intrinsic variables , whose luminosity actually changes ; for example , because the star periodically swells and shrinks .  Extrinsic variables , whose apparent changes in brightness are due to changes in the amount of their light that can reach Earth ; for example , because the star has an orbiting companion that sometimes eclipses it .   Many , possibly most , stars have at least some variation in luminosity : the energy output of our Sun , for example , varies by about 0.1 % over an 11-year solar cycle ."}
{"_id": "Veganism", "title": "Veganism", "headings": "", "text": "Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products , particularly in diet , and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals . A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan ( pronounced ) .   Distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism . Dietary vegans ( or strict vegetarians ) refrain from consuming animal products , not only meat but also eggs , dairy products and other animal-derived substances . The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a vegan diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives , and oppose the use of animals for any purpose . Another term is environmental veganism , which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the harvesting or industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable .   Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England . At first he used it to mean `` non-dairy vegetarian '' , but from 1951 the society defined it as `` the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals '' . Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s . More vegan stores opened , and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries .   Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fibre , magnesium , folic acid , vitamin C , vitamin E , iron and phytochemicals , and lower in dietary energy , saturated fat , cholesterol , long-chain omega-3 fatty acids , vitamin D , calcium , zinc and vitamin B12 . Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease , including heart disease . They are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics . The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children , and during pregnancy and lactation . Because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12 ( which is produced by microorganisms such as bacteria ) , researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement ."}
{"_id": "Vegetarianism", "title": "Vegetarianism", "headings": "", "text": "Vegetarianism -LSB- vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm -RSB- is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat ( red meat , poultry , seafood , and the flesh of any other animal ) , and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter .   Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons . Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life . Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs , as well as animal rights advocacy . Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related , political , environmental , cultural , aesthetic , economic , or personal preference . There are variations of the diet as well : an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products , an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products , and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs . A vegan diet excludes all animal products , including eggs and dairy . Some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax , leather or silk clothing , and goose-fat shoe polish .   Packaged and processed foods , such as cakes , cookies , candies , chocolate , yogurt , and marshmallows , often contain unfamiliar animal ingredients , so may be a special concern for vegetarians due to the likelihood of such additions . Often , prior to purchase or consumption , vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients . Vegetarians ' feelings vary with regard to these ingredients . For example , while some vegetarians may be unaware of animal-derived rennet 's role in the production of cheese , and may therefore unknowingly consume the product , other vegetarians may not take issue with its consumption .   Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry , or sometimes other meats , on an infrequent basis . Those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism . A pescetarian diet has been described as `` fish but no other meat '' . The common use association between such diets and vegetarianism has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to state that diets containing these ingredients are not vegetarian , because fish and birds are also animals ."}
{"_id": "Venus", "title": "Venus", "headings": "", "text": "Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224.7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellites . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4.6 , bright enough to cast shadows at night and , though rare , occasionally be visible in broad daylight . Because Venus orbits within Earth 's orbit it is an inferior planet and never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its maximum angular distance from the Sun ( elongation ) is 47.8 ° .   Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's `` sister planet '' because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth , or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab-like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism .   As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the `` morning star '' and `` evening star '' . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC .   As the closest planet to Earth , Venus has been a prime target for early interplanetary exploration . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 in 1962 ) , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 in 1970 ) . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions ."}
{"_id": "Vermont", "title": "Vermont", "headings": "", "text": "Vermont ( -LSB- vərˈmɒnt , _ vɜr - -RSB- ) is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States . It borders the other U.S. states of Massachusetts to the south , New Hampshire to the east , New York to the west , and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north . Lake Champlain forms half of Vermont 's western border with the state of New York and the Green Mountains run north-south the length of the state .   Vermont is the 2nd-least populous of the U.S. states , ahead of Wyoming in population . The capital is Montpelier , the least populous state capital in the U.S. . The most populous municipality , Burlington , is the least populous city in the U.S. to be the most populous within a state . As of 2015 , Vermont was the leading producer of maple syrup in the U.S. . It was ranked as the safest state in the country in 2016 .   For thousands of years indigenous peoples , including the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Mohawk , occupied much of the territory that is now Vermont and was later claimed by France 's colony of New France . France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years ' War . For many years , the nearby colonies , especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York , disputed control of the area ( then called the New Hampshire Grants ) . Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia , which supported the many settlers whose claims were based on grants from New Hampshire .   Ultimately , those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state , the Vermont Republic . Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War , the republic lasted for 14 years . Aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies , Vermont is one of only four U.S. states that were previously sovereign states ( along with California , Hawaii , and Texas ) . Vermont was also the first state to join the U.S. as its 14th member state after the original 13 . While still an independent republic , Vermont was the first of any future U.S. state to partially abolish slavery ."}
{"_id": "Vertical_farming", "title": "Vertical farming", "headings": "", "text": "Vertical farming is the practice of producing food and medicine in vertically stacked layers , vertically inclined surfaces and/or integrated in other structures ( such as in a skyscraper , used warehouse , or shipping container ) . The modern ideas of vertical farming use indoor farming techniques and controlled-environment agriculture ( CEA ) technology , where all environmental factors can be controlled . These facilities utilize artificial control of light , environmental control ( humidity , temperature , gases ... ) and fertigation . Some vertical farms use techniques similar to greenhouses , where natural sunlight can be augmented with artificial lighting and metal reflectors ."}
{"_id": "Vienna", "title": "Vienna", "headings": "", "text": "Vienna ( -LSB- viˈɛnə -RSB- Wien , -LSB- viːn -RSB- ) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria . Vienna is Austria 's primary city , with a population of about 1.8 million ( 2.6 million within the metropolitan area , nearly one third of Austria 's population ) , and its cultural , economic , and political centre . It is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union . Until the beginning of the 20th century , it was the largest German-speaking city in the world , and before the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in World War I , the city had 2 million inhabitants . Today , it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin . Vienna is host to many major international organizations , including the United Nations and OPEC . The city is located in the eastern part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic , Slovakia , and Hungary . These regions work together in a European Centrope border region . Along with nearby Bratislava , Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants . In 2001 , the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site .   Apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy , Vienna is also said to be `` The City of Dreams '' because it was home to the world 's first psycho-analyst -- Sigmund Freud . The city 's roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city , and then the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . It is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre , from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century . The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles , including Baroque castles and gardens , and the late-19th-century Ringstraße lined with grand buildings , monuments and parks .   Vienna is known for its high quality of life . In a 2005 study of 127 world cities , the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first ( in a tie with Vancouver , Canada and San Francisco , USA ) for the world 's most liveable cities . Between 2011 and 2015 , Vienna was ranked second , behind Melbourne , Australia .  For eight consecutive years ( 2009 -- 2016 ) , the human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Vienna first in its annual `` Quality of Living '' survey of hundreds of cities around the world , a title the city still held in 2016 . Monocle 's 2015 `` Quality of Life Survey '' ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world `` to make a base within . ''   The UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013 .  The city was ranked 1st globally for its culture of innovation in 2007 and 2008 , and sixth globally ( out of 256 cities ) in the 2014 Innovation Cities Index , which analyzed 162 indicators in covering three areas : culture , infrastructure , and markets . Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is often used as a case study by urban planners .   Between 2005 and 2010 , Vienna was the world 's number-one destination for international congresses and conventions . It attracts over 6.8 million tourists a year ."}
{"_id": "Vietnam", "title": "Vietnam", "headings": "", "text": "Vietnam ( ˌ ; -LSB- vîət nāːm -RSB- ) , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam ( SRV ; , is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia . With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants , it is the world 's 14th-most-populous country , and the ninth-most-populous Asian country . Vietnam is bordered by China to the north , Laos to the northwest , Cambodia to the southwest , Thailand across the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest , and the Philippines , Malaysia and Indonesia across the South China Sea to the east and southeast . Its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976 , with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well .   The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium , from 111 BC to AD 939 . An independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939 , following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River . Successive Vietnamese imperial dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia , until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century . Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s , the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War , eventually expelling the French in 1954 . Thereafter , Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states , North Vietnam ( officially the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ) , and South Vietnam ( officially the Republic of Vietnam ) . Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War . The war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975 .   Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished and politically isolated . In 1986 , the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnam 's path towards integration into the world economy . By 2000 , it had established diplomatic relations with all nations . Since 2000 , Vietnam 's economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world , and , in 2011 , it had the highest Global Growth Generators Index among 11 major economies . Its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007 . It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie . Vietnam remains one of the world 's four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism ."}
{"_id": "Vietnam_War", "title": "Vietnam War", "headings": "", "text": "The Vietnam War ( Chiến tranh Việt Nam ) , also known as the Second Indochina War , and known in Vietnam as Resistance War Against America ( Kháng chiến chống Mỹ ) or simply the American War , was a war that occurred in Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975 . It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam . The North Vietnamese army was supported by the Soviet Union , China and other communist allies and the South Vietnamese army was supported by the United States , South Korea , Australia , Thailand and other anti-communist allies . The war is therefore considered a Cold War-era proxy war .   The Viet Cong ( also known as the National Liberation Front , or NLF ) , a South Vietnamese communist common front aided by the North , fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region , while the People 's Army of Vietnam , also known as the North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) , engaged in more conventional warfare , at times committing large units to battle . As the war continued , the military actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role and engagement of the NVA grew . U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations , involving ground forces , artillery , and airstrikes . In the course of the war , the U.S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam .   The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam . They viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States . The U.S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam . This was part of the domino theory of a wider containment policy , with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism worldwide .   Beginning in 1950 , American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina.The Military Assistance Advisory Group , Indochina ( with an authorized strength of 128 men ) was set up in September 1950 with a mission to oversee the use and distribution of US military equipment by the French and their allies . U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s , with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962 . U.S. involvement escalated further following the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin incident , in which a U.S. destroyer clashed with North Vietnamese fast attack craft , which was followed by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution , which gave the U.S. president authorization to increase U.S. military presence . Regular U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965 . Operations crossed international borders : bordering areas of Laos and Cambodia were heavily bombed by U.S. forces as American involvement in the war peaked in 1968 , the same year that the communist side launched the Tet Offensive . The Tet Offensive failed in its goal of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government , but became the turning point in the war , as it persuaded a large segment of the U.S. population that its government 's claims of progress toward winning the war were illusory despite many years of massive U.S. military aid to South Vietnam .   Gradual withdrawal of U.S. ground forces began as part of `` Vietnamization '' , which aimed to end American involvement in the war while transferring the task of fighting the communists to the South Vietnamese themselves . Despite the Paris Peace Accord , which was signed by all parties in January 1973 , the fighting continued . In the U.S. and the Western world , a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture . The war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs , and altered North -- South relations .   Direct U.S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973 . The capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war , and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year . The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities ( see Vietnam War casualties ) . Estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million . Some 240,000 -- 300,000 Cambodians , 20,000 -- 62,000 Laotians , and 58,220 U.S. service members also died in the conflict , and a further 1,626 remain missing in action ."}
{"_id": "Vine", "title": "Vine", "headings": "", "text": "A vine ( Latin vīnea `` grapevine '' , `` vineyard '' , from vīnum `` wine '' ) in the narrowest sense is the grapevine ( Vitis ) , but more generally it can refer to any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent ( that is , climbing ) stems , lianas or runners . The word also can refer to such stems or runners themselves , for instance when used in wicker work .   In the United Kingdom , the term `` vine '' applies almost exclusively to the grapevine . The term `` climber '' is used for all climbing plants ."}
{"_id": "Violence", "title": "Violence", "headings": "", "text": "Violence is defined by the World Health Organization as `` the intentional use of physical force or power , threatened or actual , against oneself , another person , or against a group or community , which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury , death , psychological harm , maldevelopment , or deprivation '' , although the group acknowledges that the inclusion of `` the use of power '' in its definition expands on the conventional understanding of the word . This definition involves intentionality with the committing of the act itself , irrespective of the outcome it produces . However , generally , anything that is excited in an injurious or damaging way may be described as violent even if not meant to be violence ( by a person and against a person ) .   Globally , violence resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.28 million people in 2013 up from 1.13 million in 1990 . Of the deaths in 2013 , roughly 842,000 were attributed to self-harm ( suicide ) , 405,000 to interpersonal violence , and 31,000 to collective violence ( war ) and legal intervention . In Africa , out of every 100,000 people , each year an estimated 60.9 die a violent death . Corlin , past president of the American Medical Association said : `` The United States leads the world -- in the rate at which its children die from firearms . '' He concluded : `` Gun violence is a threat to the public health of our country . '' For each single death due to violence , there are dozens of hospitalizations , hundreds of emergency department visits , and thousands of doctors ' appointments . Furthermore , violence often has lifelong consequences for physical and mental health and social functioning and can slow economic and social development .   In 2013 , assault by firearm was the leading cause of death due to interpersonal violence , with 180,000 such deaths estimated to have occurred . The same year , assault by sharp object resulted in roughly 114,000 deaths , with a remaining 110,000 deaths from personal violence being attributed to other causes .   Violence in many forms is preventable . There is a strong relationship between levels of violence and modifiable factors such as concentrated poverty , income and gender inequality , the harmful use of alcohol , and the absence of safe , stable , and nurturing relationships between children and parents . Strategies addressing the underlying causes of violence can be effective in preventing violence ."}
{"_id": "Virial_expansion", "title": "Virial expansion", "headings": "", "text": "The classical virial expansion expresses the pressure of a many-particle system in equilibrium as a power series in the number density .  The virial expansion , introduced in 1901 by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes , is a generalization of the ideal gas law . He wrote that for a gas containing atoms  or molecules ,   where is the pressure , is the Boltzmann constant , is the absolute temperature , and  is the number density of the  gas .  Note that for a gas containing a fraction of ( Avogadro 's number ) molecules , truncation of the virial expansion after the  first term leads to , which is the ideal gas law .   Writing , the virial expansion can be written as   .   The virial coefficients are characteristic of the interactions between the particles in the system and in general depend on the temperature . Virial expansion can also be applied to aqueous ionic solutions , as shown by Harold Friedman ."}
{"_id": "Viscosity", "title": "Viscosity", "headings": "", "text": "The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress . For liquids , it corresponds to the informal concept of `` thickness '' ; for example , honey has a much higher viscosity than water .   Viscosity is a property of the fluid which opposes the relative motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving at different velocities . When the fluid is forced through a tube , the particles which compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube 's axis and more slowly near its walls ; therefore some stress ( such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube ) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid moving . For a given velocity pattern , the stress required is proportional to the fluid 's viscosity .   A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid . Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in superfluids . Otherwise , all fluids have positive viscosity , and are technically said to be viscous or viscid . In common parlance , however , a liquid is said to be viscous if its viscosity is substantially greater than that of water , and may be described as mobile if the viscosity is noticeably less than water . A fluid with a relatively high viscosity , such as pitch , may appear to be a solid ."}
{"_id": "Volcanism", "title": "Volcanism", "headings": "", "text": "Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock ( magma ) onto the surface of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon , where lava , pyroclastics and volcanic gases erupt through a break in the surface called a vent . It includes all phenomena resulting from and causing magma within the crust or mantle of the body , to rise through the crust and form volcanic rocks on the surface ."}
{"_id": "Volcano", "title": "Volcano", "headings": "", "text": "A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object , such as Earth , that allows hot lava , volcanic ash , and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface .   Earth 's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major , rigid tectonic plates that float on a hotter , softer layer in its mantle . Therefore , on Earth , volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging , and most are found underwater . For example , a mid-oceanic ridge , such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge , has volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart ; the Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together . Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the crust 's , e.g. , in the East African Rift and the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field and Rio Grande Rift in North America . This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of `` plate hypothesis '' volcanism . Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes . These so-called `` hotspots '' , for example Hawaii , are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the core -- mantle boundary , 3,000 km deep in the Earth . Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another .   Erupting volcanoes can pose many hazards , not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption . One such hazard is that volcanic ash can be a threat to aircraft , in particular those with jet engines where ash particles can be melted by the high operating temperature ; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape , disrupting the operation of the turbine . Large eruptions can affect temperature as ash and droplets of sulfuric acid obscure the sun and cool the Earth 's lower atmosphere ( or troposphere ) ; however , they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth , thereby warming the upper atmosphere ( or stratosphere ) . Historically , so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines ."}
{"_id": "WSEE-TV", "title": "WSEE-TV", "headings": "", "text": "WSEE-TV is the CBS-affiliated television station for Northwestern Pennsylvania that is licensed to Erie . It broadcasts a high definition digital signal on UHF channel 16 ( or virtual channel 35.1 via PSIP ) from a transmitter on Old Waterford Road in Greene Township . The station can also be seen on Spectrum channel 5 and in high definition on digital channel 1005 . Owned by Lilly Broadcasting , WSEE-TV operates the area 's NBC affiliate WICU-TV ( owned by SJL Broadcasting ) through a shared services agreement ( SSA ) and the two outlets share studios on State Street in Erie . Until 2017 , WSEE was also seen over-the-air in standard definition on WICU-TV 's third digital subchannel on VHF channel 12.3 from the same Greene Township transmitter ."}
{"_id": "Wallace_Smith_Broecker", "title": "Wallace Smith Broecker", "headings": "", "text": "Wallace Smith Broecker ( born November 29 , 1931 in Chicago ) is the Newberry Professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University , a scientist at Columbia 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and a sustainability fellow at Arizona State University . He developed the idea of a global `` conveyor belt '' linking the circulation of the global ocean and made major contributions to the science of the carbon cycle and the use of chemical tracers and isotope dating in oceanography . Broecker has received the Crafoord Prize and the Vetlesen Prize ."}
{"_id": "Walter_Munk", "title": "Walter Munk", "headings": "", "text": "Walter Heinrich Munk ( born October 19 , 1917 ) is an American physical oceanographer . He is professor of geophysics emeritus and holds the Secretary of the Navy/Chief of Naval Operations Oceanography Chair at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla , California ."}
{"_id": "Waste_heat", "title": "Waste heat", "headings": "", "text": "Waste heat is by necessity produced both by machines that do work and in other processes that use energy , for example in a refrigerator warming the room air or a combustion engine releasing heat into the environment . The need for many systems to reject heat as a by-product of their operation is fundamental to the laws of thermodynamics . Waste heat has lower utility ( or in thermodynamics lexicon a lower exergy or higher entropy ) than the original energy source . Sources of waste heat include all manner of human activities , natural systems , and all organisms .   Instead of being `` wasted '' by release into the ambient environment , sometimes waste heat ( or cold ) can be utilized by another process ( such as using hot engine coolant to heat a vehicle ) , or a portion of heat that would otherwise be wasted can be reused in the same process if make-up heat is added to the system ( as with heat recovery ventilation in a building ) .   Thermal energy storage , which includes technologies both for short - and long-term retention of heat or cold , can create or improve the utility of waste heat ( or cold ) . One example is waste heat from air conditioning machinery stored in a buffer tank to aid in night time heating . Another is seasonal thermal energy storage ( STES ) at a foundry in Sweden . The heat is stored in the bedrock surrounding a cluster of heat exchanger equipped boreholes , and is used for space heating in an adjacent factory as needed , even months later . An example of using STES to utilize natural waste heat is the Drake Landing Solar Community in Alberta , Canada , which , by using a cluster of boreholes in bedrock for interseasonal heat storage , obtains 97 percent of its year-round heat from solar thermal collectors on the garage roofs . Another STES application is storing winter cold underground , for summer air conditioning .   On a biological scale , all organisms reject waste heat as part of their metabolic processes , and will die if the ambient temperature is too high to allow this .   Anthropogenic waste heat is thought by some to contribute to the urban heat island effect . The biggest point sources of waste heat originate from machines ( such as electrical generators or industrial processes , such as steel or glass production ) and heat loss through building envelopes . The burning of transport fuels is a major contribution to waste heat ."}
{"_id": "Water", "title": "Water", "headings": "", "text": "Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earth 's streams , lakes , and oceans , and the fluids of most living organisms . Its chemical formula is H2O , meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms , that are connected by covalent bonds . Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance , that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure ; but it often refers also to its solid state ( ice ) or its gaseous state ( steam or water vapor ) . It also occurs in nature as snow , glaciers , ice packs and icebergs , clouds , fog , dew , aquifers , and atmospheric humidity .   Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . It is vital for all known forms of life . On Earth , 96.5 % of the planet 's crust water is found in seas and oceans , 1.7 % in groundwater , 1.7 % in glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland , a small fraction in other large water bodies , and 0.001 % in the air as vapor , clouds ( formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air ) , and precipitation . Only 2.5 % of this water is freshwater , and 98.8 % of that water is in ice ( excepting ice in clouds ) and groundwater . Less than 0.3 % of all freshwater is in rivers , lakes , and the atmosphere , and an even smaller amount of the Earth 's freshwater ( 0.003 % ) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products . A greater quantity of water is found in the earth 's interior .   Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration ( evapotranspiration ) , condensation , precipitation , and runoff , usually reaching the sea . Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land . Large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals .   Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients . Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part of the world , but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation . There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita . However , some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability . A report , issued in November 2009 , suggests that by 2030 , in some developing regions of the world , water demand will exceed supply by 50 % .   Water plays an important role in the world economy . Approximately 70 % of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture . Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many parts of the world . Much of long-distance trade of commodities ( such as oil and natural gas ) and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas , rivers , lakes , and canals . Large quantities of water , ice , and steam are used for cooling and heating , in industry and homes . Water is an excellent solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances ; as such it is widely used in industrial processes , and in cooking and washing . Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment , such as swimming , pleasure boating , boat racing , surfing , sport fishing , and diving ."}
{"_id": "Water_cycle", "title": "Water cycle", "headings": "", "text": "The water cycle , also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle , describes the continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of the Earth . The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice , fresh water , saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables . The water moves from one reservoir to another , such as from river to ocean , or from the ocean to the atmosphere , by the physical processes of evaporation , condensation , precipitation , infiltration , surface runoff , and subsurface flow . In doing so , the water goes through different forms : liquid , solid ( ice ) and vapor .   The water cycle involves the exchange of energy , which leads to temperature changes . For instance , when water evaporates , it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment . When it condenses , it releases energy and warms the environment . These heat exchanges influence climate .   The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater . The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe . It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth , through processes including erosion and sedimentation . The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet ."}
{"_id": "Water_heating", "title": "Water heating", "headings": "", "text": "Water heating is a thermodynamic process that uses an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature . Typical domestic uses of hot water include cooking , cleaning , bathing , and space heating . In industry , hot water and water heated to steam have many uses .   Domestically , water is traditionally heated in vessels known as water heaters , kettles , cauldrons , pots , or coppers . These metal vessels that heat a batch of water do not produce a continual supply of heated water at a preset temperature . Rarely , hot water occurs naturally , usually from natural hot springs . The temperature varies with the consumption rate , becoming cooler as flow increases .   Appliances that provide a continual supply of hot water are called water heaters , hot water heaters , hot water tanks , boilers , heat exchangers , geysers , or calorifiers . These names depend on region , and whether they heat potable or non-potable water , are in domestic or industrial use , and their energy source . In domestic installations , potable water heated for uses other than space heating is also called domestic hot water ( DHW ) .   Fossil fuels ( natural gas , liquefied petroleum gas , oil ) , or solid fuels are commonly used for heating water . These may be consumed directly or may produce electricity that , in turn , heats water . Electricity to heat water may also come from any other electrical source , such as nuclear power or renewable energy . Alternative energy such as solar energy , heat pumps , hot water heat recycling , and geothermal heating can also heat water , often in combination with backup systems powered by fossil fuels or electricity .   Densely populated urban areas of some countries provide district heating of hot water . This is especially the case in Scandinavia and Finland . District heating systems supply energy for water heating and space heating from waste heat from industries , power plants , incinerators , geothermal heating , and central solar heating . Actual heating of tap water is performed in heat exchangers at the consumers ' premises . Generally the consumer has no in-building backup system , due to the expected high availability of district heating systems ."}
{"_id": "Water_on_Mars", "title": "Water on Mars", "headings": "", "text": "Almost all water on Mars today exists as ice , though it also exists in small quantities as vapor in the atmosphere and occasionally as low-volume liquid brines in shallow Martian soil . The only place where water ice is visible at the surface is at the north polar ice cap . Abundant water ice is also present beneath the permanent carbon dioxide ice cap at the Martian south pole and in the shallow subsurface at more temperate latitudes . More than five million cubic kilometers of ice have been identified at or near the surface of modern Mars , enough to cover the whole planet to a depth of 35 meters . Even more ice is likely to be locked away in the deep subsurface .   Some liquid water may occur transiently on the Martian surface today , but only under certain conditions . No large standing bodies of liquid water exist , because the atmospheric pressure at the surface averages just 600 Pa -- about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure -- and because the global average temperature is far too low ( 210 K ) , leading to either rapid evaporation ( sublimation ) or rapid freezing . Before about 3.8 billion years ago , Mars may have had a denser atmosphere and higher surface temperatures , allowing vast amounts of liquid water on the surface , possibly including a large ocean that may have covered one-third of the planet . Water has also apparently flowed across the surface for short periods at various intervals more recently in Mars ' history . On December 9 , 2013 , NASA reported that , based on evidence from the Curiosity rover studying Aeolis Palus , Gale Crater contained an ancient freshwater lake that could have been a hospitable environment for microbial life .   Many lines of evidence indicate that water is abundant on Mars and has played a significant role in the planet 's geologic history . The present-day inventory of water on Mars can be estimated from spacecraft imagery , remote sensing techniques ( spectroscopic measurements , radar , etc. ) , and surface investigations from landers and rovers . Geologic evidence of past water includes enormous outflow channels carved by floods , ancient river valley networks , deltas , and lakebeds ; and the detection of rocks and minerals on the surface that could only have formed in liquid water . Numerous geomorphic features suggest the presence of ground ice ( permafrost ) and the movement of ice in glaciers , both in the recent past and present . Gullies and slope lineae along cliffs and crater walls suggest that flowing water continues to shape the surface of Mars , although to a far lesser degree than in the ancient past .   Although the surface of Mars was periodically wet and could have been hospitable to microbial life billions of years ago , the current environment at the surface is dry and subfreezing , probably presenting an insurmountable obstacle for living organisms . In addition , Mars lacks a thick atmosphere , ozone layer , and magnetic field , allowing solar and cosmic radiation to strike the surface unimpeded . The damaging effects of ionizing radiation on cellular structure is another one of the prime limiting factors on the survival of life on the surface . Therefore , the best potential locations for discovering life on Mars may be in subsurface environments . On November 22 , 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice on the planet Mars -- the volume of water detected is equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior .   Understanding water on Mars is vital to assess the planet 's potential for harboring life and for providing usable resources for future human exploration . For this reason , ` Follow the Water ' was the science theme of NASA 's Mars Exploration Program ( MEP ) in the first decade of the 21st century . Discoveries by the 2001 Mars Odyssey , Mars Exploration Rovers ( MERs ) , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) , and Mars Phoenix lander have been instrumental in answering key questions about water 's abundance and distribution on Mars . The ESA 's Mars Express orbiter has also provided essential data in this quest . The Mars Odyssey , Mars Express , MER Opportunity rover , MRO , and Mars Science Lander Curiosity rover are still sending back data from Mars , and discoveries continue to be made ."}
{"_id": "Water_pollution", "title": "Water pollution", "headings": "", "text": "Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies ( e.g. lakes , rivers , oceans , aquifers and groundwater ) . This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds .   Water pollution affects the entire biosphere -- plants and organisms living in these bodies of water . In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population , but also to the natural biological communities ."}
{"_id": "Water_scarcity", "title": "Water scarcity", "headings": "", "text": "Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region . It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one month out of every year . More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water .   Water scarcity involves water shortage , water stress or deficits , and water crisis . The relatively new concept of water stress is difficulty in obtaining sources of fresh water for use during a period of time ; it may result in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources . Water shortages may be caused by climate change , such as altered weather-patterns ( including droughts or floods ) , increased pollution , and increased human demand and overuse of water . The term water crisis labels a situation where the available potable , unpolluted water within a region is less than that region 's demand . Two converging phenomena drive water scarcity : growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources .   Water scarcity can result from two mechanisms :   physical ( absolute ) water scarcity  economic water scarcity   Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region 's demand , and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources . According to the United Nations Development Programme , the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity , as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household , industrial , agricultural , and environmental needs , but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner .   Many countries and governments aim to reduce water scarcity . The UN recognizes the importance of reducing the number of people without sustainable access to clean water and sanitation . The Millennium Development Goals within the United Nations Millennium Declaration aimed by 2015 to `` halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water . ''"}
{"_id": "Water_vapor", "title": "Water vapor", "headings": "", "text": "Water vapor , water vapour or aqueous vapor is the gaseous phase of water . It is one state of water within the hydrosphere . Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice . Unlike other forms of water , water vapor is invisible . Under typical atmospheric conditions , water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation . It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds .   Being a component of Earth 's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle , it is particularly abundant in Earth 's atmosphere where it is also a potent greenhouse gas along with other gases such as carbon dioxide and methane . Use of water vapor , as steam , has been important to humans for cooking and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the industrial revolution .   Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent , present even in the solar atmosphere as well as every planet in the Solar System and many astronomical objects including natural satellites , comets and even large asteroids . Likewise the detection of extrasolar water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems . Water vapor is significant in that it can be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects ."}
{"_id": "Waterplace_Park", "title": "Waterplace Park", "headings": "", "text": "Waterplace Park is an urban park situated along the Woonasquatucket River in downtown Providence , Rhode Island . Finished in 1994 , Waterplace Park is connected to 3/4 mile of cobblestone-paved pedestrian walkways along the waterfront known as Riverwalk . Venice-styled Pedestrian bridges cross the river . Most of Riverwalk is below street level and automotive traffic . Waterplace Park and Riverwalk together are host to Providence 's popular summertime Waterfire events , a series of bonfires lit on the river accompanied by classical and world music ."}
{"_id": "Watts_Up_With_That?", "title": "Watts Up With That?", "headings": "", "text": "Watts Up With That ? ( or WUWT ) is a blog promoting climate change denial that was created by Anthony Watts in 2006 .   The blog predominantly discusses climate issues with a focus on anthropogenic climate change , generally accommodating beliefs that are in opposition to the scientific consensus on climate change . Contributors include Christopher Monckton and Fred Singer as guest authors . In November 2009 , the blog was one of the first websites to publish emails and documents from the Climatic Research Unit controversy , and a driving force behind its coverage .   In the early months of 2010 , it was reported the site might be `` the most read climate blog in the world , '' and in 2013 Michael E. Mann referred to it as the leading climate change denial blog ."}
{"_id": "Wayback_Machine", "title": "Wayback Machine", "headings": "", "text": "The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web and other information on the Internet created by the Internet Archive , a nonprofit organization , based in San Francisco , California , United States . The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001 . It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat , and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet . The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time , which the archive calls a `` three dimensional index '' .   Since 1996 , the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes . It revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version . Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the site 's URL into a search box . The intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down . The overall vision of the machine 's creators is to archive the entire Internet .   The name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the `` WABAC machine '' ( pronounced way-back ) , a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , an animated cartoon . In one of the animated cartoon 's component segments , Peabody 's Improbable History , the characters routinely used the machine to witness , participate in , and , more often than not , alter famous events in history ."}
{"_id": "We_Are_the_World", "title": "We Are the World", "headings": "", "text": "`` We Are the World '' is a song and charity single originally recorded by the supergroup United Support of Artists ( USA ) for Africa in 1985 . It was written by Michael Jackson and Lionel Richie ( with arrangements by Michael Omartian ) and produced by Quincy Jones for the album We Are the World . With sales in excess of 20 million copies , it is one of the fewer than 30 all-time physical singles to have sold at least 10 million copies worldwide .   Following Band Aid 's 1984 `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' project in the United Kingdom , an idea for the creation of an American benefit single for African famine relief came from activist Harry Belafonte , who , along with fundraiser Ken Kragen , was instrumental in bringing the vision to reality . Several musicians were contacted by the pair , before Jackson and Richie were assigned the task of writing the song . The duo completed the writing of `` We Are the World '' seven weeks after the release of `` Do They Know It 's Christmas ? '' , and one night before the song 's first recording session , on January 21 , 1985 . The historic event brought together some of the most famous artists in the music industry at the time .   The song was released on March 7 , 1985 , as the only single from the album . A worldwide commercial success , it topped music charts throughout the world and became the fastest-selling American pop single in history . The first ever single to be certified multi-platinum , `` We Are the World '' received a Quadruple Platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .   Awarded numerous honors -- including three Grammy Awards , one American Music Award , and a People 's Choice Award -- the song was promoted with a critically received music video , a home video , a special edition magazine , a simulcast , and several books , posters , and shirts . The promotion and merchandise aided the success of `` We Are the World '' and raised over $ 63 million ( equivalent to $ million today ) for humanitarian aid in Africa and the US .   Following the devastation caused by the magnitude 7.0 Mw earthquake in Haiti on January 12 , 2010 , a remake of the song by another all-star cast of singers was recorded on February 1 , 2010 . Entitled `` We Are the World 25 for Haiti '' , it was released as a single on February 12 , 2010 , and proceeds from the record aided survivors in the impoverished country ."}
{"_id": "We_Belong_Together", "title": "We Belong Together", "headings": "", "text": "`` We Belong Together '' is a song by American singer Mariah Carey from her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . The song was released on March 29 , 2005 , through Island Records , as the second single from the album . `` We Belong Together '' was written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri , Manuel Seal , and Johntá Austin , and produced by the former three . As the song samples lyrics from Bobby Womack 's `` If You Think You 're Lonely Now '' ( 1981 ) and the Deele 's `` Two Occasions '' ( 1987 ) , several other songwriters are credited . `` We Belong Together '' is built on a simple piano arrangement with an understated backbeat . The lyrics chronicle a woman 's desperation for her former lover to return .   Following her decline in popularity between 2001 and 2005 , critics dubbed the song her musical comeback , as many had considered her career over . `` We Belong Together '' earned her several music industry awards and nominations throughout 2005 -- 06 . The song broke chart records in the United States and became Carey 's sixteenth topper on the US Billboard Hot 100 . After staying at number one for fourteen non-consecutive weeks , it was placed as the second longest running number one song in US chart history , behind Carey 's own `` One Sweet Day , '' collaboration with Boyz II Men ( 1995 ) . Billboard listed it as the `` song of the decade '' and the ninth most popular song of all time . Additionally , it broke several airplay records , gathering both the largest one-day and one-week audiences in history . `` We Belong Together '' also topped the charts in Australia and reached the top two in Canada , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom .   The song 's music video was filmed as a two-part story with `` It 's Like That '' , which featured Carey at her bachelorette party . The video for `` We Belong Together '' is a continuation focusing on Carey 's wedding to an older and powerful man and ends with the singer eloping with her ex-lover . Rumors arose of the video 's connection to her 1993 marriage to Tommy Mottola . Carey performed the song on several award shows and television appearances around the world , namely MTV Movie Awards , MTV Video Music Awards , Macy 's Fourth of July Parade , The Oprah Winfrey Show and the 48th Grammy Awards . In Europe the song was performed at the Live 8 charity concert , the Fashion Rocks in Monaco , and the German Bambi Awards . Carey performed the song on both her Adventures of Mimi and Angels Advocate Tours ."}
{"_id": "We_Found_Love", "title": "We Found Love", "headings": "", "text": "`` We Found Love '' is a song recorded by Bajan singer Rihanna from her sixth studio album , Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was written and produced by , and features Scottish DJ Calvin Harris ; the song was also featured on his third album 18 Months ( 2012 ) . `` We Found Love '' premiered on September 22 , 2011 , on the Capital FM radio station in the United Kingdom , and was made available to download on the same day as the lead single from Talk That Talk . `` We Found Love '' is an uptempo electro house song , with elements of techno and Europop . The song 's lyrics speak of a couple who `` found love in a hopeless place '' .   `` We Found Love '' was met with mixed reviews from music critics , who praised the song 's composition and Rihanna 's vocal performance ; however , some critics felt that the lyrical content was sparse and came second to Harris ' production . The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 for ten non-consecutive weeks , becoming the longest running number-one single of 2011 . The single also surpassed `` Umbrella '' and became Rihanna 's longest running number one single . It was the singer 's eleventh song to top the Hot 100 , placing her in third place among female recording artists amassing the most number one singles . `` We Found Love '' topped the charts in twenty-five other countries including Canada , Ireland , New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . According to Billboard it is the 24th most successful single of all time in the US . As of 2015 , the single has sold 10.5 million copies worldwide , thus being one of the best selling singles of all time . This was the first of multiple collaborations by Rihanna and Harris , including `` Where Have You Been '' and `` This Is What You Came For '' .   The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Melina Matsoukas , depicts the singer as a drug-abusing thrill-seeker in a relationship that quickly spirals downward into addiction and violence . The video received a mixed response from critics , as they noted that it profoundly alludes to ex-boyfriend Chris Brown 's assault on Rihanna , two years prior . It attracted criticism from political commentators , who questioned the video for its suggestive sexual nature . However , the video won a Grammy for `` Best Short Form Music Video '' at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards and `` Video of the Year '' at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards . The song has been performed on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor , as well as at the 2012 Grammy Awards and the 2012 BRIT Awards . Multiple recording artists have covered `` We Found Love '' including alternative rock band Coldplay and English singer Jessie J . The song also used for the trailer of 2012 comedy-drama film Magic Mike , in the TV series Sherlock , and in the film American Honey"}
{"_id": "Weather", "title": "Weather", "headings": "", "text": "Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth .   Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change .   Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns .   Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind ."}
{"_id": "Weather_buoy", "title": "Weather buoy", "headings": "", "text": "Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world 's oceans , as well as aid during emergency response to chemical spills , legal proceedings , and engineering design . Moored buoys have been in use since 1951 , while drifting buoys have been used since 1979 . Moored buoys are connected with the ocean bottom using either chains , nylon , or buoyant polypropylene . With the decline of the weather ship , they have taken a more primary role in measuring conditions over the open seas since the 1970s . During the 1980s and 1990s , a network of buoys in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean helped study the El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Moored weather buoys range from 1.5 m to 12 m in diameter , while drifting buoys are smaller , with diameters of 30 cm to 40 cm . Drifting buoys are the dominant form of weather buoy in sheer number , with 1250 located worldwide . Wind data from buoys has smaller error than that from ships . There are differences in the values of sea surface temperature measurements between the two platforms as well , relating to the depth of the measurement and whether or not the water is heated by the ship which measures the quantity ."}
{"_id": "Weather_forecasting", "title": "Weather forecasting", "headings": "", "text": "Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location . Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia , and formally since the nineteenth century . Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change .   Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions , and sky condition , weather forecasting now relies on computer-based models that take many atmospheric factors into account . Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon , which involves pattern recognition skills , teleconnections , knowledge of model performance , and knowledge of model biases . The inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere , the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere , the error involved in measuring the initial conditions , and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes . Hence , forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made ( the range of the forecast ) increases . The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome .   There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts . Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property . Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture , and therefore to traders within commodity markets . Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days . On an everyday basis , people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day . Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain , snow and wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events , and to plan ahead and survive them . In 2014 , the US spent $ 5.1 billion on weather forecasting ."}
{"_id": "Weather_station", "title": "Weather station", "headings": "", "text": "A weather station is a facility , either on land or sea , with instruments and equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions to provide information for weather forecasts and to study the weather and climate . The measurements taken include temperature , atmospheric pressure , humidity , wind speed , wind direction , and precipitation amounts . Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible , while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation , or insolation . Manual observations are taken at least once daily , while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour . Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys , which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature ( SST ) , wave height , and wave period . Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount ."}
{"_id": "Web_of_Science", "title": "Web of Science", "headings": "", "text": "Web of Science ( previously known as Web of Knowledge ) is an online subscription-based scientific citation indexing service originally produced by the Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) , now maintained by Clarivate Analytics ( previously the Intellectual Property and Science business of Thomson Reuters ) , that provides a comprehensive citation search . It gives access to multiple databases that reference cross-disciplinary research , which allows for in-depth exploration of specialized sub-fields within an academic or scientific discipline ."}
{"_id": "Weichselian_glaciation", "title": "Weichselian glaciation", "headings": "", "text": "The last glacial period and its associated glaciation is known in Northern Europe as the Weichselian glaciation , Weichselian ice age ( Weichsel-Eiszeit ) , Vistulian glaciation , Weichsel or , less commonly , the Weichsel glaciation , Weichselian cold period ( Weichsel-Kaltzeit ) , Weichselian glacial ( Weichsel-Glazial ) , Weichselian Stage or , rarely , the Weichselian complex ( Weichsel-Komplex ) . In the Alpine region it corresponds to the Würm glaciation . It was characterized by a large ice sheet that spread out from the Scandinavian Mountains and extended as far as the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein , the March of Brandenburg and Northwest Russia .   In Northern Europe it was the youngest of the glacials of the Pleistocene ice age . The preceding warm period in this region was the Eemian interglacial . The last cold period began about 115,000 years ago and ended 11,700 years ago . Its end corresponds with the end of the Pleistocene epoch and start of the Holocene ."}
{"_id": "West_Antarctic_Ice_Sheet", "title": "West Antarctic Ice Sheet", "headings": "", "text": "The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea .   It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression .   Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons .   When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent ."}
{"_id": "West_Antarctica", "title": "West Antarctica", "headings": "", "text": "West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America .   West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season ."}
{"_id": "West_Coast_of_the_United_States", "title": "West Coast of the United States", "headings": "", "text": "The West Coast or Pacific Coast is the coastline along which the contiguous Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean . As a region , this term most often refers to the coastal states of California , Oregon and Washington . More specifically , it refers to an area defined on the east by the Cascade Range , Sierra Nevada and Mojave Desert , and on the west by the Pacific Ocean . The U.S. Census groups the five states of California , Oregon , Washington , Alaska , and Hawaii together as the Pacific States division ."}
{"_id": "West_Side_Highway", "title": "West Side Highway", "headings": "", "text": "The West Side Highway ( officially the Joe DiMaggio Highway ) is a mostly surface section of New York State Route 9A ( NY 9A ) that runs from West 72nd Street along the Hudson River to the southern tip of Manhattan in New York City . It replaced the West Side Elevated Highway , built between 1929 and 1951 , which was shut down in 1973 due to neglect and lack of maintenance , and was dismantled by 1989 . The term `` West Side Highway '' is often mistakenly used , particularly by the news media traffic reporters , to include the roadway north of 72nd Street which is properly known as the Henry Hudson Parkway .   The current highway was complete by 2001 , but required some reconstruction due to damage sustained in the 9/11 attacks . It uses the surface streets that existed before the elevated highway was built : West Street , Eleventh Avenue and Twelfth Avenue . A short section of 12th Avenue still runs between 125th and 138th Streets , under the Riverside Drive Viaduct . Eleventh Avenue is a separate street north of 22nd Street . The portion between West 42nd Street and Canal Street is part of the Lincoln Highway ."}
{"_id": "West_Virginia", "title": "West Virginia", "headings": "", "text": "West Virginia -LSB- wɛst_vərˈdʒɪnjə -RSB- is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States . It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast , Kentucky to the southwest , Ohio to the northwest , Pennsylvania to the north ( and , slightly , east ) , and Maryland to the northeast . West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area , is ranked 38th in population , and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States . The capital and largest city is Charleston .   West Virginia became a state following the Wheeling Conventions of 1861 , in which delegates from some Unionist counties of northwestern Virginia decided to break away from Virginia during the American Civil War , although they included many secessionist counties in the new state . West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20 , 1863 , and was a key Civil War border state . West Virginia was the only state to form by separating from a Confederate state , the first to separate from any state since Maine separated from Massachusetts , and was one of two states formed during the American Civil War ( the other being Nevada ) .   The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States . The northern panhandle extends adjacent to Pennsylvania and Ohio , with the West Virginia cities of Wheeling and Weirton just across the border from the Pittsburgh metropolitan area , while Bluefield is less than 70 mi from North Carolina . Huntington in the southwest is close to the states of Ohio and Kentucky , while Martinsburg and Harpers Ferry in the Eastern Panhandle region are considered part of the Washington metropolitan area , in between the states of Maryland and Virginia . The unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions , including the Mid-Atlantic , the Upland South , and the Southeastern United States . It is the only state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission ; the area is commonly defined as `` Appalachia '' .   The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills , its historically significant logging and coal mining industries , and its political and labor history . It is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world , making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research . The karst lands contribute to much of the state 's cool trout waters . It is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities , including skiing , whitewater rafting , fishing , hiking , backpacking , mountain biking , rock climbing , and hunting ."}
{"_id": "Western_United_States", "title": "Western United States", "headings": "", "text": "The Western United States , commonly referred to as the American West , the Far West , or simply the West , traditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost states of the United States . Because European settlement in the U.S. expanded westward after its founding , the meaning of the West has evolved over time . Prior to about 1800 , the crest of the Appalachian Mountains was seen as the western frontier .   Since then , the frontier generally moved westward and eventually lands west of the Mississippi River came to be referred to as the West . Though no consensus exists , even among experts , for the definition of the West as a region , the U.S. Census Bureau 's definition of the 13 westernmost states includes the Rocky Mountains and the Great Basin to the West Coast , and the outlying states of Hawaii and Alaska .   The West contains several major biomes . It is known for arid to semi-arid plateaus and plains , particularly in the American Southwest -- forested mountains , including the major ranges of the American Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains -- the massive coastal shoreline of the American Pacific Coast -- and the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest ."}
{"_id": "Wetland", "title": "Wetland", "headings": "", "text": "A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water , either permanently or seasonally , such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem . The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants , adapted to the unique hydric soil . Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment , principally water purification , flood control , carbon sink and shoreline stability . Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems , serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life .   Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica , the largest including the Amazon River basin , the West Siberian Plain , and the Pantanal in South America . The water found in wetlands can be freshwater , brackish , or saltwater . The main wetland types include swamps , marshes , bogs , and fens ; and sub-types include mangrove , carr , pocosin , and varzea .   The UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth . International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to inform people about wetland issues .   Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff . They may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design ."}
{"_id": "White-tailed_deer", "title": "White-tailed deer", "headings": "", "text": "The white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) , also known as the whitetail , is a medium-sized deer native to the United States , Canada , Mexico , Central America , and South America as far south as Peru and Bolivia . It has also been introduced to New Zealand , Cuba , Jamaica , Hispaniola , Puerto Rico , Bahamas , Lesser Antilles , and some countries in Europe , such as Finland , the Czech Republic , and Serbia . In the Americas , it is the most widely distributed wild ungulate .   In North America , the species is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains , but elsewhere , it is mostly replaced by the black-tailed or mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) . In western North America , it is found in aspen parklands and deciduous river bottomlands within the central and northern Great Plains , and in mixed deciduous riparian corridors , river valley bottomlands , and lower foothills of the northern Rocky Mountain regions from South Dakota and Wyoming to northeastern British Columbia , including the Montana Valley and Foothill grasslands .   The conversion of land adjacent to the northern Rockies into agriculture use and partial clear-cutting of coniferous trees ( resulting in widespread deciduous vegetation ) has been favorable to the white-tailed deer and has pushed its distribution to as far north as Fort St. John , British Columbia . Populations of deer around the Great Lakes have also expanded their range northwards , due to conversion of land to agricultural uses favoring more deciduous vegetation , and local caribou and moose populations . The westernmost population of the species , known as the Columbian white-tailed deer , once was widespread in the mixed forests along the Willamette and Cowlitz River valleys of western Oregon and southwestern Washington , but today its numbers have been considerably reduced , and it is classified as near-threatened ."}
{"_id": "Why_We_Love_Dogs,_Eat_Pigs,_and_Wear_Cows", "title": "Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows", "headings": "", "text": "Why We Love Dogs , Eat Pigs , and Wear Cows : An Introduction to Carnism ( 2009 ) is a book by American social psychologist Melanie Joy about the belief system and psychology of meat eating , or `` carnism '' . Joy coined the term carnism in 2001 and developed it in her doctoral dissertation in 2003 . Carnism is a subset of speciesism , and contrasts with ethical veganism , the moral commitment to abstain from consuming or using meat and other animal products ."}
{"_id": "Wide-body_aircraft", "title": "Wide-body aircraft", "headings": "", "text": "A wide-body aircraft is a jet airliner having a fuselage wide enough to accommodate two passenger aisles , also known as twin-aisle aircraft , with seven or more seats abreast . The typical fuselage diameter is 5 to . In the typical wide-body economy cabin , passengers are seated seven to ten abreast , allowing a total capacity of 200 to 850 passengers . The largest wide-body aircraft are over 6 m wide , and can accommodate up to eleven passengers abreast in high-density configurations .   By comparison , a typical narrow-body airliner has a diameter of 3 to , with a single aisle , and seats between two and six people abreast .   Wide-body aircraft were originally designed for a combination of efficiency and passenger comfort and to increase the amount of cargo space . However , airlines quickly gave in to economic factors , and reduced the extra passenger space in order to maximize revenue and profits .   Wide-body aircraft are also used for the transport of commercial freight and cargo and other special uses , described further below .   The biggest wide-body aircraft are known as jumbo jets due to their very large size ; examples include the Boeing 747 ( `` jumbo jet '' ) , Airbus A380 ( `` superjumbo jet '' ) , and upcoming Boeing 777X ( `` mini jumbo jet '' ) . The phrase , `` jumbo jet '' , derives from Jumbo , a famous circus elephant in the 19th century .   7-abreast aircraft seats typically 160 to 260 passengers , 8-abreast 250 to 380 , 9 and 10-abreast 350 to 480 ."}
{"_id": "Wikipedia", "title": "Wikipedia", "headings": "", "text": "Wikipedia ( -LSB- wɪkiˈpiːdiə -RSB- ) is a free online encyclopedia with the aim to allow anyone to edit articles . Wikipedia is the largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites . Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation .   Wikipedia was launched on January 15 , 2001 , by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger . Sanger coined Wikipedia , a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia . There was only the English language version initially , but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages , which differ in content and in editing practices . With articles , the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias . Overall , Wikipedia consists of more than 40 million articles in more than 250 different languages and , , it had 18 billion page views and nearly 500 million unique visitors each month .   As of March 2017 , Wikipedia has about forty thousand high-quality articles known as Featured Articles and Good Articles that cover vital topics . In 2005 , Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia , and found that Wikipedia 's level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas . Criticism of Wikipedia includes claims that it exhibits systemic bias , presents a mixture of `` truths , half truths , and some falsehoods '' , and that , in controversial topics , it is subject to manipulation and spin ."}
{"_id": "Wild_fisheries", "title": "Wild fisheries", "headings": "", "text": "A fishery is an area with an associated fish or aquatic population which is harvested for its commercial value . Fisheries can be marine ( saltwater ) or freshwater . They can also be wild or farmed .   Wild fisheries are sometimes called capture fisheries . The aquatic life they support is not controlled in any meaningful way and needs to be `` captured '' or fished . Wild fisheries exist primarily in the oceans , and particularly around coasts and continental shelves . They also exist in lakes and rivers . Issues with wild fisheries are overfishing and pollution . Significant wild fisheries have collapsed or are in danger of collapsing , due to overfishing and pollution . Overall , production from the world 's wild fisheries has levelled out , and may be starting to decline .   As a contrast to wild fisheries , farmed fisheries can operate in sheltered coastal waters , in rivers , lakes and ponds , or in enclosed bodies of water such as tanks . Farmed fisheries are technological in nature , and revolve around developments in aquaculture . Farmed fisheries are expanding , and Chinese aquaculture in particular is making many advances . Nevertheless , the majority of fish consumed by humans continues to be sourced from wild fisheries . As of the early 21st century , fish is humanity 's only significant wild food source ."}
{"_id": "Wildfire", "title": "Wildfire", "headings": "", "text": "A wildfire or wildland fire is a fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside or rural area . Depending on the type of vegetation where it occurs , a wildfire can also be classified more specifically as a brush fire , bush fire , desert fire , forest fire , grass fire , hill fire , peat fire , vegetation fire , or veld fire . Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants 420 million years ago . Wildfire 's occurrence throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems ' flora and fauna . Earth is an intrinsically flammable planet owing to its cover of carbon-rich vegetation , seasonally dry climates , atmospheric oxygen , and widespread lightning and volcano ignitions .   Wildfires can be characterized in terms of the cause of ignition , their physical properties , the combustible material present , and the effect of weather on the fire . Wildfires can cause damage to property and human life , but they have many beneficial effects on native vegetation , animals , and ecosystems that have evolved with fire . Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction . However , wildfire in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have negative ecological effects . Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of factors such as available fuels , physical setting , and weather . Analyses of historical meteorological data and national fire records in western North America show the primacy of climate in driving large regional fires via wet periods that create substantial fuels or drought and warming that extend conducive fire weather .   Strategies of wildfire prevention , detection , and suppression have varied over the years . One common and inexpensive technique is controlled burning : permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire . Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation . Wildland fire use is the cheapest and most ecologically appropriate policy for many forests . Fuels may also be removed by logging , but fuels treatments and thinning have no effect on severe fire behavior . Wildfire itself is reportedly `` the most effective treatment for reducing a fire 's rate of spread , fireline intensity , flame length , and heat per unit of area '' according to Jan Van Wagtendonk , a biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station . Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure ."}
{"_id": "Wildlife", "title": "Wildlife", "headings": "", "text": "Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species , but has come to include all plants , fungi , and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans .   Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems . Deserts , forests , rain forests , plains , grasslands and other areas including the most developed urban areas , all have distinct forms of wildlife . While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human factors , most scientists agree that much wildlife is affected by human activities .   Humans have historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways including the legal , social , and moral sense . Some animals , however , have adapted to suburban environments . This includes such animals as domesticated cats , dogs , mice , and gerbils . Some religions declare certain animals to be sacred , and in modern times concern for the natural environment has provoked activists to protest against the exploitation of wildlife for human benefit or entertainment .   The global wildlife population has decreased by 52 percent between 1970 and 2014 , according to a report by the World Wildlife Fund ."}
{"_id": "Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe", "title": "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe", "headings": "", "text": "The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) , originally known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( MAP ) , was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) -- the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang . Headed by Professor Charles L. Bennett of Johns Hopkins University , the mission was developed in a joint partnership between the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and Princeton University . The WMAP spacecraft was launched on June 30 , 2001 from Florida . The WMAP mission succeeded the COBE space mission and was the second medium-class ( MIDEX ) spacecraft in the NASA Explorers program . In 2003 , MAP was renamed WMAP in honor of cosmologist David Todd Wilkinson ( 1935 -- 2002 ) , who had been a member of the mission 's science team . After 9 years of operations , WMAP was switched off in 2010 , following the launch of the more advanced Planck spacecraft by ESA in 2009 .   WMAP 's measurements played a key role in establishing the current Standard Model of Cosmology : the Lambda-CDM model . The WMAP data are very well fit by a universe that is dominated by dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant . Other cosmological data are also consistent , and together tightly constrain the Model . In the Lambda-CDM model of the universe , the age of the universe is billion years . The WMAP mission 's determination of the age of the universe to better than 1 % precision . The current expansion rate of the universe is ( see Hubble constant ) of . The content of the universe presently consists of ordinary baryonic matter ; cold dark matter ( CDM ) that neither emits nor absorbs light ; and of dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant that accelerates the expansion of the universe . Less than 1 % of the current contents of the universe is in neutrinos , but WMAP 's measurements have found , for the first time in 2008 , that the data prefers the existence of a cosmic neutrino background with an effective number of neutrino species of . The contents point to a Euclidean flat geometry , with curvature of . The WMAP measurements also support the cosmic inflation paradigm in several ways , including the flatness measurement .   The mission has won various awards : according to Science magazine , the WMAP was the Breakthrough of the Year for 2003 . This mission 's results papers were first and second in the `` Super Hot Papers in Science Since 2003 '' list . Of the all-time most referenced papers in physics and astronomy in the INSPIRE-HEP database , only three have been published since 2000 , and all three are WMAP publications . Bennett , Lyman A. Page , Jr. , and David N. Spergel , the latter both of Princeton University , shared the 2010 Shaw Prize in astronomy for their work on WMAP . Bennett and the WMAP science team were awarded the 2012 Gruber Prize in cosmology .   As of October 2010 , the WMAP spacecraft is derelict in a heliocentric graveyard orbit after 9 years of operations . All WMAP data are released to the public and have been subject to careful scrutiny . The final official data release was the nine-year release in 2012 .   Some aspects of the data are statistically unusual for the Standard Model of Cosmology . For example , the largest angular-scale measurement , the quadrupole moment , is somewhat smaller than the Model would predict , but this discrepancy is not highly significant . A large cold spot and other features of the data are more statistically significant , and research continues into these ."}
{"_id": "William_Nordhaus", "title": "William Nordhaus", "headings": "", "text": "William Dawbney `` Bill '' Nordhaus ( born May 31 , 1941 ) is an economist and Sterling Professor of Economics at Yale University , best known for his work in economic modeling and climate change ."}
{"_id": "Wind", "title": "Wind", "headings": "", "text": "Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale . On the surface of the Earth , wind consists of the bulk movement of air . In outer space , solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the Sun through space , while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet 's atmosphere into space . Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale , their speed , the types of forces that cause them , the regions in which they occur , and their effect . The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune and Saturn . Winds have various aspects , an important one being its velocity ( wind speed ) ; another the density of the gas involved ; another its energy content or wind energy .   In meteorology , winds are often referred to according to their strength , and the direction from which the wind is blowing . Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts . Strong winds of intermediate duration ( around one minute ) are termed squalls . Long-duration winds have various names associated with their average strength , such as breeze , gale , storm , and hurricane . Wind occurs on a range of scales , from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes , to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours , to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth . The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles , and the rotation of the planet ( Coriolis effect ) . Within the tropics , thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations . In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds ; in areas that have variable terrain , mountain and valley breezes can dominate local winds .   In human civilization , wind has inspired mythology , influenced the events of history , expanded the range of transport and warfare , and provided a power source for mechanical work , electricity and recreation . Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth 's oceans . Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips , and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption . Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft . When winds become strong , trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed .   Winds can shape landforms , via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils , such as loess , and by erosion . Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds ; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions . Wind also affects the spread of wildfires . Winds can disperse seeds from various plants , enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species , as well as flying insect populations . When combined with cold temperatures , wind has a negative impact on livestock . Wind affects animals ' food stores , as well as their hunting and defensive strategies ."}
{"_id": "Wind_farm", "title": "Wind farm", "headings": "", "text": "A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity . A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles , but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes . A wind farm can also be located offshore .   Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in China , the United States and Germany . For example , the largest wind farm in the world , Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW as of 2012 , with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020 . As of April 2013 , the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world .   There are many large wind farms under construction , including Fosen Vind ( 1000 MW ) , Sinus Holding Wind Farm ( 700 MW ) , Lincs Wind Farm ( 270 MW ) , Lower Snake River Wind Project ( 343 MW ) , Macarthur Wind Farm ( 420 MW ) ."}
{"_id": "Wind_power", "title": "Wind power", "headings": "", "text": "Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources .   Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations .   Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur .   As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU ."}
{"_id": "Wind_power_in_the_United_States", "title": "Wind power in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry that has expanded quickly over the latest several years . For calendar year 2016 , wind power in the United States amounted to 226.5 terawatt-hours , or 5.55 % of all generated electrical energy .   As of January 2017 , the U.S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts ( MW ) . This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union . Thus far , wind power 's largest growth in capacity was in 2012 , when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed , representing 26.5 % of new power capacity .   In 2016 , Nebraska became the eighteenth state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity .  Texas , with over 20,000 MW of capacity , had the most installed wind power capacity of any U.S. state at the end of 2016 . Texas also had more under construction than any other state currently has installed . The state generating the highest percentage of energy from wind power is Iowa . North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation . The Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW . GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer ."}
{"_id": "Wind_turbine", "title": "Wind turbine", "headings": "", "text": "A wind turbine is a device that converts the wind 's kinetic energy into electrical power .   Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types . The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs . Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid . Arrays of large turbines , known as wind farms , are becoming an increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels ."}
{"_id": "Windmill", "title": "Windmill", "headings": "", "text": "A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes called sails or blades . Centuries ago , windmills usually were used to mill grain ( gristmills ) , pump water ( windpumps ) , or both . The majority of modern windmills take the form of wind turbines used to generate electricity , or windpumps used to pump water , either for land drainage or to extract groundwater ."}
{"_id": "Winter", "title": "Winter", "headings": "", "text": "Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) ."}
{"_id": "Winter_1985_cold_wave", "title": "Winter 1985 cold wave", "headings": "", "text": "The Winter 1985 cold wave was a meteorological event , the result of the shifting of the polar vortex further south than is normally seen . Blocked from its normal movement , polar air from the north pushed into nearly every section of the eastern half of the United States and Canada , shattering record lows in a number of areas . The event was preceded by unusually warm weather in the eastern U.S. in December 1984 , suggesting that there was a build-up of cold air that was suddenly released from the Arctic , a meteorological event known as a Mobile Polar High , a weather process identified by Professor Marcel Leroux ."}
{"_id": "Winter_storm", "title": "Winter storm", "headings": "", "text": "A winter storm is an event in which varieties of precipitation are formed that only occur at low temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are low enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . In temperate continental climates , these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season , but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America ."}
{"_id": "Winter_storm_naming_in_the_United_States", "title": "Winter storm naming in the United States", "headings": "", "text": "Winter storm naming in the United States has been used since the mid 1700s in various ways to describe historical winter storms . These names have been coined from days of the year that the storm impacted , to noteworthy structures such as a theatre the storm had destroyed . In recent years winter storm naming has become controversial with the Weather Channel , and various media coming up with their own names for winter storms . It has been argued by meteorologists that winter storms can reform more than once , making the process of naming them both difficult and redundant . On the other side of the argument those in favor of naming storms argue that the names help people with preparation . Entities from the United States government which includes the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , and the National Weather Service ( NWS ) have also weighed in stating that they would not be naming winter storms , and have asked others to refrain from doing so . Despite the request though , the issue with naming winter storms continues to come up yearly with various names dubbed by the media ."}
{"_id": "Wisconsin", "title": "Wisconsin", "headings": "", "text": "Wisconsin ( -LSB- wᵻˈskɒnsᵻn -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States , in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions . It is bordered by Minnesota to the west , Iowa to the southwest , Illinois to the south , Lake Michigan to the east , Michigan to the northeast , and Lake Superior to the north . Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous . The state capital is Madison , and its largest city is Milwaukee , which is located on the western shore of Lake Michigan . The state is divided into 72 counties .   Wisconsin 's geography is diverse , with the Northern Highland and Western Upland along with a part of the Central Plain occupying the western part of the state and lowlands stretching to the shore of Lake Michigan . Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline .   Wisconsin is known as `` America 's Dairyland '' because it is one of the nation 's leading dairy producers , particularly famous for its cheese . Manufacturing , especially paper products , information technology ( IT ) , and tourism are also major contributors to the state 's economy ."}
{"_id": "Woodbridge_Township,_New_Jersey", "title": "Woodbridge Township, New Jersey", "headings": "", "text": "Woodbridge Township is a township in Middlesex County , New Jersey , United States . As of the 2010 United States Census , the township had a total population of 99,585 , reflecting an increase of 2,382 ( +2.5 % ) from the 97,203 counted in the 2000 Census , which had in turn increased by 4,117 ( +4.4 % ) from the 93,086 counted in the 1990 Census . Woodbridge was the sixth-most-populous municipality in New Jersey in 2010 , the same ranking it held a decade earlier .   According to Joshua Coffin , the early settlers included `` Captain John Pike , the ancestor of General Zebulon Montgomery Pike , who was killed at the battle of Queenstown in 1813 ; Thomas Bloomfield , the ancestor of Joseph Bloomfield , some years governor of New Jersey , for whom the township of Bloomfield , New Jersey is named ; John Bishop , senior and junior ; Jonathan Haynes ; Henry Jaques ; George March ; Stephen Kent ; Abraham Toppan , junior ; Elisha Ilsley ; Hugh March ; John Bloomfield ; Samuel Moore ; Nathaniel Webster ; John Ilsley ; and others . '' Woodbridge was the site of the first gristmill in New Jersey . The mill was built by Jonathan Singletary Dunham ( married to Mary Bloomfield , relative of Joseph Bloomfield ) ."}
{"_id": "World_Bank", "title": "World Bank", "headings": "", "text": "The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries of the world for capital programs . It comprises two institutions : the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) , and the International Development Association ( IDA ) . The World Bank is a component of the World Bank Group , which is part of the United Nations system .   The World Bank 's stated official goal is the reduction of poverty . However , according to its Articles of Agreement , all its decisions must be guided by a commitment to the promotion of foreign investment and international trade and to the facilitation of capital investment ."}
{"_id": "World_War_I", "title": "World War I", "headings": "", "text": "World War I ( WWI or WW1 ) , also known as the First World War , the Great War , or the War to End All Wars , was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918 . More than 70 million military personnel , including 60 million Europeans , were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history . Over nine million combatants and seven million civilians died as a result of the war ( including the victims of a number of genocides ) , a casualty rate exacerbated by the belligerents ' technological and industrial sophistication , and the tactical stalemate caused by gruelling trench warfare . It was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , and paved the way for major political changes , including revolutions in many of the nations involved and to WWII twenty-one years later .   The war drew in all the world 's economic great powers , assembled in two opposing alliances : the Allies ( based on the Triple Entente of the Russian Empire , the French Third Republic , and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ) versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary . Although Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary , it did not join the Central Powers , as Austria-Hungary had taken the offensive against the terms of the alliance . These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war : Italy , Japan and the United States joined the Allies , while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers .   The trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary , by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 . This set off a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia , and entangled international alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked . Within weeks , the major powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world .   On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July , the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia . Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise , and when this was refused , declared war on Russia on 1 August . Being outnumbered on the eastern front , Russia urged its Triple Entente ally France to open up a second front in the west . Back in 1870 , the Franco-Prussian war had ended the Second French Empire and ceded the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine to a unified Germany . Bitterness over their defeat and the determinance to retake Alsace-Lorraine made the acceptance of Russia 's plea for help an easy choice so France began full mobilisation on 1 August and on 3 August , Germany declared war on France . The border between France and Germany was heavily fortified on both sides so according to the Schlieffen Plan , Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France from the north , leading the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 4 August due to their violation of Belgian neutrality . After the German march on Paris was halted in the Battle of the Marne , what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition , with a trench line that changed little until 1917 . On the Eastern Front , the Russian army led a successful campaign against the Austro-Hungarians , but the Germans stopped its invasion of East Prussia in the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes . In November 1914 , the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers , opening fronts in the Caucasus , Mesopotamia and the Sinai . In 1915 , Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers ; Romania joined the Allies in 1916 , as did the United States in 1917 .   The Russian government collapsed in March 1917 , and a revolution in November followed by a further military defeat brought the Russians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty of Brest Litovsk , which granted the Germans a significant victory . After a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918 , the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives . On 4 November 1918 , the Austro-Hungarian empire agreed to an armistice , and Germany , which had its own trouble with revolutionaries , agreed to an armistice on 11 November 1918 , ending the war in victory for the Allies .   By the end of the war or soon after , the German Empire , Russian Empire , Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist . National borders were redrawn , with several independent nations restored or created , and Germany 's colonies were parceled out among the victors . During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 , the Big Four ( Britain , France , the United States and Italy ) imposed their terms in a series of treaties . The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict . This effort failed , and economic depression , renewed nationalism , weakened successor states , and feelings of humiliation ( particularly in Germany ) eventually contributed to the start of World War II ."}
{"_id": "World_energy_consumption", "title": "World energy consumption", "headings": "", "text": "World energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human civilization . Typically measured per year , it involves all energy harnessed from every energy source applied towards humanity 's endeavours across every single industrial and technological sector , across every country . It does not include energy from food , and the extent to which direct biomass burning has been accounted for is poorly documented . Being the power source metric of civilization , World Energy Consumption has deep implications for humanity 's socio-economic-political sphere .   Institutions such as the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) , the U.S. Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) , and the European Environment Agency record and publish energy data periodically . Improved data and understanding of World Energy Consumption may reveal systemic trends and patterns , which could help frame current energy issues and encourage movement towards collectively useful solutions .   Closely related to energy consumption is the concept of total primary energy supply ( TPES ) , which - on a global level - is the sum of energy production minus storage changes . Since changes of energy storage over the year are minor , TPES values can be used as an estimator for energy consumption . However , TPES ignores conversion efficiency , overstating forms of energy with poor conversion efficiency ( e.g. coal , gas and nuclear ) and understating forms already accounted for in converted forms ( e.g. photovoltaic or hydroelectricity ) . The IEA estimates that , in 2013 , total primary energy supply ( TPES ) was 1.575 × 1017 Wh ( = 157.5 PWh , 5.67 × 1020 joules , or 13,541 Mtoe ) . From 2000 -- 2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth . The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth , followed by hydropower and renewable energy . Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period . The demand for nuclear energy decreased , in part due to nuclear disasters ( e.g. Three Mile Island 1979 , Chernobyl 1986 , and Fukushima 2011 ) .   In 2011 , expenditures on energy totalled over 6 trillion USD , or about 10 % of the world gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Europe spends close to one-quarter of the world 's energy expenditures , North America close to 20 % , and Japan 6 % ."}
{"_id": "Year", "title": "Year", "headings": "", "text": "A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and , consequently , vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe , four seasons are generally recognized : spring , summer , autumn and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons ; but in the seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked .   A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth 's orbital period as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian , or modern , calendar , presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days , as do the Julian calendars ; see below . For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the calendar year ( the mean year ) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days . The ISO standard ISO 80000-3 , Annex C , supports the symbol `` a '' ( for Latin annus ) to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days . In English , the abbreviations `` y '' and `` yr '' are commonly used .   In astronomy , the Julian year is a unit of time ; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly seconds ( SI base unit ) , totalling exactly seconds in the Julian astronomical year .   The word `` year '' is also used for periods loosely associated with , but not identical to , the calendar or astronomical year , such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. . Similarly , `` year '' can mean the orbital period of any planet : for example , a Martian year or a Venusian year are examples of the time a planet takes to transit one complete orbit . The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle , such as the Great Year ."}
{"_id": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "title": "Year Without a Summer", "headings": "", "text": "The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere .   Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades ."}
{"_id": "Years_of_Living_Dangerously", "title": "Years of Living Dangerously", "headings": "", "text": "Years of Living Dangerously is an American documentary television series focusing on global warming . The first season , of nine weekly episodes , premiered in the US on April 13 , 2014 , on Showtime . It won an Emmy Award as Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series . The second season , consisting of eight episodes , aired on the National Geographic Channel , beginning on October 30 , 2016 , with broader international distribution than the first season . Executive producers included James Cameron , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Robert Palumbo , and series creators Joel Bach and David Gelber ( formerly of 60 Minutes ) . Joseph Romm and Heidi Cullen were the chief science advisors .   The weekly episodes featured celebrity hosts with a history of environmental activism and well-known journalists with a background in environmental reportage . These `` correspondents '' traveled the world and throughout the U.S. to interview experts and ordinary people affected by , and seeking solutions to , the effects of global warming . They acted as reporters and proxies for the audience , asking questions to find out people 's opinions and to discover the scientific evidence . The final episode of season one featured an interview of President Barack Obama . Executive producers for season one were Cameron , Schwarzenegger , clean energy investor and environmental activist Daniel Abbasi , Jerry Weintraub , Bach and Gelber .   Episodes explored the effects of rising sea levels , historic droughts and flooding , water scarcity , ocean acidification , deforestation and the rapidly increasing extinction rate of species , but also focused on `` solutions that individuals , communities , companies and even governments can use to address worldwide climate change '' , including cheaper solar and wind energy , advancing battery technology and electric cars . Hosts included Cameron , Schwarzenegger , Harrison Ford , Ian Somerhalder , America Ferrera , David Letterman , Gisele Bündchen , Jack Black , Matt Damon , Jessica Alba , Sigourney Weaver , and various other actors and journalists .   Schwarzenegger reflected on how the series tries to make the issue of climate change resonate with the public : `` I think the environmental movement only can be successful if we are simple and clear and make it a human story . We will tell human stories in this project . The scientists would never get the kind of attention that someone in show business gets . '' Cameron elaborated : `` We did n't use our celebrities as talking head experts , because they 're not climate experts . They were concerned , intelligent , curious citizens who were out to find answers . They were functioning as journalists . '' Newsweek said that the celebrity hosts `` lend sparks to an issue that sends most viewers for the exits '' ."}
{"_id": "Younger_Dryas", "title": "Younger Dryas", "headings": "", "text": "The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming .   The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas .   The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP .   In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) ."}
{"_id": "ZFS", "title": "ZFS", "headings": "", "text": "ZFS is a combined file system and logical volume manager designed by Sun Microsystems . The features of ZFS include protection against data corruption , support for high storage capacities , efficient data compression , integration of the concepts of filesystem and volume management , snapshots and copy-on-write clones , continuous integrity checking and automatic repair , RAID-Z and native NFSv4 ACLs .   The ZFS name is registered as a trademark of Oracle Corporation ; although it was briefly given the retrofitted expanded name `` Zettabyte File System '' , it is no longer considered an initialism .  Originally , ZFS was proprietary , closed-source software developed internally by Sun as part of Solaris , with a team led by the CTO of Sun 's storage business unit and Sun Fellow , Jeff Bonwick .  In 2005 , the bulk of Solaris , including ZFS , was licensed as open-source software under the Common Development and Distribution License ( CDDL ) , as the OpenSolaris project . ZFS became a standard feature of Solaris 10 in June 2006 .   In 2010 , Oracle stopped the releasing of source code for new OpenSolaris and ZFS development , effectively forking their closed-source development from the open-source branch . In response , OpenZFS was created as a new open-source development umbrella project , aiming at bringing together individuals and companies that use the ZFS filesystem in an open-source manner ."}
{"_id": "Zero-energy_building", "title": "Zero-energy building", "headings": "", "text": "A zero-energy building , also known as a zero net energy ( ZNE ) building , net-zero energy building ( NZEB ) , or net zero building , is a building with zero net energy consumption , meaning the total amount of energy used by the building on an annual basis is roughly equal to the amount of renewable energy created on the site , or in other definitions by renewable energy sources elsewhere . These buildings consequently contribute less overall greenhouse gas to the atmosphere than similar non-ZNE buildings . They do at times consume non-renewable energy and produce greenhouse gases , but at other times reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas production elsewhere by the same amount . A similar concept approved and implemented by the European Union and other agreeing countries is nearly Zero Energy Building ( nZEB ) , with the goal of having all buildings in the region under nZEB standards by 2020 .   Most zero net energy buildings get half or more of their energy from the grid , and return the same amount at other times . Buildings that produce a surplus of energy over the year may be called `` energy-plus buildings '' and buildings that consume slightly more energy than they produce are called `` near-zero energy buildings '' or `` ultra-low energy houses '' .   Traditional buildings consume 40 % of the total fossil fuel energy in the US and European Union and are significant contributors of greenhouse gases . The zero net energy consumption principle is viewed as a means to reduce carbon emissions and reduce dependence on fossil fuels and although zero-energy buildings remain uncommon even in developed countries , they are gaining importance and popularity .   Most zero-energy buildings use the electrical grid for energy storage but some are independent of the grid . Energy is usually harvested on-site through energy producing technologies like solar and wind , while reducing the overall use of energy with highly efficient HVAC and lighting technologies . The zero-energy goal is becoming more practical as the costs of alternative energy technologies decrease and the costs of traditional fossil fuels increase .   The development of modern zero-energy buildings became possible not only through the progress made in new energy and construction technologies and techniques , but it has also been significantly improved by academic research , which collects precise energy performance data on traditional and experimental buildings and provides performance parameters for advanced computer models to predict the efficacy of engineering designs . Zero-energy buildings can be part of a smart grid . Some advantages of these buildings are as follows :  Integration of renewable energy resources  Integration of plug-in electric vehicles  Implementation of zero-energy concepts   The net zero concept is applicable to a wide range of resources due to the many options for producing and conserving resources in buildings ( e.g. energy , water , waste ) . Energy is the first resource to be targeted because it is highly managed , expected to continually become more efficient , and the ability to distribute and allocate it will improve disaster resiliency ."}
{"_id": "Zika_fever", "title": "Zika fever", "headings": "", "text": "Zika fever , also known as Zika virus disease or simply Zika , is an infectious disease caused by the Zika virus . Most cases have no symptoms , but when present they are usually mild and can resemble dengue fever . Symptoms may include fever , red eyes , joint pain , headache , and a maculopapular rash . Symptoms generally last less than seven days . It has not caused any reported deaths during the initial infection . Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy can cause microcephaly and other brain malformations in some babies . Infections in adults have been linked to Guillain -- Barré syndrome ( GBS ) .   Zika fever is mainly spread via the bite of mosquitoes of the Aedes type . It can also be sexually transmitted and potentially spread by blood transfusions . Infections in pregnant women can spread to the baby . Diagnosis is by testing the blood , urine , or saliva for the presence of the virus 's RNA when the person is sick , or the blood for antibodies after symptoms are present more than a week .   Prevention involves decreasing mosquito bites in areas where the disease occurs and proper use of condoms . Efforts to prevent bites include the use of insect repellent , covering much of the body with clothing , mosquito nets , and getting rid of standing water where mosquitoes reproduce . There is no effective vaccine . Health officials recommended that women in areas affected by the 2015 -- 16 Zika outbreak consider putting off pregnancy and that pregnant women not travel to these areas . While there is no specific treatment , paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) may help with the symptoms . Admission to hospital is rarely necessary .   The virus that causes the disease was first isolated in Africa in 1947 . The first documented outbreak among people occurred in 2007 in the Federated States of Micronesia . An outbreak started in Brazil in 2015 , and spread to the Americas , Pacific , Asia , and Africa . This led to the World Health Organization declared it a Public Health Emergency of International Concern in February 2016 . The emergency was lifted in November 2016 , but 84 countries still reported cases as of March 2017 ."}
{"_id": "Zika_virus", "title": "Zika virus", "headings": "", "text": "Zika virus ( ZIKV ) is a member of the virus family Flaviviridae . It is spread by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes , such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus . Its name comes from the Zika Forest of Uganda , where the virus was first isolated in 1947 . Zika virus is related to the dengue , yellow fever , Japanese encephalitis , and West Nile viruses . Since the 1950s , it has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia . From 2007 to , the virus spread eastward , across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas , leading to the 2015 -- 16 Zika virus epidemic .   The infection , known as Zika fever or Zika virus disease , often causes no or only mild symptoms , similar to a very mild form of dengue fever . While there is no specific treatment , paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) and rest may help with the symptoms . , the illness can not be prevented by medications or vaccines . Zika can spread from a pregnant woman to her baby . This can result in microcephaly , severe brain malformations , and other birth defects . Zika infections in adults may result rarely in Guillain -- Barré syndrome .   In January 2016 , the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) issued travel guidance on affected countries , including the use of enhanced precautions , and guidelines for pregnant women including considering postponing travel . Other governments or health agencies also issued similar travel warnings , while Colombia , the Dominican Republic , Puerto Rico , Ecuador , El Salvador , and Jamaica advised women to postpone getting pregnant until more is known about the risks . Zika is pronounced -LSB- ˈziːkə -RSB- or -LSB- ˈzɪkə -RSB- ."}