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J Intellect Disabil Res . Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Jan 1. Published in final edited form as: J Intellect Disabil Res. 2021 Dec 9;66(1-2):1–8. doi: 10.1111/jir.12906 Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods, and Treatment Deborah J Fidler Deborah J Fidler 1 Colorado State Uni... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.569 | 0.854 | ["education", "innovation", "philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.875133 | [
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Find articles by Silvia Lanfranchi 2 Author information Article notes Copyright and License information 1 Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA 2 University of Padova, Padova, Italy ✉ Corresponding author: Dr. Deborah Fidler, Human Development and Family Studies, Colorado State University, 313 Behavioral Sci... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.557 | 0.812 | ["education", "philosophy", "family"] | 419 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.875373 | [
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Deborah.Fidler@ColoState.EDU Issue date 2022 Jan. Keywords: Executive function, Intellectual disability PMC Copyright notice PMCID: PMC8766896 NIHMSID: NIHMS1755982 PMID: 34888975 The publisher's version of this article is available at J Intellect Disabil Res The definition of intellectual disability (ID) has evolved o... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.546 | 0.83 | [] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.875491 | [
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age cognitive functioning (intellectual capacity) and challenges in everyday activities in home, school, community, and employment environments (adaptive behaviour). These two critical elements, cognition and adaptation, are understood as distinct constructs—one that focuses on information processing and reasoning skil... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.352 | 0.838 | ["philosophy", "crisis", "career", "family", "education"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.875639 | [
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ual capacity and adaptive behaviour is complex, and likely involves important auxiliary constructs that are not currently included in the technical definition of ID. In this special issue of JIDR , we highlight one such construct, executive function (EF), that plays a key cognitive regulatory role in the link between i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.526 | 0.86 | ["education"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.875763 | [
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ment, neuropsychology, neuroscience, and psychopathology over the past several decades. Along the way, leading scholars in the study of EF have postulated that dysregulated EF is so pervasive among clinical populations that it may be an indicator itself of the presence of developmental psychopathology ( Zelazo, 2020 ).... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.534 | 0.85 | ["leadership", "education"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.875967 | [
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asic science and treatment in those populations ( Ozonoff & Jensen, 1999 ). Despite major advances in EF research, our understanding of executive function and dysfunction among individuals with ID has large gaps. Though a growing number of studies report laboratory-based and proxy-report findings regarding EF outcomes ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.371 | 0.844 | ["economy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876113 | [
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ce regarding the conceptual importance of EF and the role that it may play as a key auxiliary factor in the lives of individuals with ID. Indeed, with its focus on regulatory aspects of cognition, EF may have a unique influence on the link between overall intellectual challenges and one’s ability to meet the demands of... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.53 | 0.856 | ["communication", "crisis", "rhetoric"] | 460 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876253 | [
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a contemporary, in depth exploration of EF in ID. They address questions regarding the nature of EF in individuals with ID, the emergence of EF during early childhood in ID-related conditions, the influence of EF on other domains of development, and implications of EF for adaptation and well-being throughout the lifesp... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.511 | 0.87 | ["communication", "philosophy", "rhetoric"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876426 | [
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a catalyst for future research that continues to address unanswered questions. In addition, the articles in this special issue collectively identify methodological challenges regarding the valid assessment of EF in ID that our field will continue to face in the future. The insights gained from these new contributions a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.512 | 0.84 | ["communication", "crisis"] | 471 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876585 | [
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cal themes represented in this work collectively. EF in people with ID Perhaps the most foundational contribution in this special issue relates to characterising the nature of EF in people with ID. Taken together, the papers included in this special issue generate a picture of wide-ranging vulnerabilities in EF and pro... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.525 | 0.866 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876709 | [
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cted by Spaniol and Danielsson (2022) , who report a broad impairment in EF in individuals with ID even when compared to TD children at similar mental ages. Their metanalysis demonstrates that EF challenges seem to be observed in each EF domain considered; however, a great deal of heterogeneity was observed among the s... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.374 | 0.868 | ["crisis", "family"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876827 | [
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explained by phenotypic EF profiles that tend to vary among neurogenetic conditions. A second article in this special issue further characterises the interplay between EF an ID. Erostarbe-Pérez, Reparaz-Abaitua, Martinez-Pérez & Magallon-Recalde (2022) , examined the relationship between EF, assessed via both laborator... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.533 | 0.846 | ["networking", "economy", "family"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.876964 | [
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3 ) in a sample of students with ID and Borderline Intellectual Functioning (BIF). They report a significant correlation, moderate in magnitude, between intelligence and EF in the sample considered. As in typical development, the correlations were stronger for some aspects of intelligence, such as perceptual reasoning,... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.401 | 0.82 | ["philosophy"] | 416 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877146 | [
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ts of intelligence, such as verbal comprehension. One notable finding from their study was that the EF component process of working memory was most strongly correlated with intelligence. This aligns with the fact that working memory is particularly impacted in many individuals with ID, and raises a critical question: i... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.343 | 0.862 | ["education"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877263 | [
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e tests tend to include working memory in their overall IQ composite scores, a concerned raised by Spaniol and Danielsson (2022) ? This issue of measurement and confounds will be revisited in the methodological discussion below, and will be important to address in future work on the nature of EF in ID. Etiology-specifi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.525 | 0.862 | ["communication", "education", "philosophy"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877378 | [
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noff & Jensen, 1997) that can be characterized in subgroups of people with ID. Several articles focus on aspects of EF in Down syndrome, the most common neurogenetic condition associated with ID. Carretti, Meneghetti, Doerr, Toffalini and Lanfranchi (2022) take a developmental approach to the critical EF construct of w... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.544 | 0.852 | ["family", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877494 | [
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quated typically developing children, this study takes a developmental trajectories approach to describing the important domain of visuo-spatial working memory in this population. Carretti et al. (2022) ’s findings emphasize the need to identify complex and nuanced patterns of relative strength and weakness within spec... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.408 | 0.842 | ["education", "crisis", "family"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877634 | [
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ecall of positions (pattern) when compared with tasks that require sequential recall (pathways). And yet, Carretti et al. (2022) ’s findings also demonstrate that visuo-spatial working memory overall seem to develop in alignment with mental age in this population. Taken together, these results show the complexity of wo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.386 | 0.82 | ["philosophy"] | 430 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877769 | [
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ental-age appropriate developmental performances. Two manuscripts in this special issue examine EF in Down syndrome through proxy-report measures. Onnivello et al. (2022) characterize caregiver-reported data from the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool (BRIEF-P, Gioia, Espy & Isquith, 2003 ) and t... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.554 | 0.84 | ["networking", "family", "education", "philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.877887 | [
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rome and examine its relationship with adaptive behavior. Csumitta, Stephan, LaQuaglia, Miller, and Lee (2022) compare EF proxy-report data from parents and teachers of children with Down syndrome using the BRIEF-2 ( Gioia et al., 2015 ). Both studies report general difficulties with EF in this population, but with a p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.389 | 0.846 | ["crisis", "networking", "family"] | 487 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878003 | [
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emotional control and organization of materials. Moreover, the group-level profile seems to partially vary by factors like age and environmental context. Preschool and school-age children varied somewhat in their EF profiles in the Onnivello et al. (2022) study, and greater EF challenges were reported by teachers relat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.393 | 0.846 | ["education", "crisis", "family", "philosophy"] | 498 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878117 | [
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syndrome-related performances on the group level. Two other neurogenetic conditions were also examined in the present special issue, Williams syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome, generating converging findings regarding the link between overall intellectual functioning and the EF component process of cognitive flexibili... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.544 | 0.844 | ["family", "philosophy"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878231 | [
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children and adolescents with Williams syndrome. They found that the Cognitive Regulation Index posed the greatest area of challenge at the group level. Within-group variability was also observed, such that challenges with emotion and behaviour regulation dimensions were associated with increases in maladaptive behavio... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.388 | 0.836 | ["crisis", "family"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878354 | [
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that those with greater intellectual capacity also showed increased flexibility. These findings shed new light on the established phenotypic profile that is generally associated with childhood and adolescence in Williams syndrome, and the link between flexibility and intellectual capacity may offer critical new insight... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.354 | 0.842 | [] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878495 | [
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xamined by Chevalère, Camblats, Laurier, Mourre, Estival and Postal (2022) , in this special issue, with a particular focus on the connection between cognitive flexibility and emotion processing. Individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome are at elevated risk for emotional lability and difficulties with emotion identificat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.524 | 0.826 | ["crisis", "networking", "education"] | 478 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878649 | [
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enced pictures (positive, neutral, and negative). The authors report that adults with Prader-Willi syndrome experienced greater switching difficulties when compared to peers with and without ID not only in neutral but also in emotional contexts, both positive and negative. These results provide evidence for a particula... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.543 | 0.82 | ["crisis"] | 424 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878780 | [
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syndrome above and beyond the intellectual level. The emergence of EF in children with ID-related conditions As with many important phenotypic outcomes in neurogenetic conditions, questions about EF have matured beyond the nomothetic characterisation of strengths and challenges cross-sectionally during childhood or ado... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.544 | 0.82 | ["crisis", "family"] | 447 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.878920 | [
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sors of later adaptive (or maladaptive) outcomes. The identification of early foundational skills that support later, more advanced outcomes can lead the anticipatory use of early enrichment experiences, with the potential for preventing the onset of maladaptive cascades. In line with this effort, Schworer Fidler, Kaur... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.536 | 0.844 | ["education"] | 487 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879074 | [
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ors among infants with and without Down syndrome. The ability to study the phenotypic emergence of EF foundations in infants with ID is somewhat unique, in that Down syndrome is a neurogenetic condition that is diagnosed prenatally or soon after birth. Describing early cognitive regulatory skills in infancy is feasible... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.348 | 0.844 | ["education"] | 459 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879188 | [
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are diagnosed in the toddler or preschool years. Schworer and colleagues (2022b) measured early cognitive regulatory skills, including sustained attention, attention disengagement, and early goal-directed actions on objects in infants with Down syndrome and an MA-equated group of typically developing infants. They repo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.376 | 0.842 | ["education"] | 510 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879327 | [
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infants on the dimension of goal-directed actions on objects. Most relevant to the identification of precursors, when examining which dimensions were predictive of early EF performance at a 6-month follow up visit, Schworer et al. (2022b) found that latency to shift attention at baseline was strongly associated with EF... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.407 | 0.86 | ["philosophy"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879456 | [
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this suggests that there may be continuity during the infant and toddler years within specific aspects of cognitive regulation. Future work in this area offers the promise of more informed intervention during the earliest stages of development, and EF foundations like attention shifting are likely a worthwhile target a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.354 | 0.854 | ["philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879573 | [
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and McIntyre’s (2022) contribution to this special issue. They report on a sample of children who were identified as having developmental delays during early childhood who were subsequently assessed in middle childhood. Though only approximately 15% of their sample was subsequently designated as having ID, there were n... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.526 | 0.838 | ["crisis", "family"] | 473 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879695 | [
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d EF challenges observed during middle childhood. Both groups demonstrated elevated challenges in EF, and across the overall sample, EF performance was associated with both adaptive and maladaptive behaviour outcomes. Notably, approximately 31% of participants in the no-ID group during middle childhood had a diagnosis ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.553 | 0.844 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 498 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879827 | [
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nge, regardless of the presence or absence of ID. The influence of EF on other domains of development Another theme that is addressed in this special issue involves the influence of EF on other domains of development. In a novel empirical study, Kristensen, Lorenz, Zhou, Piro-Gambetti, Hartley, Godar, Diel, Neubauer, a... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.394 | 0.838 | ["communication", "networking", "faith_spirituality", "education", "philosophy"] | 451 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.879944 | [
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erformance among young adults with Down syndrome. Because both of these constructs can pose specific challenges to many people with Down syndrome, this new study addresses noteworthy questions regarding the role that cognitive regulation plays in the language phenotype in DS. Another feature of the Kristensen et al. (2... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.844 | ["education", "communication", "crisis", "philosophy"] | 463 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880059 | [
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syndrome begin to demonstrate cognitive decline. Developmental research in Down syndrome has generally focused on childhood, adolescence, and older adulthood, leaving educators and clinicians with less of an understanding of early vulnerability for skill loss in this population. In their study, Kristensen et al. (2022)... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.54 | 0.824 | ["education"] | 448 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880172 | [
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eptive and expressive vocabulary in their sample. In addition, both verbal and visuo-spatial working memory were associated with receptive vocabulary. The EF components were measured through a set of tasks that required verbal and nonverbal responses, providing further evidence for a relationship between cognitive regu... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.312 | 0.824 | ["networking"] | 439 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880293 | [
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ing. The findings presented in Krisetensen et al. (2022)’s study, therefore, contribute not only to our knowledge base regarding two critical constructs, but also to the importance of EF in the transition to adulthood in Down syndrome more broadly. In addition, the Onnivello et al. (2022) study described above focuses ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.852 | ["education", "networking", "family"] | 471 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880407 | [
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in preschool versus school age children with DS. Though few connections were observed between these two domains in the preschoolers, a significant association between working memory and adaptive communication skills was reported. The lack of early association could be attributed to the more basic nature of early activi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.351 | 0.852 | ["education", "communication", "networking", "family", "philosophy"] | 510 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880524 | [
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and adaptive behaviour in the school-age sample. This could be explained by the greater degree of complexity required to respond to the demands of home and school daily life during middle childhood in Down syndrome. In another special issue article, Santegoeds, Van der Schoot Roording-Ragetlie, Klip and Rommelse (2022)... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.542 | 0.844 | ["family", "education", "networking"] | 470 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880637 | [
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erline ID and co-occurring psychiatric disorders. Their results suggest the presence of particular challenges in working memory and processing speed in their sample, although both domains were not clearly predictive of internalising or externalising problems. Internalising problems were primarily predicted by cognitive... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.453 | 0.822 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 475 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880772 | [
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ctors were identified for externalising problems. It may be that case that in the population studied, other neurodevelopmental and/or environmental factors better explain the presence of maladaptive behaviours. Implications for treatment and adaptation throughout the lifespan Treatment to support the development of EF ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.538 | 0.842 | [] | 502 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.880881 | [
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to account for the needs of individuals with ID. However, it is a worthwhile endeavour to examine whether evidence-based approaches that have been successfully implemented in the general pediatric population may also be impactful for people with ID. In the current special issue, Roording-Ragetlie et al. (2022) conducte... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.367 | 0.85 | ["crisis", "family"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881063 | [
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ntial efficacy with children who have BIF and co-occurring neuropsychiatric diagnoses. Their noteworthy findings demonstrate that participation in the CogMed activities for both treatment and control groups had effects for both near and far transfer working memory tasks. These findings are somewhat surprising, in that ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.401 | 0.826 | ["crisis", "family", "philosophy"] | 445 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881209 | [
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ticipant, increasing in difficulty across trials. In contrast, the control condition involved repeated practice of similar working memory tasks without any adaptive escalation in task difficulty. Regardless of whether the tasks adapted to the child’s skill level or remained at a baseline level of difficulty, both treat... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.364 | 0.82 | ["crisis", "philosophy"] | 438 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881339 | [
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mory performance from baseline to post-treatment. As the authors note, this study demonstrates that there may be utility to simply exercising working memory skills on a frequent basis, and that increasing the level of challenge over time may be of little utility, at least in this particular subpopulation of children wi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.563 | 0.858 | ["philosophy", "crisis", "family", "education"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881488 | [
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of EF in ID, but the manuscripts in this special issue also highlight current challenges in our ability to pose research questions about EF in ID and answer them using sound research tools. From a methodological perspective, one ongoing measurement concern pertains to the valid assessment of EF for individuals with ID.... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.539 | 0.854 | ["crisis"] | 481 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881633 | [
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to meet the needs of subgroups of people with ID. For this reason, there has been a recent effort to validate measures of cognition and communication for various neurogenetic syndrome conditions, especially for use in upcoming treatment trials. In this special issue, Schworer, Esbensen, Fidler, Beebe, Carle and Wiley (... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.562 | 0.85 | ["communication", "crisis", "family", "philosophy"] | 484 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881751 | [
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sess working memory in people with Down syndrome. They found that several of these measures met their a priori criteria for reliability, validity, and feasibility for their entire sample of children and adolescents with Down syndrome. They also found that other measures had greater utility for subgroups of individuals ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.468 | 0.83 | ["family"] | 424 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.881887 | [
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tric properties when examined at the group level. These nuanced findings regarding the appropriate and valid measurement of EF in individuals with ID can help improve study design for both basic and treatment research, and can minimize confounding factors like floor effects that can pose a challenge to the interpretabi... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.388 | 0.836 | ["crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 448 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882005 | [
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pmental and treatment science for people with ID. The collection of articles in this special issue raises questions regarding the most beneficial approach to EF assessment in individuals with ID. Some papers in this special issue relied on laboratory measures that are used in the general population, but difficulties we... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.472 | 0.844 | ["crisis", "economy"] | 486 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882164 | [
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developmental domains, such as motor or language. Moreover, using tasks for children without disabilities often necessitates the use of measures normed on younger children, which prohibits the use of standard scores. With the development and use of measures that are designed to eliminate these confounds, our field has ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.412 | 0.856 | ["family", "economy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882302 | [
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ry assessment, others relied on proxy-report of behaviors in daily life contexts. One advantage of this approach is that proxy-report measures that were developed for the general population have been demonstrated to be appropriate for use in individuals with ID and retain their psychometric properties. Also, several pa... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.366 | 0.86 | ["family", "philosophy"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882392 | [
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its different forms, might be as well a sensitive tool to identify difficulties and profiles at least for some specific ID etiologies such as Down and Williams syndrome ( Csumitta et al., 2022 , Onnivello et al., 2022 , Greiner de Magalhaes et al., 2022 ). Using proxy-report measures has the advantage of eliminating co... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.417 | 0.846 | ["crisis", "economy", "philosophy"] | 468 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882453 | [
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when interpreting parent- or teacher-report data. What is considered normative to one parent or teacher may be appraised differently by others. Moreover, there are ongoing questions regarding whether laboratory and proxy report measures assess the same constructs. With these considerations in mind, both from a clinical... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.537 | 0.852 | ["economy", "philosophy"] | 509 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882515 | [
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both laboratory tests and proxy-report measures. EF components. In addition to the need for valid assessment measures of EF in ID, several larger methodological themes are present in the collection of articles in this special issue. The first relates to the continued scientific discussion regarding the overall ‘archite... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.524 | 0.86 | ["economy"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882564 | [
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d in the broader EF literature, most research on EF in clinical populations has worked with the assumption that EF can be divided into related, but separable component processes ( Ozonoff & Jensen, 1999 ). The consensus regarding the dissociability of EF in ID is evident in that none of the articles in this special iss... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.352 | 0.866 | [] | 497 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882609 | [
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ses ought to be included as key components of EF. There are articles in this special issue that exclusively focus on specific EF processes, such as working memory or cognitive flexibility, that are key constructs often included in many models of EF. However, Spaniol et al.’s meta-analysis of the association between EF ... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.409 | 0.836 | [] | 428 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882649 | [
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but working memory was only partially considered. The rationale for this decision was that working memory dual request tasks are often present in intelligence tests, and as such, the association between working memory and intelligence is confounded. For this reason, the authors decided to consider ‘updating’ as the onl... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.387 | 0.862 | ["decision_making", "philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882704 | [
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n of a majority of studies on working memory in ID. Establishing greater consensus regarding key constructs and common data elements for study design is an important challenge for future EF research in this subfield. Concluding Thoughts Taken together, the papers in this special issue offer new insights that help us be... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.401 | 0.86 | ["crisis", "education"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882750 | [
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mining how intelligence influences everyday life. The studies included in this special issue can prove to be a starting point for identifying and addressing new challenges in the study of EF in individuals with ID. A primary challenge that researchers should address is the need for greater consensus regarding EF archit... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.368 | 0.854 | ["communication", "crisis", "education"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882797 | [
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e the heterogeneity in study design and findings. As discussed above, challenges for our field involve continuing to identify valid and reliable measurement tools to assess EF specific for people with ID, factoring in areas of strength and challenge that might confound performances on EF assessments. But perhaps the mo... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.412 | 0.824 | ["crisis", "education", "philosophy"] | 413 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882863 | [
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translational implications of this area of study. The results of the studies reported in this special issue highlight the crucial role of EF in everyday life, particularly from the school age onwards. For these reasons, it is of vital importance to develop intervention programs that will foster EF development in this p... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.383 | 0.85 | ["education", "networking", "war_conflict", "philosophy"] | 512 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.882958 | [
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language, spatial orientation, academic achievement, and job skills, as well as the fact that this connection become stronger with age, we believe that EF will be an important area to target through education and intervention at various stages of development in people with ID. Overall, the work presented in this specia... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.517 | 0.704 | ["networking", "career", "education"] | 511 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.883069 | [
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ce and function in academic environments, employment, and community engagement throughout the lifespan. Funding Acknowledgements: Research reported in this article was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health under award number... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.553 | 0.842 | ["war_conflict", "career", "education"] | 501 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.883172 | [
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t of interest in the publication of this article. References Barton H, & McIntyre LL (2021). Caregiver-reported executive functioning and associated adaptive and challenging behaviour in children with histories of developmental delay. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. [ DOI ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Ca... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.547 | 0.84 | ["family"] | 494 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.883267 | [
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ial-simultaneous working memory in Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Chevalère J, Camblats AM, Laurier V, Mourre F, Estival S, & Posta V (2022). The influence of emotional contexts on mental flexibility in Prader-Willi syndrome. Journal... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.561 | 0.856 | [] | 460 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.883366 | [
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0.0340265... | ||
phan CM, LaQuaglia RI, Miller E, & Lee NR (2022). Updated profiles of everyday executive funtion in youth with Down syndrome using the BRIEF-2. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research [ DOI ] [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ] Erostabe-Pérez M, Reparaz-Abaitua C, Martinez-Pérez L, & Magallon-Recalde... | https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8766896/ | Executive Function and Intellectual Disability: Innovations, Methods ... | pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov | public_domain | false | 0.562 | 0.838 | ["networking", "family", "education"] | 455 | Team Health Diagnosing Dysfunction | topic | 2026-04-14T23:38:29.883457 | [
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0.048935577273368835,
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0.06453... |
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