Uralic languages - wikipedia

 Uralic languages

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 Uralic

 Uralian languages

 Geographic distribution

 Central , Eastern , and Northern Europe , North Asia

 Linguistic classification

 One of the world 's primary language families

 Proto - language

 Proto - Uralic

 Subdivisions

 Finnic

 Hungarian

 Khanty

 Mansi

 Mari

 Mordvinic

 Permic

 Sami

 Samoyedic

 ISO 639 - 5

 urj

 Glottolog

 ural1272

 Geographical distribution of the Uralic languages

 The Uralic languages ( / jʊəˈrælɪk / ; sometimes called Uralian languages / jʊəˈreɪliən / ) form a language family of 38 languages spoken by approximately 25 million people , predominantly in Northern Eurasia . The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian , Finnish , and Estonian , which are the official languages of Hungary , Finland , and Estonia , respectively , and of the European Union . Other Uralic languages with significant numbers of speakers are Erzya , Moksha , Mari , Udmurt , and Komi , which are officially recognized languages in various regions of Russia .

 The name `` Uralic '' derives from the fact that the areas where the languages are spoken are found on both sides of the Ural Mountains . Also , the original homeland ( Urheimat ) is commonly hypothesized to be in the vicinity of the Urals .

 Finno - Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic , though Finno - Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages . Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 History

 1.1 Homeland

 1.2 Early attestations

 1.3 Uralic studies

 2 Classification

 2.1 Traditional classification

 2.2 Lexical isoglosses

 2.3 Phonological isoglosses

 3 Typology

 3.1 Grammar

 3.2 Phonology

 3.3 Lexicography

 3.3. 1 Selected cognates

 3.3. 2 Mutual intelligibility

 3.4 Comparison

 4 Possible relations with other families

 4.1 Indo - Uralic

 4.2 Uralic -- Yukaghir

 4.3 Eskimo -- Uralic

 4.4 Uralo - Siberian

 4.5 Ural -- Altaic

 4.6 Nostratic

 4.7 Eurasiatic

 4.8 Uralo - Dravidian

 4.9 Uralic skepticism

 4.10 Other comparisons

 5 See also

 6 Notes

 7 References

 7.1 External classification

 7.2 Linguistic issues

 8 External links

 8.1 `` Rebel '' Uralists

 History ( edit )

 Further information : Proto - Uralic

 Homeland ( edit )

 Further information : Proto - Uralic homeland hypotheses

 In recent times , linguists often place the Urheimat ( original homeland ) of the Proto - Uralic language in the vicinity of the Volga River , west of the Urals , close to the Urheimat of the Indo - European languages , or to the east and southeast of the Urals . Historian Gyula László places its origin in the forest zone between the Oka River and central Poland . E. N. Setälä and M. Zsirai place it between the Volga and Kama Rivers . According to E. Itkonen , the ancestral area extended to the Baltic Sea . P. Hajdu has suggested a homeland in western and northwestern Siberia .

 Early attestations ( edit )

 The first plausible mention of a Uralic people is in Tacitus 's Germania ( c. 98 AD ) , mentioning the Fenni ( usually interpreted as referring to the Sami ) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia . There are many possible earlier mentions , including the Iyrcae ( perhaps related to Yugra ) described by Herodotus living in what is now European Russia , and the Budini , described by Herodotus as notably red - haired ( a characteristic feature of the Udmurts ) and living in northeast Ukraine and / or adjacent parts of Russia . In the late 15th century , European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria , the names of settlements east of the Ural . They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence .

 Uralic Studies ( edit )

 The Siberian origin of Hungarians was long hypothesized by European scholars . Here , Sigismund von Herberstein 's 1549 map of Moscovia shows `` Yugra from where the Hungarians originated '' ( Iuhra inde ungaroru origo ) , east of the Ob River . The Ural Mountains in the middle of the maps are labeled Montes dicti Cingulus Terræ ( `` The mountains called the Girdle of the Earth '' )

 The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish was first proposed in the late 17th century . Two of the more important contributors were the German scholar Martin Vogel , who established several grammatical and lexical parallels between Finnish and Hungarian , and the Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm , who commented on the similarities of Sami , Estonian and Finnish , and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian . These two authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno - Ugric , and later Uralic family . This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages , unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe , are not part of what is now known as the Indo - European family .

 In 1717 , Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian , of which about 40 are still considered valid . In the same year , the German scholar Johann Georg von Eckhart , in an essay published in Leibniz 's Collectanea Etymologica , proposed for the first time a relation to the Samoyedic languages .

 In 1730 , Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published his book Das Nord - und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia ( The North and East Parts of Europe and Asia ) , surveying the geography , peoples and languages of Russia . All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here . Nonetheless , these relationships were not widely accepted . Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes , an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to `` the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch '' . Still , in spite of this hostile climate , the Hungarian Jesuit János Sajnovics travelled with Maximilian Hell to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sami . Sajnovics published his results in 1770 , arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features . In 1799 , the Hungarian Sámuel Gyarmathi published the most complete work on Finno - Ugric to that date .

 Uralic languages in the Russian Empire ( Russian Census of 1897 ; the census was not held in Finland because it was an autonomous area )

 Progress resumed after a number of decades , with the first major field research expeditions on the Uralic languages spoken in the more eastern parts of Russia . These were made in the 1840s by Matthias Castrén ( 1813 -- 1852 ) and Antal Reguly ( 1819 -- 1858 ) , who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the Ob - Ugric languages , respectively . Reguly 's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy ( 1810 -- 1891 ) and German Josef Budenz ( 1836 -- 1892 ) , who both supported the Uralic affinity of Hungarian . Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary , and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto - Finno - Ugric grammar and lexicon . Another late - 19th - century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász ( 1855 -- 1901 ) , who published extensive comparative material of Finno - Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s , and whose work is at the base of today 's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of Uralic . Meanwhile , in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland , a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the University of Helsinki was created in 1850 , first held by Castrén .

 In 1883 , the Finno - Ugrian Society was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of Otto Donner , and during the late 19th and early 20th century ( until the separation of Finland from Russia following the Russian revolution ) , a large number of stipendiates were sent by the Society to survey the less known Uralic languages . Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen ( studying especially the Mordvinic languages ) , Yrjö Wichmann ( studying Permic ) , Artturi Kannisto ( Mansi ) , Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen ( Khanty ) , Toivo Lehtisalo ( Nenets ) , and Kai Donner ( Kamass ) . The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide edition work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists for more than a century .

 Classification ( edit )

 Relative numbers of speakers of Uralic languages

 Hungarian

 56 %

 Finnish

 20 %

 Estonian

 4.2 %

 Erzya

 2.8 %

 Moksha

 2.5 %

 Mari

 2 %

 Udmurt

 1.9 %

 Komi

 1.6 %

 Other

 8.9 %

 The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them . ( Some of the proposals are listed in the next section . ) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches .

 Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics .

 Finnic ( Fennic , Baltic Finnic , Balto - Finnic , Balto - Fennic )

 Hungarian ( Magyar )

 Khanty ( Ostyak , Handi , Hantõ )

 Mansi ( Vogul )

 Mari ( Cheremis )

 Mordvinic ( Mordvin , Mordvinian )

 Permic ( Permian )

 Sami ( Saami , Samic , Saamic , Lappic , Lappish )

 Samoyedic ( Samoyed )

 There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation :

 Merya

 Muromian

 Meshcherian ( until 16th century ? )

 Traces of Finno - Ugric substrata , especially in toponymy , in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages .

 Traditional classification ( edit )

 All Uralic languages are thought to have descended , through independent processes of language change , from Proto - Uralic . The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed . Doubts about the validity of most of the proposed higher - order branchings ( grouping the nine undisputed families ) are becoming more common .

 A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century . It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias , handbooks , and overviews of the Uralic family . Donner 's model is as follows :

 Ugric ( Ugrian )

 Hungarian

 Ob - Ugric ( Ob Ugrian )

 Khanty

 Mansi

 Finno - Permic ( Permian - Finnic )

 Permic

 Finno - Volgaic ( Finno - Cheremisic , Finno - Mari )

 Volga - Finnic

 Mari

 Mordvinic

 Finno - Lappic ( Finno - Saamic , Finno - Samic )

 Sami

 Finnic

 At Donner 's time , the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known , and he was not able to address their position . As they became better known in the early 20th century , they were found to be quite divergent , and they were assumed to have separated already early on . The terminology adopted for this was `` Uralic '' for the entire family , `` Finno - Ugric '' for the non-Samoyedic languages ( though `` Finno - Ugric '' has , to this day , remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family ) . Finno - Ugric and Samoyedic are listed in ISO 639 - 5 as primary branches of Uralic .

 Nodes of the traditional family tree recognized in some overview sources :

 Year

 Author ( s )

 Finno - Ugric

 Ugric

 Ob - Ugric

 Finno - Permic

 Finno - Volgaic

 Volga - Finnic

 Finno - Samic

 1910

 Szinnyei

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 ✓

 1921

 T.I. Itkonen

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 1926

 Setälä

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 1962

 Hajdú

 ✓

 ✗

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 ✗

 1965

 Collinder

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 ✗

 ✗

 1966

 E. Itkonen

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 1968

 Austerlitz

 ✗

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 ✗

 ✓

 ✗

 1977

 Voegelin & Voegelin

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 2002

 Kulonen

 ✗

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 ✗

 ✓

 2007

 Lehtinen

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 ✓

 2009

 Janhunen

 ✓

 ✗

 ✗

 ✓

 ✓

 ✗

 Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner 's model since his original proposal , and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed . Especially in Finland , there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno - Ugric intermediate protolanguage . A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an `` East Uralic '' group for which shared innovations can be noted .

 The Finno - Permic grouping still holds some support , though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute . Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno - Samic . The term Volgaic ( or Volga - Finnic ) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari , Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages , but it is now obsolete and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one .

 Within Ugric , uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been a competing hypothesis to Ob - Ugric .

 Lexical isoglosses ( edit )

 Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree . A recent re-evaluation of the evidence however fails to find support for Finno - Ugric and Ugric , suggesting four lexically distinct branches ( Finno - Permic , Hungarian , Ob - Ugric and Samoyedic ) .

 One alternate proposal for a family tree , with emphasis on the development of numerals , is as follows :

 Uralic ( * kektä `` 2 '' , * wixti `` 5 '' / `` 10 '' )

 Samoyedic ( * op `` 1 '' , * ketä `` 2 '' , * näkur `` 3 '' , * tettə `` 4 '' , * səmpəleŋkə `` 5 '' , * məktut `` 6 '' , * sejtwə `` 7 '' , * wiət `` 10 '' )

 Finno - Ugric ( * üki / * ükti `` 1 '' , * kormi `` 3 '' , * ńeljä `` 4 '' , * wiiti `` 5 '' , * kuuti `` 6 '' , * luki `` 10 '' )

 Mansic

 Mansi

 Hungarian ( hét `` 7 '' ; replacement egy `` 1 '' )

 Finno - Khantic ( reshaping * kolmi `` 3 '' on the analogy of `` 4 '' )

 Khanty

 Finno - Permic ( reshaping * kektä > * kakta )

 Permic

 Finno - Volgaic ( * śećem `` 7 '' )

 Mari

 Finno - Saamic ( * kakteksa , * ükteksa `` 8 , 9 '' )

 Saamic

 Finno - Mordvinic ( replacement * kümmen `` 10 '' ( * luki - `` to count '' , `` to read out '' ) )

 Mordvinic

 Finnic

 Phonological isoglosses ( edit )

 Another proposed tree , more divergent from the standard , focusing on consonant isoglosses ( which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages ) is presented by Viitso ( 1997 ) , and refined in Viitso ( 2000 ) :

 Finno - Ugric

 Saamic -- Fennic ( consonant gradation )

 Saamic

 Fennic

 Eastern Finno - Ugric

 Mordva

 ( node )

 Mari

 Permian -- Ugric ( * δ > * l )

 Permian

 Ugric ( * s * š * ś > * ɬ * ɬ * s )

 Hungarian

 Khanty

 Mansi

 The grouping of the four bottom - level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation , with competing models of Finno - Saamic vs. Eastern Finno - Ugric ( Mari , Mordvinic , Permic - Ugric ; * k > ɣ between vowels , degemination of stops ) and Finno - Volgaic ( Finno - Saamic , Mari , Mordvinic ; * δ́ > δ between vowels ) vs. Permic - Ugric . Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno - Permic grouping .

 Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric , resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping , as it also shares the same sibilant developments . A further non-trivial Ugric - Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction * k , * x , * w > ɣ when before * i , and after a vowel ( cf . * k > ɣ above ) , or adjacent to * t , * s , * š , or * ś .

 Finno - Ugric consonant developments after Viitso ( 2000 ) ; Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti ( 1988 )

 Saamic

 Finnic

 Mordvinic

 Mari

 Permic

 Hungarian

 Mansi

 Khanty

 Samoyedic

 Medial lenition of * k

 no

 no

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 Medial lenition of * p , * t

 no

 no

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 no

 no

 no

 Degemination

 no

 no

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 yes

 Consonant gradation

 yes

 yes

 no

 no

 no

 no

 no

 no

 yes

 Development of

 * δ

 * δ

 * t

 * t

 ∅

 * l

 l

 * l

 * l

 * r

 * δ́

 * δ

 * ĺ

 ď ⟨ gy ⟩ , j

 * ĺ

 * j

 * j

 * s

 * s

 * s

 * s

 * š

 * s

 ∅

 * t

 * ɬ

 * t

 * š

 * h

 * š

 * š

 * ś

 * ć

 * s

 * ś

 * ś

 s ⟨ sz ⟩

 * š

 * s

 * s

 * ć

 * ć

 č ⟨ cs ⟩

 * ć ~ * š

 * ć

 Note : Proto - Khanty * ɬ in many of the dialects yields * t ; it is assumed this also happened in Mansi and Samoyedic .

 The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops ( the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation is found ) is noted by Helimski ( 1995 ) : an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well .

 Based on phonological isoglosses , Häkkinen ( 2007 ) proposes the following tree :

 Uralic

 West Uralic

 Saamic

 Finnic

 Mordvinic

 Central Uralic ( ? )

 Mari

 Permic

 East Uralic

 Hungarian

 Ob - Ugric

 Mansi

 Khanty

 Samoyedic

 Typology ( edit )

 Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include :

 Grammar ( edit )

 extensive use of independent suffixes ( agglutination )

 a large set of grammatical cases marked with agglutinative suffixes ( 13 -- 14 cases on average ; mainly later developments : Proto - Uralic is reconstructed with 6 cases ) , e.g. :

 Erzya : 12 cases

 Estonian : 14 cases ( 15 cases with instructive )

 Finnish : 15 cases

 Hungarian : 18 cases ( together 34 grammatical cases and case - like suffixes )

 Inari Sami : 9 cases

 Komi : in certain dialects as many as 27 cases

 Moksha : 13 cases

 Nenets : 7 cases

 North Sami : 6 cases

 Udmurt : 16 cases

 Veps : 24 cases

 unique Uralic case system , from which all modern Uralic languages derive their case systems .

 nominative singular has no case suffix .

 accusative and genitive suffixes are nasal sounds ( - n , - m , etc . )

 three - way distinction in the local case system , with each set of local cases being divided into forms corresponding roughly to `` from '' , `` to '' , and `` in / at '' ; especially evident , e.g. in Hungarian , Finnish and Estonian , which have several sets of local cases , such as the `` inner '' , `` outer '' and `` on top '' systems in Hungarian , while in Finnish the `` on top '' forms have merged to the `` outer '' forms .

 the Uralic locative suffix exists in all Uralic languages in various cases , e.g. Hungarian superessive , Finnish essive ( - na ) , North Sami essive , Erzyan inessive , and Nenets locative .

 the Uralic lative suffix exists in various cases in many Uralic languages , e.g. Hungarian illative , Finnish lative ( - s as in rannemmas ) , Erzyan illative , Komi approximative , and Northern Sami locative .

 a lack of grammatical gender , including one pronoun for both he and she ; for example , hän in Finnish , tämä in Votic , tema in Estonian , sijə in Komi , ő in Hungarian .

 negative verb , which exists in almost all Uralic languages ( notably absent in Hungarian )

 use of postpositions as opposed to prepositions ( prepositions are uncommon ) .

 possessive suffixes

 the genitive is also used to express possession in some languages , e.g. Estonian mu koer , colloquial Finnish mun koira , Northern Sami mu beana ' my dog ' ( literally ' dog of me ' ) . Separate possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns , such as my and your , are rare .

 dual , in the Samoyedic , Ob - Ugric and Samic languages and reconstructed for Proto - Uralic

 plural markers - j ( i ) and - t ( - d , - q ) have a common origin ( e.g. in Finnish , Estonian , Võro , Erzya , Samic languages , Samoyedic languages ) . Hungarian , however , has - i - before the possessive suffixes and - k elsewhere . In the old orthographies , the plural marker - k was also used in the Samic languages .

 Possessions are expressed by a possessor in the adessive or dative case , the verb `` be '' ( the copula , instead of the verb `` have '' ) and the possessed with or without a possessive suffix . The grammatical subject of the sentence is thus the possessed . In Finnish , for example , the possessor is in the adessive case : `` Minulla on kala '' , literally `` At me is fish '' , i.e. `` I have a fish '' , whereas in Hungarian , the possessor is in the dative case , but appears overtly only if it is contrastive , while the possessed has a possessive ending indicating the number and person of the possessor : `` ( Nekem ) van egy halam '' , literally `` ( To me ( dative ) ) is a fish - my '' , i.e. `` ( As for me , ) I have a fish '' .

 expressions that include a numeral are singular if they refer to things which form a single group , e.g. `` négy csomó '' in Hungarian , `` njeallje čuolmma '' in Northern Sami , `` neli sõlme '' in Estonian , and `` neljä solmua '' in Finnish , each of which means `` four knots '' , but the literal approximation is `` four knot '' . ( This approximation is inaccurate for Finnish and Estonian , where the singular is in the partitive case , such that the number points to a part of a larger mass , like `` four of knot ( s ) '' . )

 Phonology ( edit )

 Vowel harmony : this is present in many but by no means all Uralic languages . It exists in Hungarian and various Baltic - Finnic languages , and is present to some degree elsewhere , such as in Mordvinic , Mari , Eastern Khanty , and Samoyedic . It is lacking in Sami , Permic and standard Estonian , while it does exist in Võro and elsewhere in South Estonian . ( Although umlaut letters are used in writing Uralic languages , the languages do not exhibit Germanic umlaut ; front and back values are intrinsic features of words and modify suffixes , not vice versa as in umlaut . )

 Large vowel inventories . For example , some Selkup varieties have over twenty different monophthongs , and Estonian has over twenty different diphthongs .

 Palatalization of consonants ; in this context , palatalization means a secondary articulation , where the middle of the tongue is tense . For example , pairs like ( ɲ ) -- ( n ) , or ( c ) -- ( t ) are contrasted in Hungarian , as in hattyú ( hɒcːuː ) `` swan '' . Some Sami languages , for example Skolt Sami , distinguish three degrees : plain ⟨ l ⟩ ( l ) , palatalized ⟨ ' l ⟩ ( lj ) , and palatal ⟨ lj ⟩ ( ʎ ) , where ⟨ ' l ⟩ has a primary alveolar articulation , while ⟨ lj ⟩ has a primary palatal articulation . Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic , independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia - old Proto - Uralic . It is different from Slavic palatalization , which is of more recent origin . The Finnic languages have lost palatalization , but the eastern varieties have reacquired it , so Finnic palatalization ( where extant ) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic .

 Lack of phonologically contrastive tone .

 In many Uralic languages , the stress is always on the first syllable , though Nganasan shows ( essentially ) penultimate stress , and a number of languages of the central region ( Erzya , Mari , Udmurt and Komi - Permyak ) synchronically exhibit a lexical accent . The Erzya language can vary its stress in words to give specific nuances to sentential meaning .

 Lexicography ( edit )

 Basic vocabulary of about 200 words , including body parts ( e.g. eye , heart , head , foot , mouth ) , family members ( e.g. father , mother - in - law ) , animals ( e.g. viper , partridge , fish ) , nature objects ( e.g. tree , stone , nest , water ) , basic verbs ( e.g. live , fall , run , make , see , suck , go , die , swim , know ) , basic pronouns ( e.g. who , what , we , you , I ) , numerals ( e.g. two , five ) ; derivatives increase the number of common words .

 Selected cognates ( edit )

 The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family , which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved . This is not a list of translations : cognates have a common origin , but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them .

 English

 Proto - Uralic

 Finnic

 Sami

 Mordvin

 Mari

 Permic

 Hungarian

 Mansi

 Khanty

 Samoyed

 Finnish

 Estonian

 Võro

 South

 North

 Kildin

 Erzya

 Meadow

 Komi

 Udmurt

 Northern

 Kazym

 Vakh

 Tundra Nenets

 ' fire '

 * tuli

 tuli ( tule - )

 tuli ( tule - )

 tuli ( tulõ - )

 dålle ( tollə )

 dolla

 tōll

 tol

 tul

 tɨl -

 tɨl

 --

 --

 --

 --

 tuu

 ' water '

 * weti

 vesi ( vete - )

 vesi ( vee - )

 vesi ( vii - )

 --

 --

 --

 ved  ́

 wüt

 va

 vu

 víz

 wit

 --

 --

 jiʔ

 ' ice '

 * jäŋi

 jää

 jää

 ijä

 jïenge ( jɨeŋə )

 jiekŋa

 īŋŋ

 ej

 i

 ji

 jə

 jég

 jaaŋk

 jeŋk

 jeŋk

 --

 ' fish '

 * kala

 kala

 kala

 kala

 guelie ( kʉelie )

 guolli

 kūll '

 kal

 kol

 --

 --

 hal

 xuul

 xŭɬ

 kul

 xalja

 ' nest '

 * pesä

 pesä

 pesa

 pesä

 biesie ( piesie )

 beassi

 piess '

 pize

 pəžaš

 poz

 puz

 fészek

 pitji

 --

 pĕl

 pjidja

 ' hand , arm '

 * käti

 käsi ( käte - )

 käsi ( käe - )

 käsi ( käe - )

 gïete ( kɨedə )

 giehta

 kīdt

 ked  ́

 kit

 ki

 ki

 kéz

 kaat

 --

 köt

 --

 ' eye '

 * śilmä

 silmä

 silm ( silma - )

 silm ( silmä - )

 tjelmie ( t͡ʃɛlmie )

 čalbmi

 čall 'm

 śeĺme

 šinča

 śin ( śinm - )

 śin ( śinm - )

 szem

 sam

 sem

 sem

 sæwə

 ' fathom '

 * süli

 syli ( syle - )

 süli ( süle - )

 --

 sïlle ( sjɨllə )

 salla

 sē̮ll

 seĺ

 šülö

 sɨl

 sul

 öl ( el )

 tal

 ɬăɬ

 lö̆l

 tjíbja

 ' vein / sinew '

 * sï ( x ) ni

 suoni ( suone - )

 soon ( soone - )

 suuń ( soonõ - )

 soene ( suonə )

 suotna

 sūnn

 san

 šün

 sən

 sən

 ín

 taan

 ɬɔn

 lan

 teʔ

 ' bone '

 * luwi

 luu

 luu

 luu

 --

 --

 --

 lovaža

 lu

 lɨ

 lɨ

 --

 luw

 ɬŭw

 lŏγ

 le

 ' blood '

 * weri

 veri

 veri

 veri

 vïrre ( vjɨrrə )

 varra

 vē̮rr

 veŕ

 wür

 vur

 vir

 vér

 wiɣr

 wŭr

 wər

 --

 ' liver '

 * mïksa

 maksa

 maks ( maksa - )

 mass ( massa - )

 mueksie ( mʉeksie )

 --

 --

 makso

 mokš

 mus

 mus ( musk - )

 máj

 maat

 mŏxəɬ

 muγəl

 mudə

 ' urine ' / ' to urinate '

 * kunśi

 kusi ( kuse - )

 kusi ( kuse - )

 kusi ( kusõ - )

 gadtjedh ( gadtje - ) ( kɑdd͡ʒə ) -

 gožžat ( gožža - )

 kōnnče

 --

 kəž

 kudź

 kɨź

 húgy

 xuńś -

 xŏs -

 kŏs -

 --

 ' to go '

 * meni -

 mennä ( men - )

 minema

 minemä

 mïnnedh ( mjɨnnə ) -

 mannat

 mē̮nne

 --

 mija -

 mun -

 mɨn -

 menni

 men -

 măn -

 mĕn -

 mjin -

 ' to live '

 * elä -

 elää ( elä - )

 elama ( ela - )

 elämä ( elä - )

 jieledh ( jielə ) -

 eallit

 jēll'e

 --

 ila -

 ol -

 ul -

 él -

 --

 --

 --

 jilje -

 ' to die '

 * ka ( x ) li -

 kuolla ( kuol - )

 koolma

 kuulma ( kool - )

 --

 --

 --

 kulo -

 kola -

 kul -

 kul -

 hal -

 xool -

 xăɬ -

 kăla -

 xa -

 ' to wash '

 * mośki -

 --

 --

 mõskma

 --

 --

 --

 muśke -

 muška -

 mɨśkɨ -

 mɨśk -

 mos -

 --

 --

 --

 masø -

 Orthographical notes : The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation ( ⟨ ž ⟩ ( ʒ ) , ⟨ š ⟩ ( ʃ ) , ⟨ č ⟩ ( t͡ʃ ) ) ( In Northern Sami , ( ⟨ ž ⟩ ( dʒ ) ) , while the acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation ( ⟨ ś ⟩ ( sj ~ ɕ ) , ⟨ ć ⟩ ( tsj ~ tɕ ) , ⟨ l ⟩ ( lj ) ) or , in Hungarian , vowel length . The Finnish letter ⟨ y ⟩ and the letter ⟨ ü ⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel ( y ) ; the letters ⟨ ä ⟩ and ⟨ ö ⟩ are the front vowels ( æ ) and ( ø ) .

 As is apparent from the list , Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here , with nearly half the words on the list below identical to their Proto - Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes , such as the conflation of * ś into / s / , or widespread changes such as the loss of * x and alteration of * ï . Finnish has even preserved old Indo - European borrowings relatively unchanged as well . ( An example is porsas ( `` pig '' ) , loaned from Proto - Indo - European * porḱos or pre-Proto - Indo - Iranian * porśos , unchanged since loaning save for loss of palatalization , * ś > s . )

 Mutual intelligibility ( edit )

 The Estonian philologist Mall Hellam proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages : Finnish , Estonian , and Hungarian :

 Estonian : Elav kala ujub vee all .

 Finnish : Elävä kala ui veden alla .

 Hungarian : Eleven hal úszik a víz alatt .

 English : A live fish is swimming underwater .

 However , linguist Geoffrey Pullum reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand the other language 's version of the sentence .

 Comparison ( edit )

 No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family . Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include :

 Feature

 Samoyedic

 Ob - Ugric

 Hungarian

 Permic

 Mari

 Mordvin

 Finnic

 Samic

 Palatalization

 +

 +

 +

 +

 −

 +

 −

 +

 Consonant length

 −

 −

 +

 −

 −

 −

 +

 +

 Consonant gradation

 −

 −

 −

 −

 −

 −

 +

 +

 Vowel harmony

 −

 −

 +

 −

 +

 +

 +

 −

 Grammatical vowel alternation ( ablaut or umlaut )

 +

 +

 −

 −

 −

 −

 −

 +

 Dual number

 +

 +

 −

 −

 −

 −

 −

 +

 Distinction between inner and outer local cases

 −

 −

 +

 +

 +

 +

 +

 −

 Determinative inflection ( verbal marking of definiteness )

 +

 +

 +

 −

 −

 +

 −

 −

 Passive voice

 −

 +

 +

 −

 −

 +

 +

 +

 Negative verb

 +

 −

 −

 +

 +

 ±

 +

 +

 SVO word order

 −

 −

 −

 ±

 −

 +

 +

 +

 Notes :

 Clearly present only in Nganasan .

 Vowel harmony is present in the Uralic languages of Siberia only in some marginal archaic varieties : Nganasan , Southern Mansi and Eastern Khanty .

 A number of umlaut processes are found in Livonian .

 In Komi , but not in Udmurt .

 Possible Relations with other families ( edit )

 Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested , but none of these are generally accepted by linguists at the present time .

 Indo - Uralic ( edit )

 Main article : Indo - Uralic languages

 The Indo - Uralic ( or Uralo - Indo - European ) hypothesis suggests that Uralic and Indo - European are related at a fairly close level or , in its stronger form , that they are more closely related than either is to any other language family .

 Uralic -- Yukaghir ( edit )

 Main article : Uralic -- Yukaghir languages

 The Uralic -- Yukaghir hypothesis identifies Uralic and Yukaghir as independent members of a single language family . It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts . Regardless , the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number .

 Eskimo -- Uralic ( edit )

 Main article : Eskimo -- Uralic languages

 The Eskimo -- Uralic hypothesis associates Uralic with the Eskimo -- Aleut languages . This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century . An important restatement of it is Bergsland 1959 .

 Uralo - Siberian ( edit )

 Main article : Uralo - Siberian languages

 Uralo - Siberian is an expanded form of the Eskimo -- Uralic hypothesis . It associates Uralic with Yukaghir , Chukotko - Kamchatkan , and Eskimo -- Aleut . It was propounded by Michael Fortescue in 1998 .

 Ural -- Altaic ( edit )

 Main article : Ural -- Altaic languages

 Theories proposing a close relationship with the Altaic languages were formerly popular , based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features , in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of agglutination in both sets of languages , as well as vowel harmony in some . For example , the word for `` language '' is similar in Estonian ( keel ) and Mongolian ( хэл ( hel ) ) . These theories are now generally rejected and most such similarities are attributed to language contact or coincidence .

 Nostratic ( edit )

 Main article : Nostratic languages

 Nostratic associates Uralic , Indo - European , Altaic , Dravidian , and various other language families of Asia . The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by Holger Pedersen in 1903 and subsequently revived by Vladislav Illich - Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky in the 1960s .

 Eurasiatic ( edit )

 Main article : Eurasiatic languages

 Eurasiatic resembles Nostratic in including Uralic , Indo - European , and Altaic , but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages , Dravidian , and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko - Kamchatkan , Nivkh , Ainu , and Eskimo -- Aleut . It was propounded by Joseph Greenberg in 2000 -- 2002 . Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by Björn Collinder in 1965 .

 Uralo - Dravidian ( edit )

 The hypothesis that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group , suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past , is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars , including Robert Caldwell , Thomas Burrow , Kamil Zvelebil , and Mikhail Andronov . This hypothesis has , however , been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages , and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists , such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti .

 Uralic skepticism ( edit )

 In her book , The Uralic language family : facts , myths , and statistics , linguist Angela Marcantonio argues against the existence of the Uralic family , claiming that the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages .

 All of these hypotheses are minority views at the present time in Uralic studies .

 Other comparisons ( edit )

 See also : Alternative theories of the Hungarian language relations

 Various unorthodox comparisons have been advanced such as Finno - Basque , Hungarian - Etruscan , and Cal - Ugrian . These are considered at best spurious fringe - theories by specialists .

 See also ( edit )

 Finland portal

 Hungary portal

 Languages portal

 Uralic peoples

 Finno - Ugric peoples

 Notes ( edit )

 Jump up ^ Hammarström , Harald ; Forkel , Robert ; Haspelmath , Martin , eds. ( 2017 ) . `` Uralic '' . Glottolog 3.0 . Jena , Germany : Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History .

 Jump up ^ Simons , Gary F. ; Fenning , Charles F. `` Uralic '' . Ethnologue . SIL International . Retrieved 14 February 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Tommola , Hannu ( 2010 ) . `` Finnish among the Finno - Ugrian languages '' . Mood in the Languages of Europe . John Benjamins Publishing Company . p. 155 . ISBN 90 - 272 - 0587 - 6 .

 Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia , p. 231 .

 Jump up ^ Anderson , J.G.C. ( ed . ) ( 1938 ) . Germania . Oxford : Clarendon Press . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link )

 Jump up ^ Sebeok , Thomas A. ( 15 August 2002 ) . Portrait Of Linguists . Bloomsbury Publishing . p. 58 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4411 - 5874 - 1 . OCLC 956101732 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 793 -- 794 .

 ^ Jump up to : Collinder , Björn . An Introduction to the Uralic languages . Berkeley : University of California Press . pp. 8 -- 27 , 34 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 795 -- 796 .

 Jump up ^ Ruhlen , Merritt ( 1987 ) . A Guide to the World 's Languages . Stanford : Stanford University Press . pp. 64 -- 71 . OCLC 923421379 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 796 - 798 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , p. 798 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 801 - 803 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 803 -- 804 .

 Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1893 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 23 : 1 : 14 -- 34 .

 Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1893 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése II '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 23 : 3 : 260 -- 278 .

 Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1893 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése III '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 23 : 4 : 436 -- 447 .

 Jump up ^ Halász , Ignácz ( 1894 ) . `` Az ugor - szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése IV '' ( PDF ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 24 : 4 : 443 -- 469 .

 Jump up ^ Szabó , László ( 1969 ) . `` Die Erforschung der Verhältnisses Finnougrisch -- Samojedisch '' . Ural - Altaische Jahrbücher ( in German ) . 41 : 317 -- 322 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 799 -- 800 .

 Jump up ^ Wickman 1988 , pp. 810 -- 811 .

 Jump up ^ `` Lexica Societatis Fenno - Ugricae XXXV '' . Suomalais - Ugrilainen Seura ( in Hungarian ) .

 Jump up ^ Salminen , Tapani ( 2009 ) . `` Uralic ( Finno - Ugrian ) languages '' .

 Jump up ^ Helimski , Eugene ( 2006 ) . `` The `` Northwestern '' group of Finno - Ugric languages and its heritage in the place names and substratum vocabulary of the Russian North `` . In Nuorluoto , Juhani . The Slavicization of the Russian North ( Slavica Helsingiensia 27 ) ( PDF ) . Helsinki : Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures . pp. 109 -- 127 . ISBN 978 - 952 - 10 - 2852 - 6 .

 ^ Jump up to : Marcantonio , Angela ( 2002 ) . The Uralic Language Family : Facts , Myths and Statistics . Publications of the Philological Society . 35 . Oxford : Blackwell . pp. 55 -- 68 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 631 - 23170 - 7 . OCLC 803186861 .

 ^ Jump up to : Salminen , Tapani ( 2002 ) . `` Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies '' .

 Jump up ^ Donner , Otto ( 1879 ) . Die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der Finnisch - ugrischen sprachen ( in German ) . Helsinki . OCLC 1014980747 .

 Jump up ^ Szinnyei , Josef ( 1910 ) . Finnisch - ugrische Sprachwissenschaft ( in German ) . Leipzig : G.J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung . pp. 9 -- 21 .

 Jump up ^ Itkonen , T.I. ( 1921 ) . Suomensukuiset kansat ( in Finnish ) . Helsinki : Tietosanakirjaosakeyhtiö . pp. 7 -- 12 .

 Jump up ^ Setälä , E.N. ( 1926 ) . `` Kielisukulaisuus ja rotu '' . Suomen suku ( in Finnish ) . Helsinki : Otava .

 Jump up ^ Hájdu , Péter ( 1962 ) . Finnugor népek és nyelvek ( in Hungarian ) . Budapest .

 Jump up ^ Hajdu , Peter ( 1975 ) . Finno - Ugric Languages and Peoples . Translated by G.F. Cushing . London : André Deutch Ltd ... English translation of Hajdú ( 1962 ) .

 Jump up ^ Itkonen , Erkki ( 1966 ) . Suomalais - ugrilaisen kielen - ja historiantutkimuksen alalta . Tietolipas ( in Finnish ) . 20 . Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura . pp. 5 -- 8 .

 Jump up ^ Austerlitz , Robert ( 1968 ) . `` L'ouralien '' . In Martinet , André . Le langage .

 Jump up ^ Voegelin , C.F. ; Voegelin , F.M. ( 1977 ) . Classification and Index of the World 's Languages . New York / Oxford / Amsterdam : Elsevier . pp. 341 -- 343 .

 Jump up ^ Kulonen , Ulla - Maija ( 2002 ) . `` Kielitiede ja suomen väestön juuret '' . In Grünthal , Riho . Ennen , muinoin . Miten menneisyyttämme tutkitaan . Tietolipas. 180 . Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura . pp. 104 -- 108 . ISBN 951 - 746 - 332 - 4 .

 Jump up ^ Lehtinen , Tapani ( 2007 ) . Kielen vuosituhannet . Tietolipas. 215 . Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura . ISBN 978 - 951 - 746 - 896 - 1 .

 Jump up ^ Janhunen , Juha ( 2009 ) . `` Proto - Uralic -- what , where and when ? '' ( pdf ) . Suomalais - Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia. 258 . ISBN 978 - 952 - 5667 - 11 - 0 . ISSN 0355 - 0230 .

 Jump up ^ Häkkinen , Kaisa 1984 : Wäre es schon an der Zeit , den Stammbaum zu fällen ? -- Ural - Altaische Jahrbücher , Neue Folge 4 .

 ^ Jump up to : Häkkinen , Jaakko 2009 : Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus : perustelut puntarissa . -- Suomalais - Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 92 .

 Jump up ^ Bartens , Raija ( 1999 ) . Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys ( in Finnish ) . Helsinki : Suomalais - Ugrilainen Seura . p. 13 . ISBN 952 - 5150 - 22 - 4 .

 Jump up ^ Michalove , Peter A. ( 2002 ) The Classification of the Uralic Languages : Lexical Evidence from Finno - Ugric . In : Finnisch - Ugrische Forschungen , vol. 57

 Jump up ^ Janhunen , Juha ( 2009 ) , `` Proto - Uralic -- what , where and when ? '' ( pdf ) , Suomalais - Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia , 258 , ISBN 978 - 952 - 5667 - 11 - 0 , ISSN 0355 - 0230

 Jump up ^ Viitso , Tiit - Rein . Keelesugulus ja soome - ugri keelepuu . Akadeemia 9 / 5 ( 1997 )

 Jump up ^ Viitso , Tiit - Rein . Finnic Affinity . Congressus Nonus Internationalis Fenno - Ugristarum I : Orationes plenariae & Orationes publicae. ( 2000 )

 Jump up ^ Sammallahti , Pekka ( 1988 ) . `` Historical phonology of the Uralic Languages '' . In Sinor , Denis . The Uralic Languages : Description , History and Foreign Influences . Leiden : E.J. Brill . pp. 478 -- 554 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 07741 - 6 . OCLC 466103653 .

 Jump up ^ Helimski , Eugen . Proto - Uralic gradation : Continuation and traces . In Congressus Octavus Internationalis Fenno - Ugristarum . Pars I : Orationes plenariae et conspectus quinquennales . Jyväskylä , 1995 . `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 10 - 02 . Retrieved 2012 - 02 - 24 .

 Jump up ^ Häkkinen , Jaakko 2007 : Kantauralin murteutuminen vokaalivastaavuuksien valossa . Pro gradu - työ , Helsingin yliopiston Suomalais - ugrilainen laitos .

 Jump up ^ Austerlitz , Robert ( 1990 ) . `` Uralic Languages '' ( pp. 567 -- 576 ) in Comrie , Bernard , editor . The World 's Major Languages . Oxford University Press , Oxford ( p. 573 ) .

 Jump up ^ `` Estonian Language '' ( PDF ) . Estonian Institute . p. 14 . Retrieved 2013 - 04 - 16 .

 Jump up ^ `` The Finno - Ugrics : The dying fish swims in water '' , The Economist , pp. 73 -- 74 , December 24 , 2005 -- January 6 , 2006 , retrieved 2013 - 01 - 19

 Jump up ^ Pullum , Geoffrey K. ( 2005 - 12 - 26 ) , `` The Udmurtian code : saving Finno - Ugric in Russia '' , Language Log , retrieved 2009 - 12 - 21

 Jump up ^ Hájdu , Péter ( 1975 ) . `` Arealógia és urálisztika '' ( pdf ) . Nyelvtudományi Közlemények ( in Hungarian ) . 77 : 147 -- 152 . ISSN 0029 - 6791 .

 Jump up ^ Rédei , Károly 1999 : Zu den uralisch - jukagirischen Sprachkontakten . -- Finnisch - Ugrische Forschungen 55 .

 Jump up ^ Bergsland , Knut ( 1959 ) . `` The Eskimo - Uralic hypothesis '' . Journal De La Société Finno - Ougrienne. 61 : 1 -- 29 .

 Jump up ^ Fortescue , Michael D ( 1998 ) . Language Relations Across Bering Strait : Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence . Open linguistics series . London : Cassell . ISBN 978 - 0 - 304 - 70330 - 2 . OCLC 237319639 .

 Jump up ^ Georg , Stefan ; Michalove , Peter A. ; Ramer , Alexis Manaster ; Sidwell , Paul J. ( March 1999 ) . `` Telling general linguists about Altaic '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Linguistics. 35 ( 1 ) : 65 -- 98 . ISSN 1469 - 7742 .

 Jump up ^ Pedersen , Holger ( 1903 ) . `` Türkische Lautgesetze '' ( Turkish Phonetic Laws ) . Zeitschrift Der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft ( in German ) . 57 ( 3 ) : 535 -- 561 . ISSN 0341 - 0137 . OCLC 5919317968 .

 Jump up ^ Greenberg , Joseph Harold ( 2000 ) . Indo - European and Its Closest Relatives : The Eurasiatic Language Family . Volume 1 : Grammar . Stanford , Calif. : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 3812 - 5 . OCLC 491123067 .

 Greenberg , Joseph H ( 2002 ) . Indo - European and Its Closest Relatives : The Eurasiatic Language Family . Vol. 2 : Lexicon . Stanford , Calif. : Stanford University Press . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8047 - 4624 - 3 . OCLC 895918332 .

 Jump up ^ Koppelmann , Heinrich L. ( 1933 ) . Die Eurasische Sprachfamilie : Indogermanisch , Koreanisch U. Verwandtes ( in German ) . Heidelberg : Carl Winter .

 Jump up ^ Collinder , Björn ( 1965 ) . An Introduction to the Uralic Languages . University of California Press . pp. 30 -- 34 .

 Jump up ^ Tyler , Stephen ( 1968 ) , `` Dravidian and Uralian : the lexical evidence '' . Language 44 : 4 . 798 -- 812

 Jump up ^ Webb , Edward ( 1860 ) . `` Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages , Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell 's Comparative Dravidian Grammar '' . Journal of the American Oriental Society . 7 : 271 -- 298 . doi : 10.2307 / 592159 .

 Jump up ^ Burrow , T. ( 1944 ) . `` Dravidian Studies IV : The Body in Dravidian and Uralian '' . Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies . 11 ( 2 ) : 328 -- 356 . doi : 10.1017 / s0041977x00072517 .

 Jump up ^ Zvelebil , Kamal ( 2006 ) . Dravidian Languages . In Encyclopædia Britannica ( DVD edition ) .

 Jump up ^ Andronov , Mikhail S. ( 1971 ) , `` Comparative Studies on the Nature of Dravidian - Uralian Parallels : A Peep into the Prehistory of Language Families '' . Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies Madras. 267 -- 277 .

 Jump up ^ Zvelebil , Kamal ( 1970 ) , Comparative Dravidian Phonology Mouton , The Hauge . at p. 22 contains a bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the hypothesis

 Jump up ^ Krishnamurti , Bhadriraju ( 2003 ) The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press , Cambridge . ISBN 0 - 521 - 77111 - 0 at p. 43 .

 Jump up ^ `` The Uralic language family : facts , myths , and statistics review by Dr. Edward Vajda '' ( PDF ) . Dr. Edward Vajda .

 Jump up ^ Trask , R.L. The History of Basque Routledge : 1997 ISBN 0 - 415 - 13116 - 2

 Jump up ^ Alinei , Mario ( 2003 ) , Etrusco : una forma arcaica di ungherese , Bologna , Il Mulino .

 References ( edit )

 Abondolo , Daniel M. ( editor ) . 1998 . The Uralic Languages . London and New York : Routledge . ISBN 0 - 415 - 08198 - X .

 Collinder , Björn. 1955 . Fenno - Ugric Vocabulary : An Etymological Dictionary of the Uralic Languages . ( Collective work . ) Stockholm : Almqvist & Viksell . ( Second , revised edition : Hamburg : Helmut Buske Verlag , 1977 . )

 Collinder , Björn. 1957 . Survey of the Uralic Languages . Stockholm .

 Collinder , Björn. 1960 . Comparative Grammar of the Uralic Languages . Stockholm : Almqvist & Wiksell

 Comrie , Bernhard. 1988 . `` General Features of the Uralic Languages . '' In The Uralic Languages , edited by Denis Sinor , pp. 451 -- 477 . Leiden : Brill .

 Décsy , Gyula. 1990 . The Uralic Protolanguage : A Comprehensive Reconstruction . Bloomington , Indiana .

 Hajdu , Péter. 1963 . Finnugor népek és nyelvek . Budapest : Gondolat kiadó .

 Helimski , Eugene . Comparative Linguistics , Uralic Studies . Lectures and Articles . Moscow . 2000 . ( Russian : Хелимский Е. А . Компаративистика , уралистика . Лекции и статьи . М. , 2000 . )

 Laakso , Johanna. 1992 . Uralilaiset kansat ( ' Uralic Peoples ' ) . Porvoo -- Helsinki -- Juva . ISBN 951 - 0 - 16485 - 2 .

 Napolskikh , Vladimir . The First Stages of Origin of People of Uralic Language Family : Material of Mythological Reconstruction . Moscow , 1991 . ( Russian : Напольских В . В . Древнейшие этапы происхождения народов уральской языковой семьи : данные мифологической реконструкции . М. , 1991 . )

 Rédei , Károly ( editor ) . 1986 -- 88 . Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ( ' Uralic Etymological Dictionary ' ) . Budapest .

 Wickman , Bo ( 1988 ) . `` The History of Uralic Languages '' . In Sinor , Denis . The Uralic Languages : Description , History , and Foreign Influences . Leiden : Brill . pp. 792 -- 818 . ISBN 978 - 90 - 04 - 07741 - 6 . OCLC 16580570 .

 External classification ( edit )

 Sauvageot , Aurélien. 1930 . Recherches sur le vocabulaire des langues ouralo - altaïques ( ' Research on the Vocabulary of the Uralo - Altaic Languages ' ) . Paris .

 Linguistic issues ( edit )

 Künnap , A. 2000 . Contact - induced Perspectives in Uralic Linguistics . LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 39 . München : LINCOM Europa . ISBN 3 - 89586 - 964 - 3 .

 Wickman , Bo. 1955 . The Form of the Object in the Uralic Languages . Uppsala : Lundequistska bokhandeln .

 External links ( edit )

 `` The Finno - Ugrics '' The Economist , December 20 , 2005

 Kulonen , Ulla - Maija : Origin of Finnish and related languages . thisisFINLAND , Finland Promotion Board . Cited 30.10. 2009 .

 `` Rebel '' uralists ( edit )

 `` The untenability of the Finno - Ugrian theory from a linguistic point of view '' by Dr. László Marácz , a minority opinion on the language family

 `` The ' Ugric - Turkic battle ' : a critical review '' by Angela Marcantonio , Pirjo Nummenaho , and Michela Salvagni

 `` Linguistic shadow - boxing '' by Johanna Laakso -- a book review of Angela Marcantonio 's The Uralic Language Family : Facts , Myths and Statistics

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Uralic languages .

 Uralic languages

 Finnic

 Estonian

 Northeastern coastal

 South Estonian

 Võro

 Seto

 Finnish

 Kven

 Meänkieli

 Ingrian

 Karelian

 Karelian proper

 Livvi

 Ludic

 Livonian †

 Veps

 Votic

 Sami

 Akkala †

 Inari

 Kainuu †

 Kemi †

 Kildin

 Lule

 Northern

 Pite

 Skolt

 Southern

 Ter

 Ume

 Mordvinic

 Erzya

 Moksha

 Mari

 Hill Mari

 Meadow Mari

 Permic

 Komi

 Zyrian

 Permyak

 Yodzyak

 Udmurt

 Ugric

 Hungarian

 Khanty

 Mansi

 Samoyedic

 Enets

 Yurats †

 Nenets

 Forest Nenets

 Tundra Nenets

 Nganasan

 Kamassian †

 Mator †

 Selkup

 Others

 Merya †

 Meshcherian †

 Muromian †

 † indicate extinct languages

 List of primary language families

 Africa

 Afro - Asiatic

 Austronesian

 Khoe

 Kx'a

 Niger -- Congo

 Nilo - Saharan ?

 Tuu

 Mande ?

 Songhay ?

 Ijaw ?

 Ubangian ?

 Kadu ?

 Isolates

 Bangime

 Hadza

 Jalaa

 Sandawe

 Kwadi ?

 Laal ?

 Shabo ?

 Sign languages

 Arab

 BANZSL

 French

 Lasima

 Tanzanian

 Others

 Europe and Asia

 Afro - Asiatic

 Ainu

 Austroasiatic

 Austronesian

 Chukotko - Kamchatkan

 Dravidian

 Eskimo -- Aleut

 Great Andamanese

 Hmong -- Mien

 Hurro - Urartian

 Indo - European

 Japonic

 Kartvelian

 Koreanic

 Mongolic

 Northeast Caucasian

 Northwest Caucasian

 Ongan

 Sino - Tibetan

 Tai -- Kadai

 Tungusic

 Turkic

 Tyrsenian

 Uralic

 Yeniseian

 Yukaghir

 Dené -- Yeniseian ?

 Altaic ?

 Austronesian -- Ongan ?

 Austro - Tai ?

 Sino - Austronesian ?

 Digaro ?

 Kho - Bwa ?

 Siangic ?

 Miji ?

 Vasconic ?

 Isolates

 Basque

 Burushaski

 Elamite

 Hattic

 Kusunda

 Nihali

 Nivkh

 Sumerian

 Hruso ?

 Miju ?

 Puroik ?

 Sign languages

 BANZSL

 French

 German

 Japanese

 Swedish

 Chinese

 Indo - Pakistani

 Arab

 Chiangmai -- Bangkok

 Others

 New Guinea and the Pacific

 Arai -- Samaia

 Arafundi

 Austronesian

 Baining

 Binanderean -- Goilalan

 Border

 Bulaka River

 Central Solomons

 Chimbu -- Wahgi

 Doso -- Turumsa

 East Geelvink Bay

 East Strickland

 Eleman

 Engan

 Fas

 Kaure -- Kosare

 Kiwaian

 Kutubuan

 Kwomtari

 Lakes Plain

 Lower Mamberamo

 Lower Sepik

 Madang

 Mairasi

 North Bougainville

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1954 in the United States - wikipedia

 1954 in the United States

 Jump to : navigation , search This list is incomplete ; you can help by expanding it .

 1954 in the United States

 Years

 1952

 1953

 1954

 1955

 1956

 Flag

 48 stars ( 1912 -- 59 )

 Timeline of United States history

 History of the United States ( 1945 -- 64 )

 Events from the year 1954 in the United States .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Incumbents

 1.1 Federal Government

 1.2 Governors

 1.3 Lieutenant Governors

 2 Events

 2.1 January

 2.2 February

 2.3 March

 2.4 April

 2.5 May

 2.6 June

 2.7 July

 2.8 August

 2.9 September

 2.10 October

 2.11 November

 2.12 December

 2.13 Undated

 2.14 Ongoing

 3 Births

 3.1 January

 3.2 February

 3.3 March

 3.4 April

 3.5 May

 3.6 June

 3.7 July

 3.8 August

 3.9 September

 3.10 October

 3.11 November

 3.12 December

 4 Deaths

 5 See also

 6 References

 7 External links

 Incumbents ( edit )

 Federal Government ( edit )

 President : Dwight D. Eisenhower ( R - Kansas / New York )

 Vice President : Richard Nixon ( R - California ) oo

 Chief Justice : Earl Warren ( California )

 ( ( Speaker of the United States House of

 Representatives Speaker of the House of Representatives ) ) : Joseph William Martin , Jr . ( R - Massachusetts )

 Senate Majority Leader : William F. Knowland ( R - California )

 Congress : 83rd

 ( show ) Governors and Lieutenant Governors

 Governors ( edit )

 Governor of Alabama : Gordon Persons ( Democratic )

 Governor of Arizona : John Howard Pyle ( Republican )

 Governor of Arkansas : Francis Cherry ( Democratic )

 Governor of California : Goodwin Knight ( Republican )

 Governor of Colorado : Daniel I.J. Thornton ( Republican )

 Governor of Connecticut : John Davis Lodge ( Republican )

 Governor of Delaware : J. Caleb Boggs ( Republican )

 Governor of Florida : Charley Eugene Johns ( Democratic )

 Governor of Georgia : Herman Talmadge ( Democratic )

 Governor of Idaho : Leonard B. Jordan ( Republican )

 Governor of Illinois : William G. Stratton ( Democratic )

 Governor of Indiana : George N. Craig ( Republican )

 Governor of Iowa :

 until November 21 : William S. Beardsley ( Republican )

 November 21 - November 22 : vacant

 starting November 22 : Leo Elthon ( Republican )

 Governor of Kansas : Edward F. Arn ( Republican )

 Governor of Kentucky : Lawrence W. Wetherby ( Democratic )

 Governor of Louisiana : Robert F. Kennon ( Democratic )

 Governor of Maine : Burton M. Cross ( Republican )

 Governor of Maryland : Theodore R. McKeldin ( Republican )

 Governor of Massachusetts : Christian A. Herter ( Republican )

 Governor of Michigan : G. Mennen Williams ( Democratic )

 Governor of Minnesota : C. Elmer Anderson ( Republican )

 Governor of Mississippi : Hugh L. White ( Democratic )

 Governor of Missouri : Phil M. Donnelly ( Democratic )

 Governor of Montana : J. Hugo Aronson ( Republican )

 Governor of Nebraska : Robert B. Crosby ( Republican )

 Governor of Nevada : Charles H. Russell ( Republican )

 Governor of New Hampshire : Hugh Gregg ( Republican )

 Governor of New Jersey : Alfred E. Driscoll ( Republican ) ( until January 19 ) , Robert B. Meyner ( Democratic ) ( starting January 19 )

 Governor of New Mexico : Edwin L. Mechem ( Republican )

 Governor of New York : Thomas Dewey ( Republican ) ( until end of December 31 )

 Governor of North Carolina : William B. Umstead ( Democratic ) ( until November 7 ) , Luther H. Hodges ( Democratic ) ( starting November 7 )

 Governor of North Dakota : Clarence Norman Brunsdale ( Republican )

 Governor of Ohio : Frank J. Lausche ( Democratic )

 Governor of Oklahoma : Johnston Murray ( Democratic )

 Governor of Oregon : Paul L. Patterson ( Republican )

 Governor of Pennsylvania : John S. Fine ( Republican )

 Governor of Rhode Island : Dennis J. Roberts ( Democratic )

 Governor of South Carolina : James Francis Byrnes ( Democratic )

 Governor of South Dakota : Sigurd Anderson ( Republican )

 Governor of Tennessee : Frank G. Clement ( Democratic )

 Governor of Texas : Allan Shivers ( Democratic )

 Governor of Utah : J. Bracken Lee ( Republican )

 Governor of Vermont : Lee E. Emerson ( Republican )

 Governor of Virginia : John S. Battle ( Democratic ) ( until January 20 ) , Thomas Bahnson Stanley ( Democratic ) ( starting January 20 )

 Governor of Washington : Arthur B. Langlie ( Republican )

 Governor of West Virginia : William C. Marland ( Democratic )

 Governor of Wisconsin : Walter J. Kohler , Jr . ( Republican )

 Governor of Wyoming : Clifford Joy Rogers ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governors ( edit )

 Lieutenant Governor of Alabama : James B. Allen ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas : Nathan Green Gordon ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of California : Harold J. Powers ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Colorado : Gordon L. Allott ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut : Edward N. Allen ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Delaware : John W. Rollins ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Georgia : Marvin Griffin ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Idaho : Edson H. Deal ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Illinois : John William Chapman ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Indiana : Harold W. Handley ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Iowa : Leo Elthon ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Kansas : Fred Hall ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky : Emerson Beauchamp ( political party unknown )

 Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana : C.E. `` Cap '' Barham ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts : Sumner G. Whittier ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Michigan : Clarence A. Reid ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota : vacant ( until month and day unknown ) , Donald O. Wright ( Republican ) ( starting month and day unknown )

 Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi : Carroll Gartin ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Missouri : James T. Blair , Jr . ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Montana : George M. Gosman ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Nebraska : Charles J. Warner ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Nevada : Clifford A. Jones ( Democratic ) ( until December ) , vacant ( starting December )

 Lieutenant Governor of New Mexico : Tibo J. Chavez ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of New York : vacant

 Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina : Luther H. Hodges ( Democratic ) ( until November 7 ) , vacant ( starting November 7 )

 Lieutenant Governor of North Dakota : Clarence P. Dahl ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Ohio : John William Brown ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma : James E. Berry ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania : Lloyd H. Wood ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island : John S. McKiernan ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina : George Bell Timmerman , Jr . ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of South Dakota : Rex A. Terry ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee : Jared Maddux ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Texas : Ben Ramsey ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Vermont : Joseph B. Johnson ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Virginia : Allie Edward Stokes Stephens ( Democratic )

 Lieutenant Governor of Washington : Emmett T. Anderson ( Republican )

 Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin : George M. Smith ( Republican )

 Events ( edit )

 January ( edit )

 January 21 : USS Nautilus , the first nuclear - powered submarine

 January 14 -- Marilyn Monroe marries baseball player Joe DiMaggio .

 January 20

 The U.S. - based National Negro Network is established with 40 charter member radio stations .

 Rogers Pass , Montana records the coldest temperature in the contiguous United States of − 70 ° F ( − 56.7 ° C ) .

 January 21 -- The first nuclear - powered submarine , the USS Nautilus , is launched in Groton , Connecticut , by First Lady of the United States Mamie Eisenhower .

 January 25 -- The foreign ministers of the United States , Britain , France and the Soviet Union meet at the Berlin Conference .

 February ( edit )

 February 10 -- After authorizing $385,000,000 over the $400,000,000 already budgeted for military aid to Vietnam , U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower warns against United States intervention in Vietnam .

 February 23 -- The first mass vaccination of children against polio begins in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , United States .

 March ( edit )

 March 1 -- U.S. officials announce that a hydrogen bomb test has been conducted on Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean .

 March 1 -- U.S. Capitol shooting incident : Four Puerto Rican nationalists open fire in the United States House of Representatives chamber and wound five people ; they are apprehended by security guards .

 March 9 -- American journalists Edward Murrow and Fred W. Friendly produce a 30 - minute See It Now documentary , entitled A Report on Senator Joseph McCarthy .

 March 16 -- The Army -- McCarthy hearings are convened .

 March 19 -- Joey Giardello knocks out Willie Tory at Madison Square Garden , in the first televised boxing prize fight to be shown in color .

 March 25 -- The 26th Academy Awards ceremony is held .

 March 28 -- Puerto Rico 's first television station , WKAQ - TV , goes on the air .

 April ( edit )

 April 1 -- President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorizes the creation of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado

 April 7 -- Dwight D. Eisenhower gives his `` domino theory '' speech during a news conference .

 April 16 -- Vice President Richard Nixon announces that the United States may be `` putting our own boys in Indochina regardless of Allied support . ''

 April 22 -- Senator Joseph McCarthy begins hearings investigating the United States Army for being `` soft '' on Communism .

 May ( edit )

 May 14 -- The Boeing 707 is released after about two years of development .

 May 17 -- Brown v. Board of Education ( 347 US 483 1954 ) : The United States Supreme Court rules that segregated schools are unconstitutional .

 June ( edit )

 June 9 -- McCarthyism : Joseph Welch , special counsel for the United States Army , lashes out at Senator Joseph McCarthy , during hearings on whether Communism has infiltrated the Army , saying , ' Have you , at long last , no decency ? ' .

 June 14 -- The words `` under God '' are added to the United States Pledge of Allegiance .

 June 17 -- A CIA - engineered military coup occurs in Guatemala .

 June 27 -- Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán steps down in a CIA - sponsored military coup , triggering a bloody civil war that continues for more than thirty - five years .

 July ( edit )

 July 1 -- The United States officially begins using the international unit of the nautical mile , equal to 6,076.11549 ft. or 1,852 meters .

 July 15 -- The maiden flight of the Boeing 367 - 80 ( or Dash 80 ) , a prototype of the Boeing 707 series .

 July 19 -- Release of Elvis Presley 's first single , `` That 's All Right '' , by Sun Records ( recorded July 5 in Memphis , Tennessee ) .

 August ( edit )

 August 16 -- The first issue of Sports Illustrated magazine is published in the United States .

 September ( edit )

 September 3 -- The last new episode of The Lone Ranger is aired on radio , after 2,956 episodes over a period of twenty - one years .

 September 11 -- The Miss America Pageant is broadcast on television for the first time .

 September 30 -- The USS Nautilus , the first nuclear - powered submarine , is commissioned by the US Navy .

 October ( edit )

 October 15 -- Hurricane Hazel makes U.S. landfall ; it is the only recorded Category 4 hurricane to strike as far north as North Carolina .

 October 18 -- Texas Instruments announces the development of the first transistor radio .

 November ( edit )

 November 10 -- U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower dedicates the USMC War Memorial ( Iwo Jima memorial ) in Arlington National Cemetery .

 November 12 -- The main immigration port of entry in New York Harbor at Ellis Island closes .

 November 23 -- The Dow Jones Industrial Average rises 3.27 points , or 0.86 % , closing at an all - time high of 382.74 . More significantly , this is the first time the Dow has surpassed its peak level reached just before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 .

 November 30 -- In Sylacauga , Alabama , a 4 kg piece of the Hodges Meteorite crashes through the roof of a house and badly bruises a napping woman , in the first documented case of an object from outer space hitting a person .

 December ( edit )

 December 1 -- The first Hyatt Hotel , The Hyatt House Los Angeles , opens . It is the first hotel in the world built outside of an airport .

 December 2

 Red Scare : The United States Senate votes 67 -- 22 to condemn Joseph McCarthy for `` conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute . ''

 The Sino - American Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and Republic of China is signed .

 December 4 -- The first branch of Burger King opens in Miami , Florida , USA .

 December 21 -- The 6.5 M Eureka earthquake affected the north coast of California with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII ( Very strong ) . Several people were injured and one was killed , with $2.1 million in damage .

 December 23 -- The first successful kidney transplant is performed by Joseph E. Murray , MD in Boston from one identical twin to his brother . Murray would later share the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his `` ( discovery ) concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease '' .

 Undated ( edit )

 Gerbils ( Meriones unguiculatus ) are brought to the United States by Dr. Victor Schwentker .

 New York City Ballet co-founder and balletmaster George Balanchine 's production of The Nutcracker is staged for the first time in New York , becoming an annual tradition there , still being performed there as of 2008 .

 The Boy Scouts of America desegregates on the basis of race . ( Source / citation needed -- no evidence for this statement found until 1974 )

 The TV dinner is introduced by the American entrepreneur Gerry Thomas .

 Ongoing ( edit )

 Cold War ( 1945 -- 1991 )

 Second Red Scare ( 1947 -- 1957 )

 Births ( edit )

 This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( November 2011 )

 January ( edit )

 January 1 -- Bob Menendez , United States Senator from New Jersey since 2006 .

 January 23 -- Richard Finch , bass player , songwriter , and producer ( KC and the Sunshine Band )

 January 29 -- Bill Evers , baseball player , coach , and manager

 February ( edit )

 February 15 -- Matt Groening , author , cartoonist , producer and screenwriter

 February 16 -- Margaux Hemingway , fashion model , actress , and sister of Mariel Hemingway ( d . 1996 )

 March ( edit )

 April ( edit )

 April 10 -- Peter MacNicol , actor .

 April 23 -- Michael Moore , filmmaker , writer , social critic , and activist .

 May ( edit )

 May 4 -- Doug Jones , U.S. Senator from Alabama since 2018

 May 8 -- Pam Arciero , puppeteer and voice actress

 May 12 -- Rafael Yglesias , novelist and screenwriter

 May 21 -- Janice Karman , film producer , record producer , singer , voice artist and wife of Ross Bagdasarian , Jr .

 May 29 -- Jerry Moran , United States Senator from Kansas since 2011 .

 June ( edit )

 June 25 -- Sonia Sotomayor , Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States since 2009 .

 July ( edit )

 July 25 -- Walter Payton , football running back who played for the Chicago Bears ( d . 1999 )

 August ( edit )

 September ( edit )

 September 6 -- Carly Fiorina , businesswoman , CEO of Hewlett - Packard

 September 24 -- Ash Carter , 25th United States Secretary of Defense

 October ( edit )

 October 3 -- Joe Gates , American baseball player and coach ( d . 2010 )

 November ( edit )

 November 12 -- Rob Lytle , American football player ( d . 2010 )

 November 14

 Anson Funderburgh , guitarist and bandleader

 Condoleezza Rice , first female African - American Secretary of State , in office from 2005 - 2009

 December ( edit )

 December 2 -- Stone Phillips , journalist and educator

 December 10 -- Gavin Smith , businessman ( d . 2012 )

 December 15 -- Mark Warner , United States Senator from Virginia since 2009 .

 Deaths ( edit )

 This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( June 2016 )

 January 5 -- Rabbit Maranville , baseball player ( b . 1891 )

 February 6 -- Maxwell Bodenheim , poet and novelist , murdered ( b . 1892 )

 September 28 -- Pat McCarran , Democratic United States Senator from Nevada from 1933 until 1954 ( born 1876 )

 Jeremiah Dublanc , Philadelphia businessman

 See also ( edit )

 List of American films of 1954

 Timeline of United States history ( 1950 -- 1969 )

 References ( edit )

 ^ Jump up to : `` On This Day '' , New York Times , retrieved 25 August 2016

 Jump up ^ s : Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States of America and the Republic of China

 Jump up ^ Dente , Christopher J. ( March 2005 ) . `` Joseph E. Murray ( 1919 -- ) '' . Archives of Surgery . American Medical Association .

 External links ( edit )

 Media related to 1954 in the United States at Wikimedia Commons

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Eighth Crusade - wikipedia

 Eighth Crusade

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 Eighth Crusade

 Part of the Crusades

 Death of Louis IX during the siege of Tunis

 Date

 1270

 Location

 Tunisia

 Result

 Muslim victory Treaty of Tunis Death of Louis IX Opening of trade with Tunis

 Territorial changes

 Status quo ante bellum

 Belligerents

 Kingdom of France Kingdom of Sicily Kingdom of Navarre

 Hafsid dynasty

 Commanders and leaders

 Louis IX # Charles I of Sicily Theobald II of Navarre

 Muhammad I al - Mustansir

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 In the Holy Land ( 1095 -- 1291 )

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 1101

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 Second

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 1197

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 Barons '

 Seventh

 Shepherds ' 1251

 Eighth

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 After 1291

 Poor 1309

 Shepherds ' 1320

 Smyrniote 1343 -- 1351

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 Wendish 1147

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 1150

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 1293

 Livonian 1198 -- 1290

 Prussian 1217 -- 1274

 Lithuanian 1283 -- 1410

 Against Christians

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 Aragonese 1284 / 5

 Despenser 's 1382 / 3

 Hussite 1419 -- 1434

 Reconquista ( 718 -- 1492 )

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 The Eighth Crusade was a crusade launched by Louis IX of France against the city of Tunis in 1270 . The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh , if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of Frederick II are counted as a single crusade . The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth . The crusade is considered a failure after Louis died shortly after arriving on the shores of Tunisia , with his disease - ridden army dispersing back to Europe shortly afterwards .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Background

 2 Preparation

 3 Campaign and siege

 4 Literary response

 5 Notes

 6 References

 Background ( edit )

 Despite the failure of the Seventh Crusade , which ended in the capture of King Louis by the Mamluks , the King did not lose interest in crusading . He continued to send financial aid and military support to the settlements in Outremer from 1254 to 1266 . While the `` crusade '' of the King 's brother Charles of Anjou against the Hohenstaufen Kingdom of Sicily occupied Papal attention for some years , the advance of Baibars in Syria during the early 1260s became increasingly alarming to Christendom . The War of Saint Sabas between Genoa and Venice had drawn in the Crusader States and depleted their resources and manpower . The exhausted settlements were systematically overrun by the methodical campaigns of Baibars . By 1265 , he had raided Galilee and destroyed the cathedral of Nazareth , captured Caesarea and Arsuf and temporarily took Haifa . In late 1266 , Louis informed Pope Clement IV that he intended to go on crusade again .

 Preparation ( edit )

 Louis formally took the cross on 24 March 1267 at an assembly of his nobles . A second ceremony took place on 5 June 1267 before a papal legate in Notre - Dame de Paris . Louis 's son - in - law , King Theobald II of Navarre , who had also taken the cross , was also present . The response was less enthusiastic than to his calling of the Seventh Crusade in 1248 , although its unpopularity may have been exaggerated by his chronicler Jean de Joinville , who was personally opposed to the venture . The crusade was set to sail from Aigues - Mortes in early summer 1270 in Genoese and Marseillois shipping . An Aragonese contingent under James I of Aragon sailed from Barcelona in September 1269 , but was caught in a storm and badly damaged ; most of the survivors returned home , while one squadron under the King 's natural sons Pedro Fernández and Fernán Sánchez reached Acre . Too weak to engage Baibars , they soon returned to Aragon as well .

 Louis ' initial plan was to descend on the coast of Outremer by way of Cyprus . However , a new plan was developed in 1269 , wherein the fleet would first descend on Tunis . This change has often been attributed to the King 's brother Charles of Anjou , whose newly - conquered Kingdom of Sicily would benefit from a renewal of its traditional influence on Tunis . However , the details of Charles ' preparations suggest that he was not initially aware of the change of plans , which originated at the French court . Louis may have thought that Tunis was an important base of supplies for Egypt ; Geoffrey of Beaulieu stated that the King thought that the Khalif of Tunis , Muhammad I al - Mustansir , might be persuaded to convert to Christianity , if given military support .

 Pope Clement ceded a tenth of the church 's income in Navarre to King Theobald for the financing the crusade . The prior of Roncesvalles and the dean of Tudela were to oversee the collection of the tenth . The preaching of the crusade in Navarre was primarily undertaken by the Franciscans and Dominicans of Pamplona .

 Campaign and siege ( edit )

 A large and well - organized fleet under Louis IX sailed from Aigues - Mortes about a month late , on 1 July 1270 . The following day a second fleet under the King of Navarre sailed from Marseille . The two fleets joined up at Cagliari on the southern coast of Sardinia . They landed on the Tunisian coast on 18 July . The crusaders built a fortified camp on the ruins of Carthage and awaited the arrival of the Sicilian contingent under Charles of Anjou . The North African summer bred pestilence , and an epidemic of dysentery swept through the crusading ranks . Louis ' Damietta - born son John Tristan died of the disease on 3 August . Soon Louis , too , fell sick , and died , in penitence , on a bed of ashes on 25 August . His brother Charles arrived just after his death .

 Because of further diseases the siege of Tunis was abandoned on 30 October by an agreement with the sultan . In this agreement the Christians gained free trade with Tunis , and residence for monks and priests in the city was guaranteed . After hearing of the death of Louis and the evacuation of the crusaders from Tunis , Sultan Baibars of Egypt cancelled his plan to send Egyptian troops to fight Louis in Tunis . The treaty was quite beneficial to Charles of Anjou , who received one - third of a war indemnity from the Tunisians , and was promised that Hohenstaufen refugees in the sultanate would be expelled .

 Prince Edward of England arrived with an English fleet the day before the crusaders left Tunis . The English returned to Sicily with the rest of the crusaders ; the combined fleet was badly damaged in a storm off Trapani . At the end of April 1271 , the English continued to Acre to carry on the Ninth Crusade .

 Literary response ( edit )

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 Bertran d'Alamanon , a diplomat in the service of Charles of Anjou , and Ricaut Bono criticised the de Papal policy of pursuing wars in Italy with money that should have gone overseas .

 The failure of the Eighth Crusade , like those of its predecessors , caused a response to be crafted in Occitan poetry by the troubadours . The death of Louis of France especially sparked their creative output , notable considering the hostility which the troubadours had previously shown towards the French monarchy during the Albigensian Crusade . Three planhs , songs of lament , were composed for the death of Louis IX .

 Guilhem d'Autpol composed Fortz tristors es e salvaj'a retraire for Louis . Raimon Gaucelm de Bezers composed Qui vol aver complida amistansa to celebrate the preparations of the Crusade in 1268 , but in 1270 he had to compose Ab grans trebalhs et ab grans marrimens in commemoration of the French king . Austorc de Segret composed No sai quim so , tan sui desconoissens , a more general Crusading song , that laments Louis but also that either God or Satan is misleading Christians . He also attacks Louis ' brother Charles , whom he calls the caps e guitz ( head and guide ) of the infidels , because he convinced Louis to attack Tunis and not the Holy Land , and he immediately negotiated a peace with the Muslims after Louis ' death .

 After the Crusade , the aged troubadour Peire Cardenal wrote a song , Totz lo mons es vestitiz et abrazatz ( more or less : the entire world is besieged and surrounded ( by falsehood ) ) , encouraging Louis ' heir , Philip III , to go to the Holy Land to aid Edward Longshanks .

 Satiric verses were composed in Tunis about Louis ' new plan to invade Tunis : `` O Louis , Tunis is the sister of Egypt ! thus expect your ordeal ! you will find your tomb here instead of the house of Ibn Lokman ; and the eunuch Sobih will be here replaced by Munkir and Nakir . '' .

 Notes ( edit )

 Jump up ^ `` The Crusades of St. Louis '' . Britannica . Retrieved 28 May 2015 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , pp. 207 -- 208 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , p. 209 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , pp. 239 -- 240 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , p. 240 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , p. 241 .

 ^ Jump up to : Narbaitz 2007 , pp. 256 -- 57 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , pp. 209 -- 210 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , p. 210 .

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , pp. 210 -- 211 .

 Jump up ^ Al - Maqrizi , p. 69 / vol. 2

 Jump up ^ Riley - Smith 2005 , p. 211 .

 Jump up ^ Verses by a contemporary Tunesian named Ahmad Ismail Alzayat ( Al - Maqrizi , p. 462 / vol. 1 ) -- House of Ibn Lokman was the house in Al - Mansurah where Louis was imprisoned in chains after he was captured in Fariskur during the 7th Crusade and where he was under the guard of a eunuch named Sobih . According to Muslim creed Munkir and Nakir are two angels who interrogate the dead .

 References ( edit )

 Al - Maqrizi , Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al - Melouk , Dar al - kotob , Cairo 1997 . English translation by Bohn , Henry G. , The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings , Chronicles of the Crusades , AMS Press , 1969 .

 Beebe , Bruce , `` The English Baronage and the Crusade of 1270 , '' in Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research , vol . xlviii ( 118 ) , November 1975 , pp. 127 -- 148 .

 Narbaitz , Pierre ( 2007 ) . Navarra o cuando los vascos tenían reyes . Tafalla : Editorial Txalaparta .

 Paterson , Linda ( 2003 ) . `` Lyric allusions to the crusades and the Holy Land . '' Colston Symposium .

 Richard , Jean . The Crusades , C. 1071 - c. 1291 , Cambridge University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0 - 521 - 62566 - 1

 Riley - Smith , Jonathan ( 2005 ) ( 1987 ) . The Crusades : A History ( 2nd ed . ) . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press . ISBN 0 - 8264 - 7270 - 2 .

 Strayer , Joseph R. ( 1969 ) . `` The Crusades of Louis IX '' . In R.L. Wolff ; H.W. Hazard . A History of the Crusades , Volume II : The Later Crusades ( 1189 -- 1311 ) . Madison , Wisconsin : University of Wisconsin Press . pp. 486 -- 518 .

 Throop , Palmer A. , `` Criticism of Papal Crusade Policy in Old French and Provençal . '' Speculum , Vol. 13 , No. 4 . ( October , 1938 ) , pp. 379 -- 412 .

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Question: who occupied the holy land after the 8th crusade