Human fertilization - wikipedia

 Human fertilization

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 The acrosome reaction for a sea urchin , a similar process . Note that the picture shows several stages of one and the same spermatozoon - only one penetrates the ovum Illustration depicting ovulation and fertilization .

 Human fertilization is the union of a human egg and sperm , usually occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube . The result of this union is the production of a zygote cell , or fertilized egg , initiating prenatal development . Scientists discovered the dynamics of human fertilization in the nineteenth century .

 The process of fertilization involves a sperm fusing with an ovum . The most common sequence begins with ejaculation during copulation , follows with ovulation , and finishes with fertilization . Various exceptions to this sequence are possible , including artificial insemination , in vitro fertilization , external ejaculation without copulation , or copulation shortly after ovulation . Upon encountering the secondary oocyte , the acrosome of the sperm produces enzymes which allow it to burrow through the outer jelly coat of the egg . The sperm plasma then fuses with the egg 's plasma membrane , the sperm head disconnects from its flagellum and the egg travels down the Fallopian tube to reach the uterus .

 In vitro fertilization ( IVF ) is a process by which egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb , in vitro .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Anatomy

 1.1 Corona radiata

 1.2 Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane

 1.3 Sperm preparation

 1.4 Zona pellucida

 1.4. 1 Cortical reaction

 2 Fusion

 2.1 Cell membranes

 2.2 Transformations

 2.3 Replication

 2.4 Mitosis

 3 Fertilization age

 4 Diseases

 5 See also

 6 References

 7 External links

 Anatomy ( edit )

 Corona radiata ( edit )

 The sperm binds through the corona radiata , a layer of follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte . Fertilization occurs when the nucleus of both a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell , known as zygote . The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism .

 Cone of attraction and perivitelline membrane ( edit )

 Where the spermatozoon is about to pierce , the yolk ( ooplasm ) is drawn out into a conical elevation , termed the cone of attraction or reception cone . Once the spermatozoon has entered , the peripheral portion of the yolk changes into a membrane , the perivitelline membrane , which prevents the passage of additional spermatozoa .

 Sperm preparation ( edit )

 Further information : Acrosome reaction

 At the beginning of the process , the sperm undergoes a series of changes , as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize . The sperm must undergo capacitation in the female 's reproductive tract over several hours , which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane , preparing it for the acrosome reaction , the enzymatic penetration of the egg 's tough membrane , the zona pellucida , which surrounds the oocyte .

 Zona pellucida ( edit )

 After binding to the corona radiata the sperm reaches the zona pellucida , which is an extra-cellular matrix of glycoproteins . A special complementary molecule on the surface of the sperm head binds to a ZP3 glycoprotein in the zona pellucida . This binding triggers the acrosome to burst , releasing enzymes that help the sperm get through the zona pellucida .

 Some sperm cells consume their acrosome prematurely on the surface of the egg cell , facilitating the penetration by other sperm cells . As a population , sperm cells have on average 50 % genome similarity so the premature acrosomal reactions aid fertilization by a member of the same cohort . It may be regarded as a mechanism of kin selection .

 Recent studies have shown that the egg is not passive during this process .

 Cortical reaction ( edit )

 Once the sperm cells find their way past the zona pellucida , the cortical reaction occurs . Cortical granules inside the secondary oocyte fuse with the plasma membrane of the cell , causing enzymes inside these granules to be expelled by exocytosis to the zona pellucida . This in turn causes the glyco - proteins in the zona pellucida to cross-link with each other -- i.e. the enzymes cause the ZP2 to hydrolyse into ZP2f -- making the whole matrix hard and impermeable to sperm . This prevents fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm . The cortical reaction and acrosome reaction are both essential to ensure that only one sperm will fertilize an egg .

 Fusion ( edit )

 Fertilization and implantation in humans .

 After the sperm enters the cytoplasm of the oocyte ( also called ovocyte ) , the tail and the outer coating of the sperm disintegrate and the cortical reaction takes place , preventing other sperm from fertilizing the same egg . The oocyte now undergoes its second meiotic division producing the haploid ovum and releasing a polar body . The sperm nucleus then fuses with the ovum , enabling fusion of their genetic material .

 Cell membranes ( edit )

 The fusion of cell membranes of the secondary oocyte and sperm takes place .

 Transformations ( edit )

 In preparation for the fusion of their genetic material both the oocyte and the sperm undergo transformations as a reaction to the fusion of cell membranes .

 The oocyte completes its second meiotic division . This results in a mature ovum . The nucleus of the oocyte is called a pronucleus in this process , to distinguish it from the nuclei that are the result of fertilization .

 The sperm 's tail and mitochondria degenerate with the formation of the male pronucleus . This is why all mitochondria in humans are of maternal origin . Still , a considerable amount of RNA from the sperm is delivered to the resulting embryo and likely influences embryo development and the phenotype of the offspring .

 Replication ( edit )

 The pronuclei migrate toward the center of the oocyte , rapidly replicating their DNA as they do so to prepare the zygote for its first mitotic division .

 Mitosis ( edit )

 Usually 23 chromosomes from spermatozoon and 23 chromosomes from egg cell fuse ( half of spermatozoons carry X chromosome and the other half Y chromosome ) . Their membranes dissolve , leaving no barriers between the male and female chromosomes . During this dissolution , a mitotic spindle forms between them . The spindle captures the chromosomes before they disperse in the egg cytoplasm . Upon subsequently undergoing mitosis ( which includes pulling of chromatids towards centrioles in anaphase ) the cell gathers genetic material from the male and female together . Thus , the first mitosis of the union of sperm and oocyte is the actual fusion of their chromosomes .

 Each of the two daughter cells resulting from that mitosis has one replica of each chromatid that was replicated in the previous stage . Thus , they are genetically identical .

 Fertilization age ( edit )

 Fertilization is the event most commonly used to mark the zero point in descriptions of prenatal development of the embryo or fetus . The resultant age is known as fertilization age , fertilizational age , embryonic age , fetal age or ( intrauterine ) developmental ( IUD ) age .

 Gestational age , in contrast , takes the beginning of the last menstrual period ( LMP ) as the zero point . By convention , gestational age is calculated by adding 14 days to fertilization age and vice versa . In fact , however , fertilization usually occurs within a day of ovulation , which , in turn , occurs on average 14.6 days after the beginning of the preceding menstruation ( LMP ) . There is also considerable variability in this interval , with a 95 % prediction interval of the ovulation of 9 to 20 days after menstruation even for an average woman who has a mean LMP - to - ovulation time of 14.6 . In a reference group representing all women , the 95 % prediction interval of the LMP - to - ovulation is 8.2 to 20.5 days .

 The average time to birth has been estimated to be 268 days ( 38 weeks and two days ) from ovulation , with a standard deviation of 10 days or coefficient of variation of 3.7 % .

 Fertilization age is sometimes used postnatally ( after birth ) as well to estimate various risk factors . For example , it is a better predictor than postnatal age for risk of intraventricular hemorrhage in premature babies treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation .

 Diseases ( edit )

 Various disorders can arise from defects in the fertilization process .

 Polyspermy results from multiple sperm fertilizing an egg .

 However , some researchers have found that in rare pairs of fraternal twins , their origin might have been from the fertilization of one egg cell from the mother and eight sperm cells from the father . This possibility has been investigated by computer simulations of the fertilization process .

 See also ( edit )

 Spontaneous conception , the unassisted conception of a subsequent child after prior use of assisted reproductive technology

 References ( edit )

 Jump up ^ Garrison , Fielding . An Introduction to the History of Medicine , pages 566 - 567 ( Saunders 1921 ) .

 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2011 - 12 - 22 . Retrieved 2016 - 01 - 24 .

 Jump up ^ http://www.americanpregnancy.org/preventingpregnancy/pregnancyfaqmyths.html

 Jump up ^ Lawyers Guide to Forensic Medicine SBN 978 - 1 - 85941 - 159 - 9 By Bernard Knight - Page 188 `` Pregnancy is well known to occur from such external ejaculation ... ''

 Jump up ^ `` Fertilization of the Ovum '' . Gray 's Anatomy . Retrieved 2010 - 10 - 16 .

 Jump up ^ `` Fertilization '' . Retrieved 28 July 2010 .

 Jump up ^ Angier , Natalie ( 2007 - 06 - 12 ) . `` Sleek , Fast and Focused : The Cells That Make Dad Dad '' . The New York Times .

 Jump up ^ Suzanne Wymelenberg , Science and Babies , National Academy Press , page 17

 Jump up ^ Richard E. Jones and Kristin H. Lopez , Human Reproductive Biology , Third Edition , Elsevier , 2006 , page 238

 Jump up ^ `` Fertilization : The Cortical Reaction '' . Boundless . Boundless . Retrieved 14 March 2013 .

 Jump up ^ Jodar , M. ; Selvaraju , S. ; Sendler , E. ; Diamond , M.P. ; Krawetz , S.A. ; for the Reproductive Medicine Networks ( 2013 ) . `` The presence , role and clinical use of spermatozoal RNAs '' . Human Reproduction Update. 19 ( 6 ) : 604 -- 624 . doi : 10.1093 / humupd / dmt031 . PMC 3796946 . PMID 23856356 .

 ^ Jump up to : Marieb , Elaine M. Human Anatomy and Physiology , 5th ed . pp. 1119 - 1122 ( 2001 ) . ISBN 0 - 8053 - 4989 - 8

 Jump up ^ https://www.genderselectionauthority.com/blog/five-facts-about-xx-or-xy

 Jump up ^ Wagner F , Erdösová B , Kylarová D ( December 2004 ) . `` Degradation phase of apoptosis during the early stages of human metanephros development '' . Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub. 148 ( 2 ) : 255 -- 6 . doi : 10.5507 / bp. 2004.054 . PMID 15744391 .

 Jump up ^ Robinson , H.P. ; Fleming , J.E.E. ( 1975 ) . `` A Critical Evaluation of Sonar `` crown - Rump Length '' Measurements `` . BJOG : an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 82 ( 9 ) : 702 -- 710 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1471 - 0528.1975. tb00710. x .

 ^ Jump up to : Geirsson RT ( May 1991 ) . `` Ultrasound instead of last menstrual period as the basis of gestational age assignment '' . Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1 ( 3 ) : 212 -- 9 . doi : 10.1046 / j. 1469 - 0705.1991. 01030212. x . PMID 12797075 . ( 1 )

 Jump up ^ Derived from a standard deviation in this interval of 2.6 , as given in : Fehring RJ , Schneider M , Raviele K ( 2006 ) . `` Variability in the phases of the menstrual cycle '' . J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 35 ( 3 ) : 376 -- 84 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1552 - 6909.2006. 00051. x . PMID 16700687 .

 Jump up ^ Jukic AM , Baird DD , Weinberg CR , McConnaughey DR , Wilcox AJ ( 2013 ) . `` Length of human pregnancy and contributors to its natural variation '' . Hum . Reprod. 28 ( 10 ) : 2848 -- 55 . doi : 10.1093 / humrep / det297 . PMC 3777570 . PMID 23922246 .

 Jump up ^ Alan H. Jobe , MD , PhD . Post-fertilizational age and IVH in ECMO patients . RadiologySource Volume 145 , Issue 2 , Page A2 ( August 2004 ) . PII : S0022 - 3476 ( 04 ) 00583 - 9 . doi : 10.1016 / j. jpeds. 2004.07. 010 .

 External links ( edit )

 Fertilization ( Conception )

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 Human physiology of sexual reproduction

 Menstrual cycle

 Menarche

 Menstruation

 Follicular phase

 Ovulation

 Luteal phase

 Gametogenesis

 Spermatogenesis ( spermatogonium

 spermatocyte

 spermatid

 sperm )

 Oogenesis ( oogonium

 oocyte

 ootid

 ovum )

 Germ cell ( gonocyte

 gamete )

 Human sexual behavior

 Sexual arousal

 Sexual intercourse

 Masturbation

 Erection

 Orgasm

 Ejaculation

 Insemination

 Fertilisation / Fertility

 Implantation

 Pregnancy

 Postpartum period

 Mechanics of sex

 Life span

 Prenatal development / Sexual dimorphism / Sexual differentiation ( Feminization

 Virilization )

 Puberty ( Gonadarche

 Pubarche

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 Adrenarche )

 Maternal age / Paternal age

 Climacteric ( Menopause

 Late - onset hypogonadism )

 Tanner scale

 Egg

 Ovum

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2018 College football Playoff national championship - wikipedia

 2018 College football Playoff national championship

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 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship

 Alabama Crimson Tide

 Georgia Bulldogs

 ( 12 -- 1 )

 ( 13 -- 1 )

 SEC

 SEC

 26

 23

 Head coach : Nick Saban

 Head coach : Kirby Smart

 AP

 Coaches

 CFP

 AP

 Coaches

 CFP

 OT

 Total

 Alabama

 0

 0

 10

 10

 6

 26

 Georgia

 0

 13

 7

 0

 23

 Date

 January 8 , 2018

 Season

 2017

 Stadium

 Mercedes - Benz Stadium

 Location

 Atlanta , Georgia

 MVP

 Offensive : # 13 QB Tua Tagovailoa , Fr . Alabama Defensive : # 94 DT Da'Ron Payne , Jr . Alabama

 Favorite

 Alabama by 3.5

 National anthem

 Zac Brown Band

 Referee

 Dan Capron ( Big Ten )

 Halftime show

 Georgia Redcoat Marching Band Million Dollar Band

 Attendance

 77,430

 United States TV coverage

 Network

 ESPN / ESPN Radio / ESPN Deportes

 Announcers

 Chris Fowler , Kirk Herbstreit , Maria Taylor and Tom Rinaldi ( ESPN ) Sean McDonough , Todd Blackledge , Holly Rowe and Ian Fitzsimmons ( ESPN Radio )

 College Football Playoff National Championship

 < 2017

 2019 >

 The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season . The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26 -- 23 in overtime . Alabama overcame a 13 -- 0 deficit at halftime . Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game .

 The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season . Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and the Rose Bowl , respectively , on January 1 , 2018 . The championship game was played at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia on January 8 , 2018 .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Background

 2 2018 College Football Playoff

 3 Teams

 3.1 Alabama

 3.2 Georgia

 4 Game summary

 4.1 Scoring summary

 4.2 Statistics

 5 Broadcasting

 6 Dispute

 7 See also

 8 References

 9 External links

 Background ( edit )

 The Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta , Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4 , 2015 .

 2018 College football Playoff ( edit )

 Semifinals

 Championship

 January 1 -- Sugar Bowl Mercedes - Benz Superdome , New Orleans

 1

 Clemson

 6

 4

 Alabama

 24

 January 8 -- National Championship Mercedes - Benz Stadium , Atlanta

 4

 Alabama ( OT )

 26

 January 1 -- Rose Bowl Rose Bowl , Pasadena

 3

 Georgia

 23

 2

 Oklahoma

 48

 3

 Georgia ( 2OT )

 54

 This bracket :

 view

 talk

 edit

 The College Football Playoff ( CFP ) selected four teams to advance to the playoff : the Clemson Tigers , Oklahoma Sooners , Georgia Bulldogs , and Alabama Crimson Tide .

 Teams ( edit )

 Alabama ( edit )

 See also : 2017 Alabama Crimson Tide football team

 The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24 -- 6 to reach the championship game . The Tide had a 12 -- 1 season , becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers . The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban .

 Georgia ( edit )

 See also : 2017 Georgia Bulldogs football team

 The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54 -- 48 in double overtime to reach the championship game . The Bulldogs had a 13 -- 1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers , 28 -- 7 . The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart .

 Game summary ( edit )

 After winning the coin toss , Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game . After two plays , quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown . Alabama began their first drive of the game , and , after eleven plays , that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40 - yard field goal . The teams each had three - and - outs for the game 's first two punts . During Georgia 's ensuing drive , the quarter ended , with no score .

 After a failed third down conversion , on the second play of the second quarter , Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41 - yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three . Alabama 's ensuing drive went nowhere , as they gained four yards on three plays and punted . Georgia took the ball and drove down the field , and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10 - yard - line ; the Tide defense held , however , and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6 -- 0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half . On Alabama 's next drive , the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama 's JK Scott punted for the third time . Just prior to the punt , Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room , reportedly with a left shoulder injury . Both defenses then forced punts , and Georgia took back over with 1 : 19 remaining in the half on their own 31 - yard - line . Nine plays later , on Alabama 's 1 - yard - line , Mecole Hardman took a direct snap , faked a handoff , and ran into the end zone for the game 's first touchdown , putting Georgia up 13 -- 0 going into halftime .

 Because they deferred the coin toss , Alabama received the ball first in the second half . They started their drive on their own 22 - yard - line . Tua Tagovailoa , Alabama 's backup quarterback , started the second half for the Tide ; that drive quickly resulted in a three - and - out . The initial punt was blocked , but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt . Georgia started their drive on their own 36 - yard - line , but punted on 4th & 17 . Alabama took over on their own 44 - yard - line . The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives ; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6 - yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs , but Georgia immediately responded with an 80 - yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman , putting Georgia up 20 -- 7 . On the second play of Alabama 's ensuing drive , Tagovailoa , while scrambling to the left , threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia 's Deandre Baker . Up 13 , the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama 's 39 - yard - line . The Tide defense responded immediately , however , as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia 's drive , returning the pick to the UGA 40 - yard - line . The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43 - yard field goal that put Bama within ten . The teams then traded punts . Just prior to Alabama 's punt , it was announced that an Alabama defensive back , Kyriq McDonald , had collapsed on the sideline ; the situation was described as a `` serious medical emergency '' . He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious . Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive , and punted . The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3 : 49 . With three seconds remaining in the game , Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game - winning 36 - yard field goal to the left , sending the game to overtime .

 In overtime , Georgia scored on a 51 - yard field goal . On Alabama 's first offensive play in overtime , Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16 - yard loss , but immediately followed that with a game - winning 41 - yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith . Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game , and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game .

 Scoring summary ( edit )

 ( hide ) Scoring summary

 Quarter

 Time

 Drive

 Team

 Scoring information

 Score

 Plays

 Yards

 TOP

 Alabama

 Georgia

 14 : 14

 14

 55

 7 : 40

 Georgia

 41 - yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship

 0

 7 : 33

 13

 70

 5 : 19

 Georgia

 27 - yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship

 0

 6

 0 : 07

 9

 69

 1 : 12

 Georgia

 Mecole Hardman 1 - yard touchdown run , Rodrigo Blankenship kick good

 0

 13

 8 : 52

 7

 56

 1 : 59

 Alabama

 Henry Ruggs III 6 - yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa , Andy Pappanastos kick good

 7

 13

 6 : 52

 93

 1 : 55

 Georgia

 Mecole Hardman 80 - yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm , Rodrigo Blankenship kick good

 7

 20

 5 : 20

 6

 15

 1 : 06

 Alabama

 43 - yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos

 10

 20

 9 : 24

 8

 71

 2 : 15

 Alabama

 30 - yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos

 13

 20

 3 : 49

 8

 66

 3 : 21

 Alabama

 Calvin Ridley 7 - yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa , Andy Pappanastos kick good

 20

 20

 OT

 - 9

 Georgia

 51 - yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship

 20

 23

 OT

 25

 Alabama

 DeVonta Smith 41 - yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa

 26

 23

 `` TOP '' = time of possession . For other American football terms , see Glossary of American football .

 26

 23

 Statistics ( edit )

 OT

 Total

 No. 4 Crimson Tide

 0

 0

 10

 10

 6

 26

 No. 3 Bulldogs

 0

 13

 7

 0

 23

 Statistics

 Alabama

 Georgia

 First downs

 20

 22

 Plays -- yards

 71 -- 371

 77 -- 365

 Rushes -- yards

 39 -- 184

 45 -- 133

 Passing yards

 187

 232

 Passing : Comp -- Att -- Int

 17 -- 32 -- 1

 16 -- 32 -- 2

 Time of possession

 26 : 17

 33 : 43

 Sources : ESPN , StatBroadcast

 Team

 Player

 Statistics

 Alabama

 Passing

 Tua Tagovailoa

 14 / 24 , 166 yds , 3 TD , 1 INT

 Rushing

 Najee Harris

 6 car , 64 yds

 Receiving

 Calvin Ridley

 4 rec , 32 yds , 1 TD

 Georgia

 Passing

 Jake Fromm

 16 / 32 , 232 yds , 1 TD , 2 INT

 Rushing

 Sony Michel

 14 car , 98 yds

 Receiving

 Riley Ridley

 6 rec , 82 yds

 Sources : ESPN , StatBroadcast

 Broadcasting ( edit )

 The game was televised nationally by ESPN . On January 8 , 2018 , the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime . This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes - Benz Stadium ( which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams ) , and originated from Centennial Olympic Park .

 Dispute ( edit )

 Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers -- who had beaten both the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Georgia Bulldogs in the regular season before losing to Georgia in the 2017 SEC Championship Game -- in the 2018 Peach Bowl , the UCF Knights claimed to have won the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football . This claim , however , is not recognized by any major poll . The selection committee ranked UCF 12th at the end of the regular season , below a number of two - loss teams from the Power Five conferences , which left them out of the CFP . UCF announced plans for a victory parade at Disney World and to hang a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement . The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches , many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska ; Frost himself ( who coached UCF in the game ) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract .

 The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll , receiving 57 first - place votes , while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first - place votes . Alabama was unanimously ranked No. 1 in the Coaches Poll .

 See also ( edit )

 College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS

 References ( edit )

 Jump up ^ Kirshner , Alex ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` A Big Ten officiating crew is working the all - SEC National Championship '' . sbnation.com . SB Nation . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Alex Scarbrough ( November 4 , 2015 ) . `` Atlanta , Santa Clara and New Orleans land CFP title games for 2018 -- 20 '' . ESPN.com . Retrieved November 4 , 2015 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Selection Committee Rankings : Final Top 25 Rankings '' ( PDF ) . College Football Playoff . December 3 , 2017 . Retrieved December 3 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ `` Alabama 's Sugar Bowl win against Clemson sets up all - SEC final : Final score , stats , analysis '' . nola.com . January 1 , 2018 . Retrieved January 2 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Emerson , Seth ( January 1 , 2018 ) . `` Georgia to play for national championship after Rose Bowl win in 2 OT '' . ajc.com . Retrieved January 2 , 2018 .

 ^ Jump up to : Hoffman , Benjamin ; Drape , Joe ; Tracy , Marc ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` National Championship Game : Georgia vs. Alabama Live Score '' . The New York Times . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Perez , A.J. ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` CFP players of the game : Alabama 's Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne '' . USA Today . Retrieved January 9 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ `` Kendrick Lamar to Perform at College Football Playoff Title Game '' . Billboard . Retrieved December 20 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Baker , Matt ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` UCF is really claiming a national championship '' . tampabay.com . Retrieved January 7 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Rollins , Khadrice ( January 2 , 2018 ) . `` UCF Is Having a Parade at Disney World for National Championship Caliber Season '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Gartland , Dan ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` UCF Is Hanging a National Championship Banner at Its Stadium '' . Sports Illustrated . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Chavez , Chris ( January 3 , 2018 ) . `` UCF AD Says Coaches Will Be Paid National Championship Bonuses '' . SI.com . Retrieved January 11 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ September 1 , 2018 ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` Alabama is No. 1 in final AP poll for 11th time ; UCF 6th '' . Msn.com . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Kercheval , Ben ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` Coaches Poll Top 25 : Alabama unanimous No. 1 , UCF finishes outside top five '' . CBSSports.com . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 .

 External links ( edit )

 Media related to 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship at Wikimedia Commons

 College Football Playoff

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 College Football Playoff National Championship

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 List of College Football Playoff games

 New Year 's Six

 College Football Playoff National Championship Trophy

 NCAA Division I FBS champions

 Mythical national championship

 Plus - One system

 Power Five conferences

 Championship games for each season are played in January , while semifinal games are identified by season year , alternating between December and January

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Question: where is the national championship for college football played


Uvea - wikipedia

 Uvea

 Jump to : navigation , search For the Pacific island and chiefdom in Wallis and Futuna , see Wallis ( island ) and Uvea ( Wallis and Futuna ) . For the Pacific commune and island in New Caledonia , see Ouvéa and Ouvéa Island .

 This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )

 Uvea

 Horizontal section of the eyeball . The constituents of the uvea follow : iris labeled at top , ciliary body labeled at upper right , and choroid labeled at center right . )

 Details

 Identifiers

 Latin

 tunica vasculosa bulbi

 MeSH

 D014602

 TA

 A15. 2.03. 001

 FMA

 58103

 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata )

 The uvea ( / ˈjuːvɪə / ) ( Lat . uva , grape ) , also called the uveal layer , uveal coat , uveal tract , or vascular tunic , is the pigmented middle of the three concentric layers that make up an eye . The name is possibly a reference to its reddish - blue or almost black colour , wrinkled appearance and grape - like size and shape when stripped intact from a cadaveric eye . Its use as a technical term in anatomy and ophthalmology is relatively modern .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Structure

 1.1 Regions

 2 Function

 3 Pharmacology

 4 Immunology

 5 Clinical significance

 6 References

 7 External links

 Structure ( edit )

 Regions ( edit )

 The uvea is the vascular middle layer of the eye . It is traditionally divided into three areas , from front to back , the :

 Iris

 Ciliary body

 Choroid

 Function ( edit )

 The prime functions of the uveal tract as a unit are :

 Nutrition and gas exchange : uveal vessels directly perfuse the ciliary body and iris , to support their metabolic needs , and indirectly supply diffusible nutrients to the outer retina , sclera , and lens , which lack any intrinsic blood supply . ( The cornea has no adjacent blood vessels and is oxygenated by direct gas exchange with the environment . )

 Light absorption : the uvea improves the contrast of the retinal image by reducing reflected light within the eye ( analogous to the black paint inside a camera ) , and also absorbs outside light transmitted through the sclera , which is not fully opaque .

 In addition some uveal regions have special functions of great importance , including secretion of the aqueous humour by the ciliary processes , control of accommodation ( focus ) by the ciliary body , and optimisation of retinal illumination by the iris 's control over the pupil . Many of these functions are under the control of the autonomic nervous system .

 Pharmacology ( edit )

 The pupil provides a visible example of the neural feedback control in the body . This is subserved by a balance between the antagonistic sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system . Informal pharmacological experiments have been performed on the pupil for centuries , since the pupil is readily visible , and its size can be readily altered by applying drugs -- even crude plant extracts -- to the cornea . Pharmacological control over pupil size remains an important part of the treatment of some ocular diseases .

 Drugs can also reduce the metabolically active process of secreting aqueous humour , which is important in treating both acute and chronic glaucoma .

 Immunology ( edit )

 The normal uvea consists of immune competent cells , particularly lymphocytes , and is prone to respond to inflammation by developing lymphocytic infiltrates . A rare disease called sympathetic ophthalmia may represent ' cross-reaction ' between the uveal and retinal antigens ( i.e. , the body 's inability to distinguish between them , with resulting misdirected inflammatory reactions ) .

 Clinical significance ( edit )

 See uveitis , choroiditis , iritis , iridocyclitis , anterior uveitis , sympathetic ophthalmia , and uveal melanoma .

 References ( edit )

 Jump up ^ https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/uvea

 Jump up ^ eye , human. `` Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD 2009

 External links ( edit )

 MedlinePlus Encyclopedia 002337

 Diagram at visionweb.com

 ( hide )

 Anatomy of the globe of the human eye

 Fibrous tunic ( outer )

 Sclera

 Episcleral layer

 Schlemm 's canal

 Trabecular meshwork

 Cornea

 Limbus

 layers

 Epithelium

 Bowman 's

 Stroma

 Dua 's layer

 Descemet 's

 Endothelium

 Uvea / vascular tunic ( middle )

 Choroid

 Capillary lamina of choroid

 Bruch 's membrane

 Sattler 's layer

 Ciliary body

 Ciliary processes

 Ciliary muscle

 Pars plicata

 Pars plana

 Iris

 Stroma

 Pupil

 Iris dilator muscle

 Iris sphincter muscle

 Retina ( inner )

 Layers

 Inner limiting membrane

 Nerve fiber layer

 Ganglion cell layer

 Inner plexiform layer

 Inner nuclear layer

 Outer plexiform layer

 Outer nuclear layer

 External limiting membrane

 Layer of rods and cones

 Retinal pigment epithelium

 Cells

 Photoreceptor cells ( Cone cell , Rod cell ) → ( Horizontal cell ) → Bipolar cell → ( Amacrine cell ) → Retina ganglion cell ( Midget cell , Parasol cell , Bistratified cell , Giant retina ganglion cells , Photosensitive ganglion cell ) → Diencephalon : P cell , M cell , K cell , Muller glia

 Other

 Macula

 Perifoveal area

 Parafoveal area

 Fovea

 Foveal avascular zone

 Foveola

 Optic disc

 Optic cup

 Ora serrata

 Anatomical regions of the eye

 Anterior segment

 Adnexa

 Fibrous tunic

 Anterior chamber

 Aqueous humour

 Iris

 Posterior chamber

 Ciliary body

 Lens

 Capsule of lens

 Zonule of Zinn

 Posterior segment

 Vitreous chamber

 Vitreous body

 Retina

 Choroid

 Other

 Keratocytes

 Ocular immune system

 Optical coherence tomography

 Eye care professional

 Eye disease

 Refractive error

 Accommodation

 Physiological Optics

 Visual perception

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Question: the vascular layer of the eye is the

The uvea
The uvea
middle layer
uvea
uvea


Cuban war of independence - wikipedia

 Cuban war of independence

 Jump to : navigation , search

 The neutrality of this article is disputed . Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page . Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met . ( March 2014 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )

 Cuban War of Independence

 An estimated 200,000 Cubans died in Spanish concentration camps .

 Date

 February 24 , 1895 -- February 15 , 1898 ( 2 years , 11 months , 3 weeks and 1 day )

 Location

 Cuba ( Caribbean )

 Result

 Cuban victory

 American Intervention ; Expulsion of the Spanish colonial government during Spanish -- American War ( 1898 ) .

 Treaty of Paris

 United States Military Government in Cuba

 Cuban independence

 Belligerents

 Spain

 Spanish Cuba

 Spanish Philippines

 Cuban nationalists United States

 Commanders and leaders

 Arsenio Linares Manuel Macías Ramón Blanco Valeriano Weyler Patricio Montojo Pascual Cervera

 Máximo Gómez Calixto García José Martí † Antonio Maceo † Nelson A. Miles William Shafter George Dewey William T. Sampson

 Strength

 196,000

 53,774 rebels 28,000 -- 60,000 US regulars and 200,000 + volunteers

 Casualties and losses

 786 killed in action 8,627 DOW 53,313 dead from disease

 900 killed in action ( 1898 )

 5,180 Cuban insurgents died in combat 3,437 Cuban insurgents dead from disease

 385 US soldiers died in combat 2,061 US soldiers dead from disease

 300,000 total Cubans dead ( most of them civilian fatalities in the concentration camps )

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 Part of a series on the

 History of Cuba

 Governorate of Cuba ( 1511 -- 1519 )

 Viceroyalty of New Spain ( 1535 -- 1821 )

 Captaincy General of Cuba ( 1607 -- 1898 )

 Cuban War of Independence

 Spanish -- American War

 Treaty of Paris

 US Military Government ( 1898 -- 1902 )

 Republic of Cuba ( 1902 -- 1959 )

 Cuban Pacification ( 1906 -- 1909 )

 Negro Rebellion ( 1912 )

 Sugar Intervention ( 1917 -- 1922 )

 Cuban Revolution ( 1953 -- 1959 )

 Republic of Cuba ( 1959 -- )

 Bay of Pigs Invasion

 Cuban Missile Crisis

 Intervention in Angola

 Special Period

 Cuban Thaw

 Timeline

 Topical

 Military history

 Cuba portal

 The Cuban War of Independence ( Spanish : Guerra de Independencia cubana , 1895 -- 98 ) was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain , the other two being the Ten Years ' War ( 1868 -- 1878 ) and the Little War ( 1879 -- 1880 ) . The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish -- American War , with United States forces being deployed in Cuba , Puerto Rico , and the Philippine Islands against Spain . Historians disagree as to the extent that United States officials were motivated to intervene for humanitarian reasons but agree that yellow journalism exaggerated atrocities attributed to Spanish forces against Cuban civilians .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Background

 2 War

 3 The Maine incident

 4 The Spanish -- American War

 5 Peace

 6 Analysis

 7 See also

 8 References

 9 Further reading

 Background

 During the years 1869 -- 1888 of the so - called `` Rewarding Truce '' , lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years ' War in 1878 , there were fundamental social changes in Cuban society . With the abolition of slavery in October 1886 , freedmen joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class . The economy could no longer sustain itself with the shift and changes ; therefore , many wealthy Cubans lost their property , and joined the urban middle class . The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased : only companies , and the most powerful plantation owners , remained in business followed by the Central Board of Artisans in 1879 , and many more across the island . After his second deportation to Spain in 1878 , José Martí moved to the United States in 1881 . There he mobilized the support of the Cuban exile community , especially in Ybor City ( Tampa area ) and Key West , Florida . His goal was revolution in order to achieve independence from Spain . Martí lobbied against the U.S. annexation of Cuba , which was desired by some politicians in both the U.S. and Cuba .

 After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States , the Antilles and Latin America , `` El Partido Revolucionario Cubano '' ( The Cuban Revolutionary Party ) was in a state of pendency and was affected by a growing fear that the U.S. government would try to annex Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain '' . A new trend of aggressive U.S. `` influence '' was expressed by Secretary of State James G. Blaine 's suggestion that all of Central and South America would some day fall to the U.S. :

 `` That rich island '' , Blaine wrote on 1 December 1881 , `` the key to the Gulf of Mexico , is , though in the hands of Spain , a part of the American commercial system ... If ever ceasing to be Spanish , Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination '' .

 Blaine 's vision did not allow the existence of an independent Cuba . `` Martí noticed with alarm the movement to annex Hawaii , viewing it as establishing a pattern for Cuba ... ''

 War

 This section does not cite any sources . Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . ( February 2012 ) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )

 On December 25 , 1894 , three ships ; the Lagonda , the Almadis and the Baracoa , set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach , Florida , loaded with soldiers and weapons . Two of the ships were seized by US authorities in early January , but the proceedings went ahead . Not to be dissuaded , on March 25 , Martí presented the Manifesto of Montecristi , which outlined the policy for Cuba 's war of independence :

 The war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike ;

 Participation of all blacks was crucial for victory ;

 Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared ,

 Private rural properties should not be damaged ; and

 The revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba .

 The insurrection began on February 24 , 1895 , with uprisings all across the island . In Oriente , the most important ones took place in Santiago , Guantánamo , Jiguaní , San Luis , El Cobre , El Caney , Alto Songo , Bayate , and Baire . The uprisings in the central part of the island , such as Ibarra , Jagüey Grande , and Aguada , suffered from poor coordination and failed ; the leaders were captured , some of them deported and some executed . In the province of Havana , the insurrection was discovered before it was underway , and authorities detained its leaders . The insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered by rebel leaders to wait .

 On April 1 and 11 , 1895 , the main Mambi leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente : Major General Antonio Maceo along with 22 members near Baracoa , and José Martí , Máximo Gómez and 4 other members in Playitas . Around that time , Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000 , of which 20,000 were regular troops and 60,000 were Spanish and Cuban volunteer militia . The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the `` guard and police '' duties on the island . Wealthy landowners would `` volunteer '' a number of their slaves to serve in this force , which was under local control as militia and not under official military command . By December , Spain had sent 98,412 regular troops to the island , and the colonial government increased the Volunteer Corps to 63,000 men . By the end of 1897 , there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island . The revolutionaries were far outnumbered .

 The Mambises were named after the Negro Spanish officer , Juan Ethninius Mamby who joined the Dominican fight for independence in 1844 . The Spanish soldiers referred to the insurgents in the Dominican Republic as `` the men of Mamby '' or `` Mambies '' . When Cuba 's first war of independence broke out in 1868 , some of those same soldiers were assigned to Cuba ; they brought along what by then become a derogatory Spanish slur for insurgents . The Cubans adopted the name with pride .

 After the Ten Years ' War , the government had forbidden possession of weapons by private individuals . From the beginning of the uprising , the rebels were hampered by the lack of suitable weapons . They compensated by using guerrilla - style fighting , based on quick raids and fades to the environment , the element of surprise , mounting their forces on fast horses , and using machetes against regular troops on the march . They acquired most of their weapons and ammunition in raids on the Spaniards . Between June 11 , 1895 , and November 30 , 1897 , out of sixty attempts to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside the country , only one succeeded through the protection of the British . Twenty - eight ships were intercepted within U.S. territory ; five were intercepted at sea by the U.S. Navy , and four by the Spanish Navy ; two were wrecked ; one was driven back to port by storm ; the fate of another is unknown .

 Martí was killed shortly after landing on May 19 , 1895 , at Dos Rios , but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on , taking the war to all parts of Oriente . By the end of June , all of Camagüey was at war . Based on new research in Cuban sources , historian John Lawrence Tone demonstrated that Gomez and Maceo were the first to force the civilian forces to choose sides . `` Either they relocated to the east side of the islands , where the Cubans controlled the mountainous terrain , or they would be accused of supporting the Spanish and be subject to immediate trial and execution . '' Continuing west , they were joined by 1868 war veterans , such as Polish internationalist General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas , who brought weapons , men and experience to the revolutionaries ' arsenal .

 In mid-September , representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú , Camagüey to approve the `` Jimaguayú Constitution . '' They established a central government , which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity named `` Government Council '' , headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó . After some time of consolidation in the three eastern provinces , the liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then Matanzas , outmaneuvering and deceiving the Spanish Army several times . They defeated Spanish Gen. Arsenio Martínez - Campos y Antón , who had gained victory in the Ten - Year War , and killed his most trusted general at Peralejo .

 Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Years ' War , constructing a broad belt across the island , called the trocha , about 80 km long and 200 m wide . This defense line was to confine rebel activities to the eastern provinces . The belt was developed along a railroad from Jucaro in the south to Morón in the north . Campos built fortifications along this railroad at various points , and at intervals , 12 meters of posts and 400 meters of barbed wire . In addition , booby traps were placed at locations most likely to be attacked .

 The rebels believed they had to take the war to the western provinces of Matanzas , Havana and Pinar del Rio , where the island 's government and wealth were located . The Ten - Year War had failed because it had not managed to proceed beyond the eastern provinces . In a successful cavalry campaign overcoming the trochas , the revolutionaries invaded every province . Surrounding all larger cities and well - fortified towns , they arrived at the westernmost tip of the island on January 22 , 1896 , exactly three months after the invasion near Baraguá .

 Campos was replaced by Gen. Valeriano Weyler . He reacted to the rebels ' successes by introducing terror methods : periodic executions , mass exile of residents and forced concentration of them in certain cities or areas , and destruction of farms and crops . Weyler 's methods reached their height on October 21 , 1896 , when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather within eight days in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops .

 Death of Maceo in 1896

 Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes and were subjected to appalling and inhumane conditions in the crowded towns and cities . Together with the forced reconcentrations done by the rebels in the eastern provinces , it is estimated that 25 to 30 percent of the civilian population subjected to it died during the three years of warfare . Using a variety of sources , Tone estimates that civilian losses totaled 155,000 to 170,000 deaths , representing nearly 10 percent of the total population .

 Starting in the early 1880s , Spain had also suppressed an independence movement in the Philippines , which was intensifying . In effect , Spain was now fighting two wars , a heavy burden on its economy . In 1896 it turned down offers in secret negotiations by the United States to buy Cuba from Spain .

 Maceo was killed December 7 , 1896 , in Havana province while returning from the west . As the war went on , the major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply . Although weapons and funding came from within the Cuban exile community and supporters in the United States , the supply operation violated American laws . These were enforced by the U.S. Coast Guard : of 71 attempted re-supply missions , only 27 got through ; 5 were stopped by the Spanish , but 33 were stopped by the U.S. Coast Guard .

 In 1897 , the liberation army maintained a privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente , where the Spanish controlled only a few cities . Spanish Liberal leader Práxedes Mateo Sagasta admitted in May 1897 : `` After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood , we do n't own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on '' . The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters , such as the Battle of La Reforma , and forcing the surrender of Las Tunas on August 30 . The Spaniards were kept on the defensive . Las Tunas had been guarded by over 1,000 well - armed and well - supplied men .

 As stipulated at the Jimaguayü Assembly two years earlier , a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya , Camagüey , on October 10 , 1897 . The newly adopted constitution provided that military command was to be subordinated to civilian rule . The government was confirmed , naming Bartolomé Masó President and Domingo Méndez Capote Vice President .

 Madrid decided to change its policy towards Cuba , and replaced Weyler . It also drew up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico , and installed a new government in Havana . But with half the country out of its control and the other half in arms , the colonial government was powerless and these changes were rejected by the rebels .

 The Maine incident

 Main article : USS Maine ( ACR - 1 ) Wreckage of the Maine , 1898

 The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the American imagination for years . Some newspapers had agitated for US intervention , especially because of its large financial investment , and featured sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population , which were exaggerated for propaganda .

 Such coverage continued after Spain had replaced Weyler and changed its policies . American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening on behalf of the Cubans .

 In January 1898 , a riot by Cuban Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana . They destroyed the printing presses of four local newspapers that had published articles critical of Spanish Army atrocities . The U.S. Consul - General cabled Washington with fears for the lives of Americans living in Havana . In response , the battleship USS Maine was sent to Havana in the last week of January . On February 15 , 1898 , the Maine was rocked by an explosion , killing 258 of the crew and sinking the ship in the harbor . At the time , a military Board of Investigations decided that the Maine had exploded due to the detonation of a mine underneath the hull . However , later investigations decided that it was likely something inside the ship , though the cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day .

 In an attempt to appease the United States , the colonial government took two steps that had been demanded by President William McKinley : it ended forced relocation of residents from their homes and offered negotiations with the independence fighters . But the truce was rejected by the rebels .

 The Spanish -- American war

 Main article : Spanish -- American War

 The sinking of the Maine sparked a wave of public indignation in the United States . Newspaper owners such as William R. Hearst leaped to the conclusion that Spanish officials in Cuba were to blame , and they widely publicized the conspiracy . Realistically , Spain could have had no interest in drawing the United States into the conflict . Yellow journalism fueled American anger by publishing `` atrocities '' committed by Spain in Cuba . Hearst , when informed by Frederic Remington , whom he had hired to furnish illustrations for his newspaper , that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities , allegedly replied , `` You furnish the pictures and I 'll furnish the war '' . President McKinley , Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed , and the business community opposed the growing public demand for war , which was lashed to fury by the yellow journalism . The American cry of the hour became , Remember the Maine , To Hell with Spain !

 The decisive event was probably the speech of Senator Redfield Proctor , delivered on March 17 , 1898 , analyzing the situation and concluding that war was the only answer . The business and religious communities switched sides , leaving McKinley and Reed almost alone in their opposition to the war . `` Faced with a revved up , war - ready population , and all the editorial encouragement the two competitors could muster , the United States jumped at the opportunity to get involved and showcase its new steam - powered Navy '' .

 On April 11 , McKinley asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war there . On April 19 , Congress passed joint resolutions ( by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate ) supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba , demanding Spanish withdrawal , and authorizing the president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain . This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included the Teller Amendment , named after Colorado Senator Henry Moore Teller , which passed unanimously , stipulating that `` the island of Cuba is , and by right should be , free and independent '' . The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the United States to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons , and confirmed that the armed forces would be removed once the war is over . The amendment , pushed through at the last minute by anti-imperialists in the Senate , made no mention of the Philippines , Guam , or Puerto Rico . Congress formally declared war on April 25 . The Senate and House passed the amendment April 19 , McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20 , and the ultimatum was forwarded to Spain . War was declared on April 20 / 21 , 1898 .

 `` It 's been suggested that a major reason for the U.S. war against Spain was the fierce competition emerging between Joseph Pulitzer 's New York World and William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal '' . Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled `` The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press '' , published in `` American Imperialism '' in 1898 : `` In the opinion of the writer , the Spanish -- American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation . '' It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was its failed attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain .

 Further information : Propaganda of the Spanish -- American War

 Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a contingent of US Navy ships under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports . The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente , where the Cubans had almost absolute control . They cooperated by establishing a beachhead and protecting the U.S. landing in Daiquiri . The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba in order to destroy Linares ' army and Cervera 's fleet . To reach Santiago , the Americans had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney . Between June 22 and 24 , 1898 , the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney , east of Santiago , and established a base .

 The port of Santiago became the main target of naval operations . The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season , thus nearby Guantánamo Bay , with its excellent harbor , was chosen for this purpose and attacked on June 6 ( 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay ) . The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3 , 1898 was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish -- American War , resulting in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron ( Flota de Ultramar ) .

 Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa , All the while , major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas on June 24 , El Caney and San Juan Hill on July 1 , 1898 , outside of Santiago . after which the American advance ground to a halt . Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa , allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago . The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody , strangling siege of the city which eventually surrendered on July 16 , after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron . Thus , Oriente was under control of Americans , but U.S. General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago , claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards . Thus , Cuban General Calixto García , head of the Mambi forces in the Eastern department , ordered his troops to hold their respective areas . He resigned over being excluded from entering Santiago , writing a letter of protest to General Shafter .

 Peace

 After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico , which had also been invaded by the United States , and with no hope of holding on to Cuba , Spain sued for peace on July 17 , 1898 . On August 12 , the United States and Spain signed a protocol of Peace , in which Spain agreed to relinquish all claim of sovereignty and title over Cuba . On December 10 , 1898 , the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris , which recognized Cuban independence .

 Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts , the United States prevented Cuba from participating in the Paris peace talks and signing the treaty . The treaty set no time limit for U.S. occupation and the Isle of Pines was excluded from Cuba . The treaty officially granted Cuba 's independence , but U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba .

 Analysis

 Most Spanish historians argue that the insurgency could not have succeeded on its own . Cuban historians argue the Cubans were on the verge of winning in 1898 and needed no outside help .

 See also

 José Semidei Rodríguez

 Juan Ríus Rivera

 References

 Jump up ^ `` Liberty , Equality , Power : A History of the American People , Volume II : Since 1863 , Concise Edition ''

 ^ Jump up to : Clodfelter ( 2017 ) . Warfare and Armed Conflicts : A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures , 1492 - 2015 .

 Jump up ^ Clodfelter , Michael , Warfare and Armed Conflict : A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures , 1618 -- 1991

 Jump up ^ Dept. of Defense , 1991 Information Please , World Almanac 1984

 Jump up ^ Sheina , Robert L. , Latin America 's Wars : The Age of the Caudillo , 1791 -- 1899 ( 2003 )

 Jump up ^ COWP : Correlates of War Project , University of Michigan

 Jump up ^ Navarro ( 1998 ) . History of Cuba . Havana . pp. 55 -- 57

 ^ Jump up to : Foner , Philip : The Spanish -- Cuban -- American War and the Birth of American Imperialism quoted in : ( 1 ) , History of Cuba

 ^ Jump up to : Spanish -- Cuban -- American War -- History of Cuba

 ^ Jump up to : Krohn , Jonathan . ( May 2008 ) Review : `` Caught in the Middle '' John Lawrence Tone . War and Genocide in Cuba 1895 -- 1898 ( 2006 ) , H - Net , accessed 26 December 2014

 Jump up ^ Navarro , José Cantón 1998 . History of Cuba . Havana . p69

 Jump up ^ PBS , Crucible of Empire : The Spanish -- American War , pbs.org , retrieved 2007 - 12 - 15

 Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' . Archived from the original on 2007 - 08 - 18 . Retrieved 2007 - 08 - 20 .

 ^ Jump up to : Navarro , José Cantón : History of Cuba , Havana , Cuba , 1998 , p. 71

 Jump up ^ W. Joseph Campbell ( Summer 2000 ) . `` Not likely sent : The Remington -- Hearst `` telegrams '' `` . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly .

 Jump up ^ Offner 1992 pp. 131 -- 35

 Jump up ^ Davis , Michelle Bray & Quimby , Rollin W. ( 1969 ) , `` Senator Proctor 's Cuban Speech : Speculations on a Cause of the Spanish -- American War '' , Quarterly Journal of Speech , 55 ( 2 ) : 131 -- 41 , doi : 10.1080 / 00335636909382938 , ISSN 0033 - 5630 .

 Jump up ^ Daley # , L. 2000 . El Fortin Canosa en la Cuba del 1898 . in Los Ultimos Dias del Comienzo . Ensayos sobre la Guerra Hispano - Cubana - Estadounidense . B.E. Aguirre and E. Espina eds . RiL Editores , Santiago de Chile pp. 161 -- 71 .

 Jump up ^ The Battles at El Caney and San Juan Hills , HomeOfHeroes.com .

 Jump up ^ Daley 2000 , pp. 161 -- 71

 Jump up ^ The Spanish -- American War Centennial Website ! , spanamwar.com , retrieved 2007 - 11 - 02

 Jump up ^ Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries , Washington , D.C. , August 12 , 1898 , retrieved 2007 - 10 - 30

 Jump up ^ Treaty of peace between the United States and Spain , The Avalon project at Yale law School , December 10 , 1898 , archived from the original on November 6 , 2007 , retrieved 2007 - 10 - 30

 Jump up ^ Navarro , José Cantón : History of Cuba , Havana , Cuba , 1998 , p. 77

 Further reading

 Kagan , Robert , ( 2006 ) Dangerous Nation ( New York : Alfred A. Knopf ) , pp. 357 -- 416

 Krohn , Jonathan . ( May 2008 ) Review : `` Caught in the Middle '' John Lawrence Tone . War and Genocide in Cuba 1895 -- 1898 ( 2006 ) ( 2 ) , H - Net , May 2008

 McCartney , Paul T. ( 2006 ) Power and Progress : American National Identity , the War of 1898 , and the Rise of American Imperialism ( Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press ) , 87 -- 142

 Rice , Donald Tunnicliff . Cast in Deathless Bronze : Andrew Rowan , the Spanish -- American War , and the Origins of American Empire . Morgantown WV : West Virginia University Press , 2016 .

 Silbey , David J. ( 2007 ) A War of Frontier and Empire : The Philippine -- American War , 1899 -- 1902 ( New York : Hill and Wang ) , pp. 31 -- 34 .

 Tone , John Lawrence . ( 2006 ) War and Genocide in Cuba 1895 -- 1898 , Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina excerpt and text search

 Trask , David F. The War with Spain in 1898 ( 1996 ) ch 1 excerpt and text search

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