Gymnosperm - wikipedia

 Gymnosperm

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 Gymnosperms Temporal range : 370 -- 0 Ma PreЄ Є Pg Devonian - Present

 Various gymnosperms .

 Scientific classification

 Kingdom :

 Plantae

 Subkingdom :

 Embryophyta

 ( unranked ) :

 Gymnospermae ( paraphyletic )

 Divisions

 Pinophyta ( or Coniferophyta ) - Conifers Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo Cycadophyta - Cycads Gnetophyta - Gnetum , Ephedra , Welwitschia

 Encephalartos sclavoi cone , about 30 cm long

 The gymnosperms are a group of seed - producing plants that includes conifers , cycads , Ginkgo , and gnetophytes . The term `` gymnosperm '' comes from the Greek composite word γυμνόσπερμος ( γυμνός gymnos , `` naked '' and σπέρμα sperma , `` seed '' ) , meaning `` naked seeds '' . The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds ( called ovules in their unfertilized state ) . The non-encased condition of their seeds stands in contrast to the seeds and ovules of flowering plants ( angiosperms ) , which are enclosed within an ovary . Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves , which are often modified to form cones , or solitary as in Yew , Torreya , Ginkgo .

 The gymnosperms and angiosperms together compose the spermatophytes or seed plants . The gymnosperms are divided into six phyla . Organisms that belong to the Cycadophyta , Ginkgophyta , Gnetophyta , and Pinophyta ( also known as Coniferophyta ) phyla are still in existence while those in the Pteridospermales and Cordaitales phyla are now extinct .

 By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers ( pines , cypresses , and relatives ) , followed by cycads , gnetophytes ( Gnetum , Ephedra and Welwitschia ) , and Ginkgo biloba ( a single living species ) . Roots in some genera have fungal association with roots in the form of mycorrhiza ( Pinus ) , while in some others ( Cycas ) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen - fixing cyanobacteria .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Classification

 2 Diversity and origin

 3 Uses

 4 Life cycle

 5 Genetics

 6 References

 7 External links

 Classification ( edit )

 Further information : Spermatophyte

 In early classification schemes , the gymnosperms ( Gymnospermae ) were regarded as a `` natural '' group . There is conflicting evidence on the question of whether the living gymnosperms form a clade . The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive taxa that do not belong to the four modern groups , including seed - bearing trees that have a somewhat fern - like vegetative morphology ( the so - called `` seed ferns '' or pteridosperms . ) When fossil gymnosperms such as Bennettitales , Caytonia and the glossopterids are considered , it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnosperm clade , although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear .

 For the most recent classification on extant gymnosperms see Christenhusz et al. ( 2011 ) . There are 12 families , 83 known genera with a total of ca 1080 known species ( Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ) .

 Subclass Cycadidae

 Order Cycadales

 Family Cycadaceae : Cycas

 Family Zamiaceae : Dioon , Bowenia , Macrozamia , Lepidozamia , Encephalartos , Stangeria , Ceratozamia , Microcycas , Zamia .

 Subclass Ginkgoidae

 Order Ginkgoales

 Family Ginkgoaceae : Ginkgo

 Subclass Gnetidae

 Order Welwitschiales

 Family Welwitschiaceae : Welwitschia

 Order Gnetales

 Family Gnetaceae : Gnetum

 Order Ephedrales

 Family Ephedraceae : Ephedra

 Subclass Pinidae

 Order Pinales

 Family Pinaceae : Cedrus , Pinus , Cathaya , Picea , Pseudotsuga , Larix , Pseudolarix , Tsuga , Nothotsuga , Keteleeria , Abies

 Order Araucariales

 Family Araucariaceae : Araucaria , Wollemia , Agathis

 Family Podocarpaceae : Phyllocladus , Lepidothamnus , Prumnopitys , Sundacarpus , Halocarpus , Parasitaxus , Lagarostrobos , Manoao , Saxegothaea , Microcachrys , Pherosphaera , Acmopyle , Dacrycarpus , Dacrydium , Falcatifolium , Retrophyllum , Nageia , Afrocarpus , Podocarpus

 Order Cupressales

 Family Sciadopityaceae : Sciadopitys

 Family Cupressaceae : Cunninghamia , Taiwania , Athrotaxis , Metasequoia , Sequoia , Sequoiadendron , Cryptomeria , Glyptostrobus , Taxodium , Papuacedrus , Austrocedrus , Libocedrus , Pilgerodendron , Widdringtonia , Diselma , Fitzroya , Callitris ( incl . Actinostrobus and Neocallitropsis ) , Thujopsis , Thuja , Fokienia , Chamaecyparis , Callitropsis , Cupressus , Juniperus , Xanthocyparis , Calocedrus , Tetraclinis , Platycladus , Microbiota

 Family Taxaceae : Austrotaxus , Pseudotaxus , Taxus , Cephalotaxus , Amentotaxus , Torreya

 Diversity and origin ( edit )

 There are more than 1000 extant or currently living species of gymnosperms in 88 plant genera belonging to 14 plant families .

 It is widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the late Carboniferous period , replacing the lycopsid rainforests of the tropical region . This appears to have been the result of a whole genome duplication event around 319 million years ago . Early characteristics of seed plants were evident in fossil progymnosperms of the late Devonian period around 383 million years ago . It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era , pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops . The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms , long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar - feeding insects on angiosperms . Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings , a now - extinct genus with members which ( in an example of convergent evolution ) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later .

 Zamia integrifolia , a cycad native to Florida

 Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families , with a total of 65 - 70 genera and 600 - 630 species ( 696 accepted names ) . Conifers are woody plants and most are evergreens . The leaves of many conifers are long , thin and needle - like , other species , including most Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae , have flat , triangular scale - like leaves . Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae have broad , flat strap - shaped leaves .

 Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms , with two or three families , 11 genera , and approximately 338 species . A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator . The other extant groups are the 95 - 100 species of Gnetales and one species of Ginkgo .

 Uses ( edit )

 Gymnosperms have major economic uses . Pine , fir , spruce , and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for lumber , paper production , and resin . Some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap , varnish , nail polish , food , gum , and perfumes .

 Life cycle ( edit )

 Example of gymnosperm lifecycle

 Gymnosperms , like all vascular plants , have a sporophyte - dominant life cycle , which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells , while the gametophyte ( gamete - bearing phase ) is relatively short - lived . Two spore types , microspores and megaspores , are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones , respectively . Gametophytes , as with all heterosporous plants , develop within the spore wall . Pollen grains ( microgametophytes ) mature from microspores , and ultimately produce sperm cells . Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule . Gymnosperms produce multiple archegonia , which produce the female gamete . During pollination , pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule . Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects . Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat ( integument ) called the micropyle . The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells . Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms . Cycads and Ginkgo have motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule , whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg . After syngamy ( joining of the sperm and egg cell ) , the zygote develops into an embryo ( young sporophyte ) . More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed . The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female gametophyte , which serves as a food supply , and the seed coat .

 Genetics ( edit )

 The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of Picea abies in 2013 .

 References ( edit )

 ^ Jump up to : `` Gymnosperms on The Plant List '' . Theplantlist.org . Retrieved 2013 - 07 - 24 .

 ^ Jump up to : Raven , P.H. ( 2013 ) . Biology of Plants . New York : W.H. Freeman and Co .

 Jump up ^ Jeffrey D. Palmer ; Douglas E. Soltis ; Mark W. Chase ( 2004 ) . `` The plant tree of life : an overview and some points of view '' . American Journal of Botany. 91 ( 10 ) : 1437 -- 1445 . doi : 10.3732 / ajb. 91.10. 1437 . PMID 21652302 .

 Jump up ^ Stevens , P.F. `` Angiosperm Phylogeny Website - Seed Plant Evolution '' .

 Jump up ^ Hilton , Jason , and Richard M. Bateman. 2006 . Pteridosperms are the backbone of seed - plant phylogeny . Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133 : 119 - 168 ( abstract )

 Jump up ^ Christenhusz , M.J.M. ; Reveal , J.L. ; Farjon , A. ; Gardner , M.F. ; Mill , R.R. ; Chase , M.W. ( 2011 ) . `` A new classification and linear sequence of extant gymnosperms '' ( PDF ) . Phytotaxa. 19 : 55 -- 70 .

 Jump up ^ Christenhusz , M.J.M. ; Byng , J.W. ( 2016 ) . `` The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase '' . Phytotaxa . Magnolia Press . 261 ( 3 ) : 201 -- 217 . doi : 10.11646 / phytotaxa. 261.3. 1 .

 Jump up ^ Sahney , S. ; Benton , M.J. & Falcon - Lang , H.J. ( 2010 ) . `` Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica '' ( PDF ) . Geology. 38 ( 12 ) : 1079 -- 1082 . Bibcode : 2010Geo ... 38.1079 S . doi : 10.1130 / G31182. 1 .

 Jump up ^ Campbell and Reece ; Biology , Eighth edition

 Jump up ^ Jiao Y , Wickett NJ , Ayyampalayam S , Chanderbali AS , Landherr L , Ralph PE , Tomsho LP , Hu Y , Liang H , Soltis PS , Soltis DE , Clifton SW , Schlarbaum SE , Schuster SC , Ma H , Leebens - Mack J , Depamphilis CW ( 2011 ) Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms . Nature

 Jump up ^ Ollerton , J. ; Coulthard , E. ( 2009 ) . `` Evolution of Animal Pollination '' . Science . 326 ( 5954 ) : 808 -- 809 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1181154 . PMID 19892970 .

 Jump up ^ Ren , D ; Labandeira , CC ; Santiago - Blay , JA ; Rasnitsyn , A ; et al. ( 2009 ) . `` A Probable Pollination Mode Before Angiosperms : Eurasian , Long - Proboscid Scorpionflies '' . Science . 326 ( 5954 ) : 840 -- 847 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1178338 . PMC 2944650 . PMID 19892981 .

 Jump up ^ Labandeira , Conrad C. ; Yang , Qiang ; Santiago - Blay , Jorge A. ; Hotton , Carol L. ; Monteiro , Antónia ; Wang , Yong - Jie ; Goreva , Yulia ; Shih , ChungKun ; Siljeström , Sandra ; Rose , Tim R. ; Dilcher , David L. ; Ren , Dong . `` The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies '' . Proceedings of the Royal Society B : Biological Sciences . 283 ( 1824 ) : 20152893 . doi : 10.1098 / rspb. 2015.2893 . PMC 4760178 . PMID 26842570 .

 Jump up ^ Catalogue of Life : 2007 Annual checklist - Conifer database Archived January 15 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine .

 Jump up ^ Campbell , Reece , `` Phylum Coniferophyta . '' Biology . 7th . 2005 . Print . P. 595

 Jump up ^ Walters , Dirk R Walters Bonnie By ( 1996 ) . Vascular plant taxonomy . Dubuque , Iowa : Kendall / Hunt Pub. Co. p. 124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7872 - 2108 - 9 .

 Jump up ^ Nystedt , B ; Street , NR ; Wetterbom , A ; et al. ( May 2013 ) . `` The Norway spruce genome sequence and conifer genome evolution '' . Nature . 497 : 579 -- 584 . doi : 10.1038 / nature12211 . PMID 23698360 .

 External links ( edit )

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gymnosperm .

 Gymnosperm Database

 Gymnosperms on the Tree of Life

 Albert Seward ( 1911 ) . `` Gymnosperms '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) .

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 Taxon identifiers

 Wd : Q133712

 EoL : 28872220

 ITIS : 846506

 Tropicos : 43000115

 GND : 4129481 - 6

 NDL : 00569301

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Hawaii Five - 0 ( 2010 TV series , season 8 ) - wikipedia

 Hawaii Five - 0 ( 2010 TV series , season 8 )

 Jump to : navigation , search Not to be confused with Hawaii Five - O ( 1968 TV series , season 8 ) .

 Hawaii Five - 0 ( season 8 )

 Hawaii Five - 0 Season 8 Promotional Poster

 Starring

 Alex O'Loughlin

 Scott Caan

 Meaghan Rath

 Jorge Garcia

 Taylor Wily

 Dennis Chun

 Kimee Balmilero

 Chi McBride

 Beulah Koale

 Ian Anthony Dale

 Country of origin

 United States

 No. of episodes

 14

 Release

 Original network

 CBS

 Original release

 September 29 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 29 ) -- present

 Season chronology

 ← Previous Season 7

 List of Hawaii Five - 0 ( 2010 TV series ) episodes

 The eighth season of the CBS police procedural drama series Hawaii Five - 0 premiered on September 29 , 2017 for the 2017 -- 18 television season . The season is expected to contain 24 episodes .

 This is the first season not to feature Daniel Dae Kim , Grace Park , and Masi Oka . This is also the first season to feature Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale , who joined as new main cast members . In addition , longtime recurring cast members Dennis Chun , Kimee Balmilero , and Taylor Wily were promoted to series regulars , while other longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale joined as a series regular in the seventh episode .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Cast and characters

 1.1 Main cast

 1.2 Recurring cast

 1.3 Guest stars

 2 Episodes

 3 Production

 3.1 Daniel Dae Kim 's and Grace Park 's departure controversies

 3.2 Cast changes

 4 Reception

 4.1 Ratings

 5 References

 6 External links

 Cast and characters ( edit )

 Main cast ( edit )

 Alex O'Loughlin as Lieutenant Commander Steven `` Steve '' McGarrett , United States Navy Reserve

 Scott Caan as Detective Sergeant Daniel `` Danny '' `` Danno '' Williams , Honolulu Police Department

 Meaghan Rath as Officer Tani Rey

 Jorge Garcia as Special Consultant Jerry Ortega

 Taylor Wily as Kamekona Tupuola

 Dennis Chun as Sergeant Duke Lukela , Honolulu Police Department

 Kimee Balmilero as Dr. Noelani Cunha

 Chi McBride as Captain Lou Grover , Honolulu Police Department

 Beulah Koale as Police Candidate , later Officer assigned to Five - 0 Task Force , Junior Reigns

 Ian Anthony Dale as Adam Noshimuri

 Recurring cast ( edit )

 Paige Hurd as Samantha Grover

 Teilor Grubbs as Grace Williams

 Zach Sulzbach as Charlie Williams

 Shawn Mokuahi Garnett as Flippa Tupuola

 Chosen Jacobs as Will Grover

 Al Harrington as Mamo Kahike

 Shawn Anthony Thomsen as Pua Kai

 Claire Forlani as Alicia Brown

 Andrew Lawrence as Eric Russo

 Kunal Sharma as Koa Rey

 Kekoa Kekumano as Nahele Huikala

 Christine Ko as Jessie Nomura

 Guest stars ( edit )

 Joey Lawrence as Aaron Wright , brother of world - class hacker Ian Wright

 Randy Couture as Jason Duclair

 Bob McCracken as DEA Agent Chris Reid

 Casper Van Dien as Roger Niles

 Chris Vance as Harry Langford , former MI6 agent

 Steven Brand as John Walcott

 Derek Mio as Derek Okada

 Leonardo Nam as Harley Taylor

 Reggie Lee as Joey Kang

 Will Yun Lee as Sang Min

 Lili Simmons as Melissa Armstrong

 Erika Brown as adult Grace Williams

 Joey Defore as 20 year - old Charlie Williams

 Episodes ( edit )

 See also : List of Hawaii Five - 0 ( 2010 TV series ) episodes

 No . overall

 No. in season

 Title

 Directed by

 Written by

 Original air date

 Prod . code

 U.S. viewers ( millions )

 169

 `` A'ole e ' olelo mai ana ke ahi ua ana ia '' `` Fire Will Never Say that It Has Had Enough ''

 Bryan Spicer

 Peter M. Lenkov & Eric Guggenheim & Rob Hanning

 September 29 , 2017 ( 2017 - 09 - 29 )

 801

 8.64

 Five - 0 investigates a world class hacker ( Joey Lawrence ) , who turns out to be the brother of serial hacker Ian Wright , after the former hacks into the Hawaii State prison and releases serial murderer / arsonist Jason DuClair ( Randy Couture ) . DuClair soon leads the team on a manhunt that ends with a massive wildfire . With Kono and Chin on the mainland running their own respective task forces , McGarrett and Danny recruit lifeguard and former police candidate Tani Rey ( Meaghan Rath ) to join the task force to assist them but she is reluctant to do so . Meanwhile , McGarrett and Danny begin to invest in a restaurant .

 Note : This is the first episode to feature Meaghan Rath , Taylor Wily , Dennis Chun and Kimee Balmilero as series regulars .

 170

 `` Na La ' Ilio '' `` Dog Days ''

 Tara Miele

 David Wolkove & Matt Wheeler

 October 6 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 06 )

 803

 8.53

 After a failed DEA drug bust Five - 0 teams up with them to solve the case . Also former Navy SEAL Junior Reigns ( Beulah Koale ) turns to McGarrett looking for a job . Steve initially turns him down however , after he insists Steve introduces him to Duke Lukela then informs Junior that to become a part of the task force he will need to join and finish the Police academy .

 Note : This is the first episode to feature Beulah Koale as a series regular .

 171

 `` Kau pahi , ko'u kua . Kau pu , ko'u po'o '' `` Your Knife , My Back . My Gun , Your Head . ''

 Eagle Egilsson

 David Wolkove & Matt Wheeler

 October 13 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 13 )

 802

 8.51

 Five - 0 with the help of former MI6 agent Harry Langford ( guest star Chris Vance ) investigate the murder of Jimmy Okada and 9 members of his crime family . After his son Derek sends men to take out John Walcott , Five - 0 discovers that Walcott was more than a piano teacher , and that he was out seeking revenge for the death of his son Aiden , who died in a hit and run that Okada was responsible for . Also , Danny and Steve try their best by making dinner for Langford and his date .

 172

 `` E uhi wale no ' a'ole e nalo , he imu puhi '' `` No Matter How Much One Covers a Steaming Imu , The Smoke Will Rise ''

 Antonio Negret

 Rob Hanning

 October 20 , 2017 ( 2017 - 10 - 20 )

 804

 8.67

 Five - 0 's confidential informant Toast is murdered during a phone call between him and McGarrett . Five - 0 turns to Aaron Wright ( Joey Lawrence ) for help , but when Tani is ambushed in the hotel room with Wright , the team realise that Wright is behind the leak of their confidential informants . Kamekona is abducted by Joey Kang and beaten for information about lost money that Kang lost before he was captured . On another hand , Junior is proving efficient at the shooting field at the HPD academy , but after McGarrett finds him at a building set up for homeless people , he decides Junior can live with him while finishing at the academy .

 173

 5

 `` Kama'oma'o , ka ' aina huli hana '' `` At Kama'oma'o , The Land of Activities ''

 Bronwen Hughes

 Peter M. Lenkov & Eric Guggenheim

 November 3 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 03 )

 805

 8.63

 On Halloween , Five - 0 ; later with the help of Alicia Brown ( Claire Forlani ) investigate the death of Tyler Riggins who is found dead in his truck stranded on the old Pali Highway . They are able to connect the recent murder of Bryon Hansen with Riggins ' murder , and discover that the murders are heavily based on old Hawaiian folklore and that it is the killers pattern . They later discover that the killer is Marissa Walker who has been missing for 12 years , and see her killings as her active revenge towards her sister . After talking to Hannah Bell , her daughter Lucey is kidnapped by Walker . Five - 0 manage to rescue Lucey before Walker can finish recreating what happened to herself . In the meantime , on the mainland ; Grover speaks to a captive named Sebastian Wake , who reveals true information about Clay Maxwell murdering his wife before he is executed .

 174

 6

 `` Mohala I Ka Wai Ka Maka O Ka Pua '' `` Unfolded by the Water Are the Faces of the Flowers ''

 Carlos Bernard

 Eric Guggenheim & Zoe Robyn

 November 10 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 10 )

 808

 9.21

 When a man with a multiple personality disorder including a child and a protective father takes on the identity of a Honolulu Police Department officer and commits a series of murders Five - 0 must do everything they can to find him . Also Steve 's friends hold an intervention and hire a stress evaluator to try and help McGarrett reduce his stress .

 175

 7

 `` Kau Ka ' Onohi Ali'i I Luna '' `` The Royal Eyes Rest Above ''

 Bryan Spicer

 Peter M. Lenkov & Eric Guggenheim

 November 17 , 2017 ( 2017 - 11 - 17 )

 807

 9.17

 After picking up Adam ( Ian Anthony Dale ) up from the airport McGarrett receives a call from Junior about a bank robbery in progress . Adam , Junior , and Steve then enter the bank and learn that the criminals escaped through a tunneled out hole in the safe . Steve pursues them through the tunnel while Adam and Junior follow on the street . Following an unsuccessful pursuit they then question a suspect who is then killed by one of the bank robbers while in the Iolani Palace . McGarrett and Grover pursue the suspects and are able to apprehend them following a gunfight . Also Tani keeps her brother from being arrested in a drug bust while Adam is forced to return to an empty home without Kono .

 Note : This is the first episode to feature Ian Anthony Dale as a series regular .

 176

 8

 `` He Kaha Lu'u Ke Ala , Mai Ho'okolo Aku '' `` The Trail Leads To A Diving Place ; Do Not Follow After ''

 Ron Underwood

 Liz Alper & Ally Seibert

 December 1 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 01 )

 806

 8.56

 Five - 0 is asked to investigate the plane crash of a stunt plane , which took the life of the famous stunt pilot Jason Sachs . Despite being refused access to investigate evidence by the NTSB , the team discovers it was a cover up , and take the lead investigator Callahan into custody . It 's later revealed that the real Sachs died in a car crash 6 years ago , and that the one that died was actually Luke Nixon , who had been going in as an informant undercover in the Guillermo crime family . The team manages to rescue Nixon 's wife and her son who were taken hostage by members of the crime family . Also , when a stunt plane happens to crash with Steve in it taking over for Nixon , he successfully manages to land .

 177

 9

 `` Make Me Kai '' `` Death at Sea ''

 Maja Vrvilo

 David Wolkove & Matt Wheeler

 December 8 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 08 )

 809

 9.07

 Five - 0 investigates a woman who was found adrift from shore unconscious . McGarrett , Danny , Tani and Junior discover a yacht abandoned at sea and find 11 dead bodies , however , McGarrett suspects that these victims were killed with a deadly bioweapon and fears that he and his team are exposed . Meanwhile , Adam , Grover and Jerry have only 8 hours to track down the people responsible and find a antidote to save the team .

 178

 10

 `` I Ka Wa Ma Mua , I Ka Wa Ma Hope '' `` The Future is in the Past ''

 Peter Weller

 Zoe Robyn

 December 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 15 )

 810

 8.48

 Following the events of the previous episode the team is recovering at the hospital in quarantine . The room is breached and Danny is shot . The team is unable to leave the room because an explosive is placed on the door . While Steve performs life saving operations on Danny the bomb squad breaches the room and Danny receives the treatment he needs . Also while unconscious Danny dreams of a future where Grace is marrying Will Grover , Charlie becomes a member of the Honolulu Police Department and is offered a job on Five - 0 by Tani , Adam and Kono have a child , and Tani is the new leader of the Five - 0 Task Force at the rank of Captain and is married to Junior .

 179

 11

 `` Oni Kalalea Ke Ku A Ka La'au Loa '' `` A Tall Tree Stands Above the Others ''

 Tara Miele

 Rob Hanning

 December 15 , 2017 ( 2017 - 12 - 15 )

 811

 7.71

 On Christmas Eve , Danny tells Charlie a bedtime story about injured veterans helping Five - 0 after Steve witnesses the aftermath of a gang of robbers dressed as Santa Claus . Also Junior officially becomes a member of the Five - 0 Task Force .

 180

 12

 `` Ka Hopu Nui ' Ana '' `` The Round Up ''

 Eagle Egilsson

 David Wolkove & Matt Wheeler

 January 5 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 05 )

 812

 9.96

 When a government task - force is set up in the state with a goal to reduce gang related violence a member of the task force is killed in a bombing . The Five - 0 Task Force teams up with the government task - force , HPD , and the National Guard to solve the murder . Also Steve asks Adam to head up a special division within the Five - 0 Task Force which focuses solely on organized crime which he accepts .

 181

 13

 `` O Ka Mea Ua Hala , Ua Hala Ia '' `` What is Gone is Gone ''

 Roderick Davis

 Sean O'Reilly

 January 12 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 12 )

 813

 9.38

 When Lou and his son come across a man attempting to commit suicide Grover attempts to talk to him down while the rest of the team investigates the case in an attempt to prove his innocence .

 182

 14

 `` Na Keiki A Kalaihaohia '' `` The Children of Kalaihaohia ''

 Peter Weller

 Story by : Peter M. Lenkov Teleplay by : Eric Guggenheim

 January 19 , 2018 ( 2018 - 01 - 19 )

 814

 9.14

 After Steve and Danny 's restaurant is robbed , McGarrett and Danny enlist help from Pua Kai at the Honolulu police to track down their stolen tools . Meanwhile , Five - 0 investigates a diamond smuggler corpse stolen from a graveyard , they must track down his partner before the stolen diamonds are smuggled out of Hawaii . Also , Adam recruits is first member of his organized crime task force as a confidential informant at the same time helps Tani 's brother get a job in construction .

 183

 15

 `` He puko'a kani ' aina '' `` A Coral Reef Strengthens Out into Land ''

 Bryan Spicer

 David Wolkove & Matt Wheeler

 February 2 , 2018 ( 2018 - 02 - 02 )

 815

 TBD

 Production ( edit )

 On March 23 , 2017 , CBS renewed the series for an eighth season , which premiered on September 29 , 2017 . Filming for the season began in July 2017 .

 Daniel Dae Kim 's and Grace Park 's departure controversies ( edit )

 On June 30 , 2017 , ahead of the series 's eighth season , it was announced that series regulars Daniel Dae Kim and Grace Park would be departing the series due to a salary dispute with CBS . Kim and Park had been seeking pay equality with co-stars Alex O'Loughlin and Scott Caan , but did not reach satisfactory deals with CBS Television Studios . CBS 's final offer to Kim and Park was 10 -- 15 % lower than what O'Loughlin and Caan make in salary . An update of their characters would be given in the first episode of the new season .

 Cast changes ( edit )

 Following Kim 's and Park 's departures it was announced that longtime recurring cast member Ian Anthony Dale who portrays Kono Kalakaua 's husband Adam Noshimuri had been upped to series regular for the eighth season . It was also announced that Meaghan Rath and Beulah Koale would join the series as new characters and new members of Five - 0 .

 On July 21 , 2017 , it was announced that recurring cast members Taylor Wily , Kimee Balmilero , and Dennis Chun would also be upped to series regulars for the eighth season .

 Reception ( edit )

 Ratings ( edit )

 List of live and DVR ratings ( show )

 No

 Episode

 Air date

 18 - 49 rating

 Viewers ( millions )

 Weekly rank

 Live + 7 18 - 49

 Live + 7 viewers ( millions )

 A'ole e ' olelo mai ana ke ahi ua ana ia

 September 29 , 2017

 1.0

 8.64

 # 22

 1.8

 11.91

 Na La ' Ilio

 October 6 , 2017

 1.1

 8.53

 # 16

 N / A

 11.55

 Kau pahi , ko'u kua . Kau pu , ko'u po'o

 October 13 , 2017

 1.0

 8.51

 # 16

 N / A

 11.39

 E uhi wale no ' a'ole e nalo , he imu puhi

 October 20 , 2017

 1.0

 8.67

 # 15

 1.7

 11.54

 5

 Kama'oma'o , ka ' aina huli hana

 November 3 , 2017

 0.9

 8.63

 # 15

 1.6

 11.56

 6

 Mohala I Ka Wai Ka Maka O Ka Pua

 November 10 , 2017

 1.1

 9.21

 # 17

 N / A

 12.13

 7

 Kau Ka ' Onohi Ali'i I Luna

 November 17 , 2017

 1.0

 9.17

 # 16

 N / A

 11.87

 8

 He Kaha Lu'u Ke Ala , Mai Ho'okolo Aku

 December 1 , 2017

 0.9

 8.56

 # 17

 1.6

 11.70

 9

 Make Me Kai

 December 8 , 2017

 1.1

 9.07

 # 9

 1.7

 11.95

 10

 I Ka Wa Ma Mua , I Ka Wa Ma Hope

 December 15 , 2017

 0.9

 8.48

 # 13

 TBA

 TBA

 11

 Oni Kalalea Ke Ku A Ka La'au Loa

 December 15 , 2017

 0.9

 7.71

 # 15

 TBA

 TBA

 12

 Ka Hopu Nui ' Ana

 January 5 , 2018

 1.2

 9.96

 # 8

 TBA

 TBA

 13

 Na Keiki A Kalaihaohia

 January 12 , 2018

 1.1

 9.38

 # 10

 TBA

 TBA

 14

 Oni Kalalea Ke Ku A Ka La'au Loa

 January 19 , 2018

 1.0

 9.14

 # 10

 TBA

 TBA

 15

 He puko'a kani'aina

 February 2 , 2018

 TBA

 TBA

 TBA

 TBA

 TBA

 References ( edit )

 Jump up ^ Webb Mitovich , Matt ( July 19 , 2017 ) . `` Hawaii Five - 0 Gives Kono 's Husband a Promotion , Adds Two in Cast Shake - Up '' . TV Line . Retrieved August 14 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ `` Shows A-Z - hawaii five - 0 on cbs '' . The Futon Critic . September 1 , 2017 . Retrieved September 1 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ `` Development Update : Monday , November 6 '' . The Futon Critic . United State : Futon Media . Retrieved November 9 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 2 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hell 's Kitchen ' premiere adjusts up : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 2 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 9 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hawaii Five - 0 ' and ' Hell 's Kitchen ' adjust up , ' Exorcist ' adjusts down : Friday final ratings '' . Retrieved October 9 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Welch , Alex ( October 16 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hell 's Kitchen , ' ' MacGyver , ' ' Once Upon a Time , ' & more remain unchanged : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 16 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 23 , 2017 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin , ' ' Hawaii Five - 0 , ' all others unchanged : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 23 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 6 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hawaii Five - 0 , ' ' Once Upon a Time ' and others unchanged : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 6 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hawaii Five - 0 , ' ' Hell 's Kitchen , ' everything else unchanged : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 13 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 20 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hell 's Kitchen , ' ' MacGyver ' and all others unchanged : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 20 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 4 , 2017 ) . `` ' Blue Bloods ' and ' The Exorcist ' adjust down : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 4 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 11 , 2017 ) . `` ' Blue Bloods ' adjusts down : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 11 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hawaii Five - 0 ' adjusts down : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 8 , 2018 ) . `` ' Child Support , ' ' MacGyver , ' everything else steady : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 8 , 2018 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 16 , 2018 ) . `` ' Hawaii Five - 0 ' adjusts up : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 16 , 2018 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( January 22 , 2018 ) . `` ' Penn & Teller : Fool Us ' rerun adjusts down : Friday final ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 22 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ `` ( # HF815 ) `` He puko'a kani ' aina ( A Coral Reef Strengthens Out into Land ) '' `` . The Futon Critic . Retrieved January 17 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( March 23 , 2017 ) . `` CBS Renews 5 Freshman & 11 Returning Series , Including ' MacGyver ' , ' Superior Donuts ' , ' Life In Pieces ' & ' Hawaii Five - O ' '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on March 23 , 2017 . Retrieved March 23 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Andreeva , Nellie ( June 1 , 2017 ) . `` CBS Sets Fall 2017 Premiere Dates For ' Young Sheldon ' , ' 9 JKL ' & Returning Series '' . Deadline Hollywood . Archived from the original on June 1 , 2017 . Retrieved June 1 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Ryan , Maureen . `` Daniel Dae Kim , Grace Park Exit ' Hawaii Five - 0 ' '' . Variety.com . Archived from the original on July 7 , 2017 . Retrieved 7 July 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Abrams , Natalie ( June 30 , 2017 ) . `` Hawaii Five - 0 shocker : Grace Park , Daniel Dae Kim exit ahead of season 8 '' . Archived from the original on June 30 , 2017 . Retrieved July 1 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Petski , Denise ( July 19 , 2017 ) . `` ' Hawaii Five - 0 ' : Ian Anthony Dale Upped To Regular , Meaghan Rath & Beulah Koale Join Cast After Shake - Up '' . Deadline Hollywood . Retrieved July 19 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ `` Hawaii actors Chun , Wily , Balmilero join main ' Five - 0 ' cast '' . Honolulu Star - Advertiser. 2017 - 07 - 21 . Retrieved 2017 - 07 - 25 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 3 , 2017 ) . `` ' Big Bang Theory , ' ' Sunday Night Football ' score in week 1 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 6 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( October 13 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and ' The Good Doctor ' score big in premiere week broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 15 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 10 , 2017 ) . `` NFL times 2 dominates the week 2 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 10 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 18 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Orville , ' ' Once Upon a Time , ' 5 more shows double in week 2 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers.com . Retrieved October 18 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 17 , 2017 ) . `` NFL , ' Big Bang Theory ' and ' NCIS ' lead week 3 's broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 17 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 25 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Good Doctor ' is the most - watched show on TV in week 3 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 25 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( October 24 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and NFL carry NBC to 18 - 49 victory in week 4 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved October 25 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 2 , 2017 ) . `` ' Chicago PD , ' 10 more shows double in week 4 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 2 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 7 , 2017 ) . `` World Series , ' Big Bang Theory ' lead week 6 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 7 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( November 17 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' and 12 more shows double in week 6 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 18 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 14 , 2017 ) . `` NFL and ' This Is Us ' carry NBC to victory in week 7 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved November 14 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 27 , 2017 ) . `` ' This Is Us ' rides high in week 7 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 1 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( November 21 , 2017 ) . `` NFL carries NBC to victory again : Week 8 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 1 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 5 , 2017 ) . `` ' Jane the Virgin , ' 10 other shows double in week 8 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 5 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 5 , 2017 ) . `` Football reigns supreme in week 10 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 5 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 15 , 2017 ) . `` CW crossovers get another bump in week 10 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 21 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( December 12 , 2017 ) . `` ' The Voice , ' ' Will & Grace ' and of course NFL carry NBC to the top : Week 11 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 18 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 21 , 2017 ) . `` ' Agents of SHIELD ' gets a good bump in week 11 broadcast Live + 7 ratings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 21 , 2017 .

 ^ Jump up to : Porter , Rick ( December 19 , 2017 ) . `` Football powers NBC and CBS to the top in week 12 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved December 21 , 2017 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 9 , 2018 ) . `` NFL playoffs , Golden Globes carry NBC to No. 1 : Week 15 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 10 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 17 , 2018 ) . `` NFL playoffs boost CBS and FOX : Week 16 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 18 , 2018 .

 Jump up ^ Porter , Rick ( January 23 , 2018 ) . `` FOX dominates , ABC gets a boost in week 17 broadcast Top 25 and network rankings '' . TV by the Numbers . Retrieved January 24 , 2018 .

 External links ( edit )

 Official website

 List of Hawaii Five - 0 episodes on IMDb

 List of Hawaii Five - 0 episodes at TV.com

 List of Hawaii Five - 0 episodes at The Futon Critic

 Hawaii Five - 0 at epguides.com

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Question: cast of hawaii five o season 8 episode 9


Subcutaneous injection - wikipedia

 Subcutaneous injection

 Jump to : navigation , search `` Subcut '' redirects here . For the song by Grand Mixer DXT featuring Bill Laswell , see Aftermathematics . Play media 3D animation of a subcutaneous injection

 A subcutaneous injection is administered as a bolus into the subcutis , the layer of skin directly below the dermis and epidermis , collectively referred to as the cutis . Subcutaneous injections are highly effective in administering vaccines and medications such as insulin , morphine , diacetylmorphine and goserelin . Subcutaneous , as opposed to intravenous , injection of recreational drugs is referred to as `` skin popping '' . Subcutaneous administration may be abbreviated as SC , SQ , sub-cu , sub-Q , SubQ , or subcut . Subcut is the preferred abbreviation for patient safety .

 Subcutaneous tissue has few blood vessels and so drugs injected here are for slow , sustained rates of absorption . It is slower than intramuscular injections but still faster than intradermal injections .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Injection sites

 2 Equipment

 3 Procedure

 4 Subcutaneous insulin injections in diabetes mellitus

 5 See also

 6 References

 Injection sites ( edit )

 Subcutaneous injection sites

 Sites include ,

 The outer area of the upper arm .

 The abdomen , from the rib margin to the iliac crest and avoiding a 2 - inch circle around the navel . This has the fastest rate of absorption among the sites .

 The front of the thigh , midway to the outer side , 4 inches below the top of the thigh to 4 inches above the knee . This has a slower rate of absorption than the upper arm .

 The upper back .

 The upper area of the buttock , just behind the hip bone . This has the slowest rate of absorption among the sites .

 Equipment ( edit )

 A 25 to 31 gauge thick , 3 / 8 '' to 1 '' long needle can be used . The size is determined by the amount of subcutaneous tissue present , which is based on patient build . The 3 / 8 '' and 5 / 8 '' needles are most commonly used . Usually , no more than 1 mL of solution is given , compared to intradermal injections , where no more than 0.5 mL is usually given .

 Procedure ( edit )

 Subcutaneous injections are inserted at 45 to 90 degree angles , depending on amount of subcutaneous tissue present and length of needle - a shorter , 3 / 8 '' needle is usually inserted 90 degrees and a 5 / 8 '' needle is usually inserted at 45 degrees . Medication is administered slowly , about 10 seconds / milliliter .

 Subcutaneous insulin injections in diabetes mellitus ( edit )

 An insulin pump with a subcutaneous injection site .

 A person with insulin - dependent ( either type 1 or type 2 ) diabetes mellitus typically injects insulin subcutaneously .

 The injection should be given under the skin , into the fat layer .

 See also ( edit )

 Intramuscular injection

 Intravenous injection

 Intradermal injection

 References ( edit )

 Jump up ^ `` subcutaneous injection '' at Dorland 's Medical Dictionary

 Jump up ^ `` ISMP 's List of Error - Prone Abbreviations , Symbols , and Dose Designations '' ( PDF ) . www.ismp.org. 2013 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 .

 ^ Jump up to : Taylor , C.R. , Lillis , C. , LeMone , P. , Lynn , P. ( 2011 ) Fundamentals of nursing : The art and science of nursing care . Philadelphia : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins , page 749 .

 Jump up ^ `` Insulin Administration '' . Diabetes Care . 25 ( suppl 1 ) : s112 -- s115 . January 2002 . doi : 10.2337 / diacare. 25.2007. s112 .

 ( hide )

 Routes of administration , dosage forms

 Oral

 Digestive tract ( enteral )

 Solids

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 Time release technology

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 Decoction

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 0 0

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 DMSO drug solution

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 Liposomes

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 Contact ( rubbed into break in the skin )

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 Skin

 Intradermal

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 Intracerebral

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 Circulatory , musculoskeletal

 Intravenous

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 WikiProject

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 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Subcutaneous_injection&oldid=827949994 '' Categories :

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Question: where would a subcutaneous injection be made in the skin


Government revenue - Wikipedia

 Government revenue

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 Government revenue is money received by a government . It is an important tool of the fiscal policy of the government and is the opposite factor of government spending . Revenues earned by the government are received from sources such as taxes levied on the incomes and wealth accumulation of individuals and corporations and on the goods and services produced , exports and imports , non-taxable sources such as government - owned corporations ' incomes , central bank revenue and capital receipts in the form of external loans and debts from international financial institutions . It is used to benefit the country . Governments use revenue to better develop the country , to fix roads , build homes , fix schools etc . The money that government collects pays for the services that is provided for the people . The sources of finance used by the central government are mainly taxes paid by the public .

 Seignorage is one of the ways a government can increase revenue , by deflating the value of its currency in exchange for surplus revenue , by saving money this way Governments can increase the price of goods too far .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Sources

 2 See also

 3 Notes

 4 References

 Sources ( edit )

 Governments across the world earn `` public revenue '' from the following main sources :

 Tax revenue

 Non-tax revenue

 Capital receipts

 See also ( edit )

 Government budget

 Government budget by country

 Notes ( edit )

 References ( edit )

 Chisholm , Hugh , ed. ( 1911 ) . `` Revenue '' . Encyclopædia Britannica ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University Press .

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Small intestine - wikipedia

 Small intestine

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 Small Intestine

 Diagram showing the small intestine and surrounding structures

 Details

 System

 Digestive system

 Artery

 Superior mesenteric artery

 Vein

 Hepatic portal vein

 Nerve

 Celiac ganglia , vagus

 Lymph

 Intestinal lymph trunk

 Identifiers

 Latin

 Intestinum tenue

 MeSH

 D007421

 TA

 A05. 6.01. 001

 FMA

 7200

 Anatomical terminology ( edit on Wikidata )

 The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine , and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place . The small intestine has three distinct regions -- the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum . The duodenum is the shortest part of the small intestine and is where preparation for absorption begins . It also receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct , controlled by the sphincter of Oddi . The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food , using small finger - like protrusions called villi .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Structure

 1.1 Size

 1.2 Parts

 1.3 Blood supply

 1.4 Histology

 1.5 Development

 2 Function

 2.1 Digestion

 2.2 Absorption

 2.3 Immunological

 3 Gene and protein expression

 4 Clinical significance

 5 Other animals

 6 Society and culture

 7 Additional images

 8 See also

 9 References

 10 Bibliography

 11 External links

 Structure ( edit )

 Size ( edit )

 The length of the small intestine can vary greatly , from as short as 2.75 m ( 9.0 ft ) to as long as 10.49 m ( 34.4 ft ) . The average length in a living person is 3m - 5m . The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured . Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty .

 It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age , and 2.5 -- 3 cm ( 1 inch ) in diameter in adults . On abdominal X-rays , the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3 cm . On CT scans , a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated . The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa , due to enlargement caused by folds , villi and microvilli , averages 30 square meters .

 Parts ( edit )

 The small intestine is divided into three structural parts .

 The duodenum is a short structure ranging from 20 cm ( 7.9 inches ) to 25 cm ( 9.8 inches ) in length , and shaped like a `` C '' . It surrounds the head of the pancreas . It receives gastric chyme from the stomach , together with digestive juices from the pancreas ( digestive enzymes ) and the liver ( bile ) . The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile emulsifies fats into micelles . The duodenum contains Brunner 's glands , which produce a mucus - rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate . These secretions , in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas , neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme .

 The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine , connecting the duodenum to the ileum . It is about 2.5 m long , and contains the plicae circulares , and villi that increase its surface area . Products of digestion ( sugars , amino acids , and fatty acids ) are absorbed into the bloodstream here . The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum .

 The ileum : The final section of the small intestine . It is about 3 m long , and contains villi similar to the jejunum . It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids , as well as any other remaining nutrients . The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction .

 The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery . The mesentery is part of the peritoneum . Arteries , veins , lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery .

 Blood supply ( edit )

 The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery . These are both branches of the aorta . The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery . These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose . The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery . Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades , which may be several layers deep . Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves .

 Histology ( edit )

 Main article : Gastrointestinal wall Micrograph of the small intestine mucosa showing the intestinal villi and crypts of Lieberkühn .

 The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level , but there are some important differences . The parts of the intestine are as follows :

 Layer

 Duodenum

 Jejunum

 Ileum

 Serosa

 1st part serosa , 2nd -- 4th adventitia

 Normal

 Normal

 Muscularis externa

 Longitudinal and circular layers , with Auerbach 's ( myenteric ) plexus in between

 Same as duodenum

 Same as duodenum

 Submucosa

 Brunner 's glands and Meissner 's ( submucosal ) plexus

 No BG

 No BG

 Mucosa : muscularis mucosae

 Normal

 Normal

 Normal

 Mucosa : lamina propria

 No PP

 No PP

 Peyer 's patches

 Mucosa : intestinal epithelium

 Simple columnar . Contains goblet cells , Paneth cells

 Similar to duodenum

 ?

 Development ( edit )

 See also : Development of the digestive system

 The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube . By the fifth week of embryological life , the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate , forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop . The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus . By week 10 , the loop retracts back into the abdomen . Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise , as viewed from the front of the embryo . It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen . This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine .

 Function ( edit )

 Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter .

 Digestion ( edit )

 The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place . Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct . Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin , which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients . Secretin , another hormone produced in the small intestine , causes additional effects on the pancreas , where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach .

 The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins , lipids ( fats ) and carbohydrates :

 Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption . Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine . Proteolytic enzymes , including trypsin and chymotrypsin , are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides . Carboxypeptidase , which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme , splits one amino acid at a time . Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products .

 Lipids ( fats ) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol . Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides . Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder . Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them , which aids access by pancreatic lipase . This occurs because the lipase is water - soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings . The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption .

 Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars , or monosaccharides ( e.g. , glucose ) . Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates ( notably starch ) into oligosaccharides . Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria . Brush border enzymes take over from there . The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase , which further break down oligosaccharides . Other brush border enzymes are maltase , sucrase and lactase . Lactase is absent in some adult humans and , for them , lactose , like most poly - saccharides , is not digested in the small intestine . Some carbohydrates , such as cellulose , are not digested at all , despite being made of multiple glucose units . This is because the cellulose is made out of beta - glucose , making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch , which consists of alpha - glucose . Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta - glucose - bonds , something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine .

 Absorption ( edit )

 Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport . The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed . The inner wall , or mucosa , of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue . Structurally , the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares , which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ . They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction . From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger - like pieces of tissue called villi ( Latin for `` shaggy hair '' ) . The individual epithelial cells also have finger - like projections known as microvilli . The functions of the plicae circulares , the villi , and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients , and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna .

 Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface . The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries ( amino acids and carbohydrates ) and lacteals ( lipids ) . The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body . The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine .

 Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum , with the following notable exceptions :

 Iron is absorbed in the duodenum .

 Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum .

 Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine .

 Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport

 Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion .

 Immunological ( edit )

 The small intestine supports the body 's immune system . The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host 's immune system . Peyer 's patches , located within the ileum of the small intestine , are an important part of the digestive tract 's local immune system . They are part of the lymphatic system , and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled , and subsequently presented to the immune system .

 Gene and protein expression ( edit )

 Further information : Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression

 About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum . Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine . The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa , such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6 . Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum , for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells .

 Clinical significance ( edit )

 See also : Gastrointestinal disease

 The small intestine is a complex organ , and as such , there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel . A few of them are listed below , some of which are common , with up to 10 % of people being affected at some time in their lives , while others are vanishingly rare .

 Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders

 Paralytic ileus

 Volvulus

 Hernia

 Intussusception

 Adhesions

 Obstruction from external pressure

 Obstruction by masses in the lumen ( foreign bodies , bezoar , gallstones )

 Infectious diseases

 Giardiasis

 Ascariasis

 Tropical sprue

 Tape worm ( Diphyllobothrium latum , Taenia solium , Hymenolepsis nana )

 Hookworm ( e.g. Necator americanus , Ancylostoma duodenale )

 Nematodes ( e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides )

 Other Protozoa ( e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum , Cyclospora , Microsporidia , Entamoeba histolytica )

 Bacterial infections

 Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

 Salmonella enterica

 Campylobacter

 Shigella

 Yersinia

 Clostridium difficile ( antibiotic - associated colitis , Pseudomembranous colitis )

 Mycobacterium ( Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis , disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis )

 Whipple 's disease

 Vibrio ( cholera )

 Enteric ( typhoid ) fever ( Salmonella enterica var . typhii ) and paratyphoid fever

 Bacillus cereus

 Clostridium perfringens ( gas gangrene )

 Viral infections

 Rotavirus

 Norovirus

 Astrovirus

 Adenovirus

 Calicivirus

 Neoplasms ( cancers )

 Adenocarcinoma

 Carcinoid

 Gastrointestinal stromal tumor ( GIST )

 Lymphoma

 Sarcoma

 Leiomyoma

 Metastatic tumors , especially SCLC or melanoma

 Developmental , congenital or genetic conditions

 Duodenal ( intestinal ) atresia

 Hirschsprung 's disease

 Meckel 's diverticulum

 Pyloric stenosis

 Pancreas divisum

 Ectopic pancreas

 Enteric duplication cyst

 Situs inversus

 Cystic fibrosis

 Malrotation

 Persistent urachus

 Omphalocele

 Gastroschisis

 Disaccharidase ( lactase ) deficiencies

 Primary bile acid malabsorption

 Gardner syndrome

 Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome ( FAP )

 Other conditions

 Crohn 's disease , and the more general inflammatory bowel disease

 Typhlitis ( neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed

 Coeliac disease ( sprue or non-tropical sprue )

 Mesenteric ischemia

 Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein

 Arteriovenous malformation

 Gastric dumping syndrome

 Irritable bowel syndrome

 Duodenal ( peptic ) ulcers

 Gastrointestinal perforation

 Hyperthyroidism

 Diverticulitis

 Radiation enterocolitis

 Mesenteric cysts

 Peritoneal Infection

 Sclerosing retroperitonitis

 Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

 Endometriosis

 Other animals ( edit )

 The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts , although its form and length vary enormously between species . In teleosts , it is relatively short , typically around one and a half times the length of the fish 's body . It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca , small pouch - like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food . There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts , with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu

 In tetrapods , the ileocaecal valve is always present , opening into the colon . The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts , but is especially so in herbivores , as well as in mammals and birds , which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles . The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates , but only in mammals do these develop into true villi .

 The boundaries between the duodenum , jejunum , and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans , and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals , or are essentially arbitrary .

 There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish , such as sharks , sturgeons , and lungfish . Instead , the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine , connecting the stomach to the rectum . In this type of gut , the intestine itself is relatively straight but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion , sometimes for dozens of turns . This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine . The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods .

 In lampreys , the spiral valve is extremely small , possibly because their diet requires little digestion . Hagfish have no spiral valve at all , with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine , which is not subdivided into different regions .

 Society and culture ( edit )

 In traditional Chinese medicine , the small intestine is a yang organ .

 Additional images ( edit )

 Small intestine in situ , greater omentum folded upwards .

 Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum , seen from in front ( diagrammatic ) . The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400

 Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum , seen from in front ( diagrammatic ) . The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium ( lesser omentum ) have been cut . The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint .

 First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum , seen from the side ( diagrammatic ) . From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum .

 See also ( edit )

 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Small intestine .

 Large intestine

 Stomach

 References ( edit )

 Jump up ^ Physiology : 6 / 6ch2 / s6ch2_30 - Essentials of Human Physiology

 Jump up ^ human body Britannica.com

 ^ Jump up to : DiBaise , John K. ; Parrish , Carol Rees ; Thompson , Jon S. ( 2016 ) . Short Bowel Syndrome : Practical Approach to Management . CRC Press . p. 31 . ISBN 9781498720809 .

 Jump up ^ Tortora , Gerard ( 2014 ) . Principles of Anatomy & Physiology . USA : Wiley . p. 913 . ISBN 978 - 1 - 118 - 34500 - 9 ... its length is about 3m in a living person and about 6.5 m in a cadaver due to loss of smooth muscle tone after death .

 Jump up ^ Standring , Susan ( 2016 ) . Gray 's Anatomy . UK : Elsevier . p. 1124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 7020 - 5230 - 9 ... and has a mean length of 5 metres ( 3 - 8.5 metres ) when measured intraoperatively in the living adult ( Tietelbaum et al 2013 ) .

 Jump up ^ Debora Duro , Daniel Kamin ( 2007 ) . `` Overview of short bowel syndrome and intestinal transplantation '' . Colombia Médica. 38 ( 1 ) .

 ^ Jump up to : Ali Nawaz Khan ( 2016 - 09 - 22 ) . `` Small - Bowel Obstruction Imaging '' . Medscape . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 07 .

 Jump up ^ `` Abdominal X-ray - Abnormal bowel gas pattern '' . radiologymasterclass.co.uk . Retrieved 2017 - 02 - 07 .

 Jump up ^ Gazelle , GS ; Goldberg , MA ; Wittenberg , J ; Halpern , EF ; Pinkney , L ; Mueller , PR ( 1994 ) . `` Efficacy of CT in distinguishing small - bowel obstruction from other causes of small - bowel dilatation '' . American Journal of Roentgenology. 162 ( 1 ) : 43 -- 47 . doi : 10.2214 / ajr. 162.1. 8273687 . ISSN 0361 - 803X .

 Jump up ^ Helander , Herbert F ; Fändriks , Lars ( 2015 ) . `` Surface area of the digestive tract -- revisited '' . Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 49 ( 6 ) : 681 -- 689 . doi : 10.3109 / 00365521.2014. 898326 . ISSN 0036 - 5521 . PMID 24694282 .

 Jump up ^ Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . p. 273 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 .

 Jump up ^ Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . p. 271 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 .

 ^ Jump up to : Drake , Richard L. ; Vogl , Wayne ; Tibbitts , Adam W.M. Mitchell ; illustrations by Richard ; Richardson , Paul ( 2005 ) . Gray 's anatomy for students . Philadelphia : Elsevier / Churchill Livingstone . pp. 295 -- 299 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8089 - 2306 - 0 .

 ^ Jump up to : Schoenwolf , Gary C. ; Bleyl , Steven B. ; Brauer , Philip R. ; Francis - West , Philippa H. ( 2009 ) . `` Development of the Urogenital system '' . Larsen 's human embryology ( 4th ed . ) . Philadelphia : Churchill Livingstone / Elsevier . p. 237 . ISBN 9780443068119 .

 Jump up ^ Silk DB ( 1974 ) . `` Progress report . Peptide absorption in man '' . Gut. 15 ( 6 ) : 494 -- 501 . doi : 10.1136 / gut. 15.6. 494 . PMC 1413009 . PMID 4604970 .

 Jump up ^ `` Intestinal immune cells play an unexpected role in immune surveillance of the bloodstream '' . Massachusetts General Hospital . 13 December 2012 .

 Jump up ^ Canny , G.O. ; McCormick , B.A. ( 2008 ) . `` Bacteria in the Intestine , Helpful Residents or Enemies from Within ? '' . Infection and Immunity. 76 ( 8 ) : 3360 -- 3373 . doi : 10.1128 / IAI. 00187 - 08 . ISSN 0019 - 9567 . PMC 2493210 . PMID 18474643 .

 Jump up ^ `` The human proteome in small intestine - The Human Protein Atlas '' . www.proteinatlas.org . Retrieved 2017 - 09 - 26 .

 Jump up ^ Uhlén , Mathias ; Fagerberg , Linn ; Hallström , Björn M. ; Lindskog , Cecilia ; Oksvold , Per ; Mardinoglu , Adil ; Sivertsson , Åsa ; Kampf , Caroline ; Sjöstedt , Evelina ( 2015 - 01 - 23 ) . `` Tissue - based map of the human proteome '' . Science . 347 ( 6220 ) : 1260419 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1260419 . ISSN 0036 - 8075 . PMID 25613900 .

 Jump up ^ Gremel , Gabriela ; Wanders , Alkwin ; Cedernaes , Jonathan ; Fagerberg , Linn ; Hallström , Björn ; Edlund , Karolina ; Sjöstedt , Evelina ; Uhlén , Mathias ; Pontén , Fredrik ( 2015 - 01 - 01 ) . `` The human gastrointestinal tract - specific transcriptome and proteome as defined by RNA sequencing and antibody - based profiling '' . Journal of Gastroenterology. 50 ( 1 ) : 46 -- 57 . doi : 10.1007 / s00535 - 014 - 0958 - 7 . ISSN 0944 - 1174 .

 ^ Jump up to : Romer , Alfred Sherwood ; Parsons , Thomas S. ( 1977 ) . The Vertebrate Body . Philadelphia , PA : Holt - Saunders International . pp. 349 -- 353 . ISBN 0 - 03 - 910284 - X .

 Jump up ^ Porter ( ed . ) , Roy ( 1997 ) . Medicine : a history of healing . ( S.l. ) : Diane Pub Co. p. 104 . ISBN 9780756751432 . CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link )

 Bibliography ( edit )

 Sherwood , Lauralee ( 2006 ) . Fundamentals of physiology : a human perspective ( Third ed . ) . Florence , KY : Cengage Learning . p. 768 . ISBN 0 - 534 - 46697 - 4 .

 Solomon et al. ( 2002 ) Biology Sixth Edition , Brooks - Cole / Thomson Learning ISBN 0 - 03 - 033503 - 5

 Townsend et al. ( 2004 ) Sabiston Textbook of Surgery , Elsevier ISBN 0 - 7216 - 0409 - 9

 Thomson A , Drozdowski L , Iordache C , Thomson B , Vermeire S , Clandinin M , Wild G ( 2003 ) . `` Small bowel review : Normal physiology , part 1 '' . Dig Dis Sci. 48 ( 8 ) : 1546 -- 64 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1024719925058 . PMID 12924651 .

 Thomson A , Drozdowski L , Iordache C , Thomson B , Vermeire S , Clandinin M , Wild G ( 2003 ) . `` Small bowel review : Normal physiology , part 2 '' . Dig Dis Sci. 48 ( 8 ) : 1565 -- 81 . doi : 10.1023 / A : 1024724109128 . PMID 12924652 .

 External links ( edit )

 Small intestine at the Human Protein Atlas

 ( hide )

 Anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract , excluding the mouth

 Upper

 Pharynx

 Muscles

 Spaces

 peripharyngeal

 retropharyngeal

 parapharyngeal

 retrovisceral

 danger

 prevertebral

 Pterygomandibular raphe

 Pharyngeal raphe

 Buccopharyngeal fascia

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 Piriform sinus

 Esophagus

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 upper

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 glands

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 Enterocyte

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 Ileum

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 Cecum

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 taenia coli

 haustra

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 Rectum

 Transverse folds

 Ampulla

 Anal canal

 Anus

 Anal columns

 Anal valves

 Anal sinuses

 Pectinate line

 Internal anal sphincter

 Intersphincteric groove

 External anal sphincter

 Wall

 Serosa / Adventitia

 Subserosa

 Muscular layer

 Submucosa

 Circular folds

 Mucosa

 Muscularis mucosa

 GND : 4013218 - 3

 NDL : 00987719

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 A gamete ( from Ancient Greek γαμετή gamete from gamein `` to marry '' ) is a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization ( conception ) in organisms that sexually reproduce . In species that produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes , and in which each individual produces only one type , a female is any individual that produces the larger type of gamete -- called an ovum ( or egg ) -- and a male produces the smaller tadpole - like type -- called a sperm . In short a gamete is an egg ( female gamete ) or a sperm ( male gamete ) . This is an example of anisogamy or heterogamy , the condition in which females and males produce gametes of different sizes ( this is the case in humans ; the human ovum has approximately 100,000 times the volume of a single human sperm cell ) . In contrast , isogamy is the state of gametes from both sexes being the same size and shape , and given arbitrary designators for mating type . The name gamete was introduced by the Austrian biologist Gregor Mendel . Gametes carry half the genetic information of an individual , one ploidy of each type , and are created through meiosis .

 Oogenesis is the process of female gamete formation in animals . This process involves meiosis ( including meiotic recombination ) occurring in the diploid primary oocyte to produce the haploid ovum ( gamete ) . Spermatogenesis is the process of male gamete formation in animals . This process also involves meiosis ( including meiotic recombination ) occurring in the diploid primary spermatocyte to produce the haploid spermatozoon ( gamete ) .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Dissimilarity

 2 Sex determination in humans and birds

 3 Artificial gametes

 4 Plants

 5 Notes and references

 Dissimilarity ( edit )

 In contrast to a gamete , the diploid somatic cells of an individual contain one copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one copy of the chromosome set from the egg cell ; that is , the cells of the offspring have genes expressing characteristics of both the father and the mother . A gamete 's chromosomes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the diploid chromosomes , and often undergo random mutations resulting in modified DNA ( and subsequently , new proteins and phenotypes ) .

 Sex determination in humans and birds ( edit )

 In humans , a normal ovum can carry only an X chromosome ( of the X and Y chromosomes ) , whereas a sperm may carry either an X or a Y ( a non-normal ovum can end up carrying two or no X chromosomes , as a result of a irregularity at either of the two stages of meiosis , while a non-normal sperm cell can end up carrying either no sex - defining chromosomes , an XY pair , or XX pair as a result of the forementioned reason ) ; ergo the male sperm can play a role in determining the sex of any resulting zygote , if the zygote has two X chromosomes it may develop into a female , if it has an X and a Y chromosome , it may develop into a male . For birds , the female ovum determines the sex of the offspring , through the ZW sex - determination system .

 Artificial gametes ( edit )

 Artificial gametes , also known as In vitro derived gametes ( IVD ) , stem cell - derived gametes ( SCDGs ) , and In vitro generated gametes ( IVG ) , are gametes derived from stem cells . Research shows that artificial gametes may be a reproductive technique for same - sex male couples , although a surrogate mother would still be required for the gestation period . Women who have passed menopause may be able to produce eggs and bear genetically related children with artificial gametes . Robert Sparrow wrote , in the Journal of Medical Ethics , that embryos derived from artificial gametes could be used to derive new gametes and this process could be repeated to create multiple human generations in the laboratory . This technique could be used to create cell lines for medical applications and for studying the heredity of genetic disorders . Additionally , this technique could be used for human enhancement by selectively breeding for a desired genome or by using recombinant DNA technology to create enhancements that have not arisen in nature .

 Plants ( edit )

 Plants which reproduce sexually also have gametes . However , since plants have an alternation of diploid and haploid generations some differences exist . In flowering plants the flowers use meiosis to produce a haploid generation which produce gametes through mitosis . The female haploid is called the ovule and is produced by the ovary of the flower . When mature the haploid ovule produces the female gamete which are ready for fertilization . The male haploid is pollen and is produced by the anther , when pollen lands on a mature stigma of a flower it grows a pollen tube down into the flower . The haploid pollen then produces sperm by mitosis and releases them for fertilization .

 Notes and references ( edit )

 Jump up ^ `` gamete '' . Online Etymology Dictionary .

 Jump up ^ Marshall , A.M. 1893 . Vertebrate embryology : a text - book for students and practitioners . GP Putnam 's Sons .

 Jump up ^ Yeung , C. , M. Anapolski , M. Depenbusch , M. Zitzmann , and T. Cooper . 2003 . `` Human sperm volume regulation . Response to physiological changes in osmolality , channel blockers and potential sperm osmolytes . '' Human Reproduction 18 : 1029 .

 ^ Jump up to : Jay Phelan ( 30 April 2009 ) . What Is Life ? : A Guide to Biology W / Prep - U . Macmillan . pp. 237 -- . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4292 - 2318 - 8 . Retrieved 8 October 2010 .

 ^ Jump up to : Newson , AJ ; Smajdor , AC ( 2005 ) . `` Artificial gametes : new paths to parenthood ? '' . Journal of Medical Ethics. 31 : 184 -- 186 . doi : 10.1136 / jme. 2003.004986 . Retrieved 26 February 2015 .

 ^ Jump up to : Sparrow , Robert ( 4 April 2013 ) . `` In vitro eugenics '' . Journal of Medical Ethics . doi : 10.1136 / medethics - 2012 - 101200 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 .

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 Human physiology of sexual reproduction

 Menstrual cycle

 Menarche

 Menstruation

 Follicular phase

 Ovulation

 Luteal phase

 Gametogenesis

 Spermatogenesis ( spermatogonium

 spermatocyte

 spermatid

 sperm )

 Oogenesis ( oogonium

 oocyte

 ootid

 ovum )

 Germ cell ( gonocyte

 gamete )

 Human sexual behavior

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 This page was last edited on 15 April 2018 , at 10 : 28 .

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Question: explain what will happen if a normal gamete like y fertilises gamete x