Forensic firearm examination - wikipedia

 Forensic firearm examination

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 Outline

 Forensic firearm examination is the forensic process of examining the characteristics of firearms as well as any cartridges or bullets left behind at a crime scene . Specialists in this field are tasked with linking bullets and cartridges to weapons and weapons to individuals . Obliterated serial numbers can be raised and recorded in an attempt to find the registered owner of the weapon . Examiners can also look for fingerprints on the weapon and cartridges , and then viable prints can be processed through fingerprint databases for a potential match .

 By examining unique striations , or markings , left behind on the bullet as it passes through the barrel and on the cartridge as it is hit by the firing pin , individual spent rounds can be linked back to a specific weapon . Known exemplars taken from a seized weapon can be directly compared to samples recovered from the scene using a comparison microscope . Striation images can also be uploaded to any existing national databases . Furthermore , these markings can be compared to other images in an attempt to link one weapon to multiple crime scenes . Like all forensic specialties , forensic firearm examiners are subject to being called to testify in court as expert witnesses .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 History

 2 Examination of the firearm

 2.1 Fingerprint recovery

 2.2 Serial number recovery

 2.2. 1 Magnetic particle inspection

 2.2. 2 Chemical restoration

 3 Examination of cartridges

 4 Examination of bullets

 4.1 Class characteristics

 4.2 Individual characteristics

 5 Striation databasing

 6 Criticisms

 7 See also

 8 References

 History ( edit )

 The ability to compare ammunition is a direct result of the invention of rifling around the turn of the 16th century . By forcing the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel of the weapon the bullet 's accuracy greatly increases . At the same time , the rifling leaves marks on the bullet that are indicative of that particular barrel . Prior to mass production of firearms , each barrel and bullet mold was hand made by gunsmiths making them unique . The first successful documented case of forensic firearm examination occurred in 1835 when a member of the Bow Street Runners in London matched a recovered bullet from a murder victim to a specific mold in a suspect 's home confirming that he made the bullet . Further evidence that the bullet maker was the perpetrator was found in his home and he was convicted . As manufacturing and automation replaced hand tools , the ability to compare bullets became impossible due to the standardization of molds within a specific company . However , experts in the field postulated that there were microscopic differences on each barrel left during the manufacturing process . These differences were a result of wear on the machines and since each new weapon caused a tiny amount of wear , each barrel would be slightly different from every other barrel produced by that company . Also , each bullet fired from a specific barrel would be printed with the same marks , allowing investigators to identify the weapon that fired a specific bullet .

 One of the first uses of this knowledge was in 1915 to exonerate Charles Stielow of the murder of his neighbors . Stielow was sentenced to death and appealed to Charles S. Whitman , the Governor of New York , who was not convinced by the evidence used to convict Stielow . Whitman halted the execution until an inquiry could be conducted and after further examination it was shown that Stielow 's firearm could not have fired the bullets recovered from the victims . The invention of the comparison microscope by Calvin Goddard and Phillip O. Gravelle in 1925 modernized the forensic examination of firearms . Simultaneous comparison of two different objects at the same time allowed to closely examine striations for matches and therefore make a more definitive statement as to whether or not they matched .

 One of the first true tests of this new technology was in the aftermath of the Saint Valentine 's Day Massacre in 1929 . During the Prohibition Era , competing gang members were fighting over bootlegging operations within the city of Chicago . Members of the Chicago Outfit and the Egan 's Rats led by Al Capone attempted to remove all competition from Chicago by eliminating the North Side Gang leader Bugs Moran . The massacre missed Moran , who was not present , but killed seven members of the North Side Gang . The murderers attempted to cover up their crime by posing as police officers , even dressing in police uniforms . Witnesses saw two `` officers '' leaving the scene , which implicated the Chicago police department as the perpetrators of the massacre . High levels of police corruption during that time period made it seem likely that the police department committed the killings . The investigation stalled until December 1929 when Fred Burke , a member of the Egan 's Rats , shot and killed a police officer in St. Joseph , Michigan . Officers searching for Burke were led to a home in nearby Stevensville . While Burke was not there , inside officers found an arsenal of weapons including two Thompson submachine guns . The Chicago police department was contacted and the weapons were brought back to Chicago for testing . Goddard was asked to compare the weapons to collected evidence found at the massacre using his new `` ballistic - forensics '' technique . After test firing the guns , Goddard proved that the weapons were those used to kill the members of the North Side Gang , absolving the Chicago police department of all involvement . The successful use of Goddard 's technique resulted in the solidification of his place as the father of forensic firearm examination .

 Examination of the firearm ( edit )

 Multiple serial numbers provide redundancy and make it difficult to fully remove the numbers from a weapon .

 Any firearm collected during the course of an investigation could yield viable evidence if examined . For forensic firearm examination specific evidence that can be recovered include weapon serial numbers and potentially fingerprints left on the weapon 's surface .

 Fingerprint recovery ( edit )

 Fingerprint recovery from the surface of firearms is done with cyanoacrylate ( more commonly known as superglue ) fuming . Firearms are placed in a specially designed fume hood designed to evenly distribute fumes instead of removing them . Liquid superglue is placed in a container and heated until it is in a gaseous state . The circulating fumes adhere to the oils left behind by the fingerprint , turning the print white . The resulting white print can be enhanced with fingerprint powder to increase the contrast of the white print against the weapon 's finish . While using the fuming technique on recovered guns is commonplace , the recovery of fingerprints from the surfaces of a firearm is challenging due to the textured grip and the general condition of recovered weapons . If fingerprints are recovered , they can be processed through fingerprint databases such as the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System ( IAFIS ) . Various parts of the recovered weapon can also be tested for touch DNA left by whomever handled it . However , the low levels of DNA that can be recovered presents numerous issues such as contamination and analysis anomalies such as allele drop - out and drop - in .

 Serial number recovery ( edit )

 Serial numbers became commonplace after the United States passed the Gun Control Act of 1968 . This law mandated that all guns manufactured or imported into the country have a serial number . Prior to 1968 , many firearms either did not have a serial number or the serial numbers were not unique and were reused by a manufacturer on multiple firearms . If a recovered weapon has had the serial numbers altered or destroyed , examiners can attempt to recover the original numbers . The two main methods for the restoration of serial numbers are magnetic particle inspection and chemical restoration . It is recommended that magnetic particle inspection be performed first due to the nondestructive nature of the method . If magnetic particle inspection fails , chemical restoration is the next step in the forensic analysis .

 If the serial number is successfully restored it can be used to help investigators track the weapon 's history , as well as potentially determine who owns the weapon . Firearm databases such as the National Crime Information Center of the United States and INTERPOL 's Firearm Reference Table can be used by investigators to track weapons that have been lost , stolen , or used previously in other crimes .

 Magnetic particle inspection ( edit )

 Originally developed as a method to detect flaws or irregularities in magnetic materials , magnetic particle inspection can be used on firearms to visualize the serial number underneath the obliterated area . When performing this technique , examiners place the weapon in a magnetic field . The irregularities in the metal , in this case the serial number , cause the field to deform . When a solution of ferrous particles is added to the weapon 's magnetized surface they will be attracted to the area where the magnetic field has deformed and will build up in the area . If fluorescent particles are added to the ferrous solution , ultraviolet light can be used to make it easier to visualize any recovered serial number .

 Chemical restoration ( edit )

 Chemical restoration is a type of chemical milling . Typically , chemical milling is used to slowly remove material to create a desired shape . In serial number restoration , small amounts of metal are removed until the serial number is brought back to the surface . This can be performed due to the depth that serial numbers are engraved into the weapon . However , chemical restoration is limited by that depth and is only successful when the obliteration of the serial number is superficial . Examiners performing a restoration first sand the area where the serial number used to be . This removes any debris from the area left when the serial number was obliterated . The examiner then chooses a chemical , usually an acid , that will be used to slowly bring the number back to the surface . The type of chemical that is used depends on the material the weapon is made of . These acids can range from Fry 's Reagent for a magnetic metal , which is a mixture of hydrochloric acid , cupric chloride , and distilled water , to an acidic ferric chloride solution for a non-magnetic , non-aluminum material .

 Examination of cartridges ( edit )

 Two test - fired cartridges under magnification . Matching striations can be seen .

 Spent cartridges found at a scene can be examined for physical evidence such as fingerprints or compared to samples that match them to a weapon . The examination of the cartridge relies on the unique tool marks left by the various parts of the weapon including the firing pin and the ejector in semi and fully automatic firearms . These markings can be compared and matched to known exemplars fired from the same weapon using the same parts . The examination of the marks left on the cartridge is done using a comparison microscope . Examiners view the questioned cartridge and the known exemplar simultaneously , looking for similar microscopic marks left during the firing process .

 Example of microstamping . Insert shows a close up of the serial number imprinted into the cartridge .

 Cartridges are also routinely examined for fingerprints as the act of loading the ammunition into the magazine , or chamber , leaves recoverable impressions . These fingerprints can survive the firing processes and , while a rare occurrence , fingerprints have been obtained from cartridges recovered from the scene . Cartridges are subjected to cyanoacrylate fuming and examined for any usable prints . Usable prints are photographed and can be uploaded to fingerprint databases such as IAFIS for comparison with known exemplars . Cartridges can also be swabbed for trace DNA left by the individual who loaded the magazine . The extremely low levels of recoverable DNA present the same issues as swabbing a firearm for DNA .

 Advancements in microscopic stamping have led to a push for the inclusion of firing pin microstamping . The microstamp is etched onto the firing pin and is transferred to the cartridge during the firing process . Each firing pin would have a unique serial number allowing investigators to trace casings found at a crime scene to a known firearm . The practice is not in use as of 2018 , although California has enacted legislation that requires microstamping on all newly sold firearms . The law , and microstamping in general , has received significant opposition from gun manufacturers due to increased costs associated with introducing the microstamps into the manufacturing lines .

 Examination of bullets ( edit )

 Rifing pattern for a Remington rifle showing a clockwise ( right - handed ) twist .

 Class characteristics ( edit )

 Preliminary examination of the bullet can exclude a large number of weapons by examining the general characteristics of a recovered bullet . By determining general aspects of the fired ammunition , a number of weapons can be immediately excluded as being incapable of firing that type of bullet . The make and model of the weapon can also be inferred from the combination of different class characteristics that are common to specific manufactures . The three main class characteristics of all bullets are the lands and grooves , the caliber of the bullet , and the rifling twist . All three can be tied directly to the type of barrel that was used to fire the bullet . The lands and grooves of barrel are the bumps and valleys created when the rifling is created . The caliber is the diameter of the barrel . The twist is the direction of the striations left by the barrel 's rifling , clockwise ( right - handed ) or counterclockwise ( left - handed ) . Most barrels will have a right - handed twist with the exception of weapons created by the Colt 's Manufacturing Company which uses left - handed twists . Weapon barrels that match the class characteristics of recovered bullets can be examined further for individual characteristics to determine if the bullet came from that particular weapon .

 Individual characteristics ( edit )

 In order to compare individual striations , examiners must obtain a known sample using the seized weapon . For slower - traveling bullets , such as pistols or revolvers , known bullet exemplars are created by firing the weapon into a water tank . The spent bullet can be recovered , intact , as the water slows down the bullet before it can reach the tank walls , allowing for it to be recovered . For faster traveling bullets , such as those fired from high - powered rifles and military style weapons , water tanks can not be used as the tank will not provide enough stopping power for the projectiles . To examine these weapons , investigators must fire them at a target at a controlled range with enough backing to stop the bullet and collect the spent round after it has been fired .

 Once a known exemplar is produced , the evidence sample can be compared to the known by examining both at the same time with a comparison microscope . Striations that line up are examined more closely , looking for multiple consecutive matches . There is no set number of consecutive matches that equates to a match declaration , and examiners are trained to use the phrase `` sufficient agreement '' when testifying . The degree to which an examiner can make that determination is based on their training and expertise . All findings by examiners are subject to questioning by both sides , prosecution and defense , during testimony in court .

 Striation databasing ( edit )

 Bullets and casings found at a scene require a known example to compare to in order to match them to a weapon . Without a weapon , the striation pattern can be uploaded to a database such as the National Integrated Ballistic Identification Network ( NIBIN ) maintained by the ATF or the United Kingdom 's National Ballistics Intelligence Service ( NABIS ) . Information uploaded to these databases can be used to track gun crimes and to link crimes together . Maintainers of these databases recommend that every recovered firearm be test fired and the resulting known exemplar be uploaded into the database .

 Criticisms ( edit )

 Firearm examiners have attempted to determine the shooter 's position by the location of spent bullet casings . The use of ejection pattern studies were originally part of incident reconstruction and methods for determining shooter location continue to be explained in major crime scene examination books . However , the validity of ejection pattern analysis has been brought into question by multiple studies that look at the reproducibility and end determination of shooter position by qualified examiners . Studies have shown that over 25 % of spent casings land somewhere other than to the right and rear of the shooter . This is the most commonly accepted location for where spent cartridge casings should fall , and the large percentage of casings that end up somewhere else raises concerns for the validity of the examination technique . Investigators should only present a location gained from an ejection pattern study as a tentative estimate when using the information in a courtroom setting .

 Prior to September 2005 , comparative bullet - lead analysis was performed on bullets found at a scene that were too destroyed for striation comparison . The technique would attempt to determine the unique elemental breakdown of the bullet and compare it to seized bullets possessed by a suspect . Review of the method found that the breakdown of elements found in bullets could be significantly different enough to potentially allow for two bullets from separate sources to be correlated to each other . However , there are not enough differences to definitely match a bullet from a crime scene to one taken from a suspect 's possession . An additional report in 2004 from the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) found that the testimony given regarding comparative bullet - lead analysis was overstated and potentially `` misleading under the federal rules of evidence '' . In 2005 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation indicated that they would no longer be performing this type of analysis .

 Further criticism came from the 2009 NAS report on the current state of various forensic fields in the United States . The report 's section on firearm examination focused on the lack of defined requirements that are necessary in order to determine `` matches '' between known and unknown striations . The NAS stated that , `` sufficient studies have not been done to understand the reliability and repeatability of the methods . '' Without defined procedures on what is and what is n't considered `` sufficient agreement '' the report states that forensic firearm examination contains fundamental problems that need to be addressed by the forensic community through a set of repeatable scientific studies that outline standard operating procedures that should be adopted by all firearm examiners . Another report issued in 2016 by the United States President 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology confirmed the NAS 's findings , finding only one appropriately designed study that examined the rate of false positives and reliability amongst firearm examiners .

 See also ( edit )

 Ballistics

 Crime reconstruction

 References ( edit )

 ^ Jump up to : Hamby , James ( Summer 1999 ) . `` The History of Firearm and Toolmark Identification '' . Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners Journal . 31 ( 3 ) . Retrieved January 16 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Steele , Lisa ( 2008 ) . `` Ballistics '' ( PDF ) . Science for Lawyers . American Bar Association . Retrieved January 19 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Thompson , Robert ( 2010 ) . `` Firearm Identification in the Forensic Science Laboratory '' ( PDF ) . National District Attorneys Association . Retrieved January 19 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Borchard , Edwin ( 1932 ) . `` Stielow and Green '' ( PDF ) . Convicting the Innocent : Errors of Criminal Justice . New Haven Yale University Press . Retrieved January 20 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Comparison Microscopy '' . National Forensic Science Technology Center . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ O'Brien , John ( February 14 , 2014 ) . `` The St. Valentine 's Day Massacre '' . The Chicago Tribune . Archived from the original on March 5 , 2016 . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Ashcroft , Brent . `` St. Valentine 's Day Massacre : Tale of two guns '' . WZZM13 . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Rasmussen , Frederick N. ( February 12 , 2011 ) . `` Baltimore native helped solve 1929 St. Valentine 's Day Massacre '' . The Baltimore Sun . Retrieved June 25 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` In the Public Eye : Finding Fingerprints on Firearms is Actually Very Rare '' . Forensic Magazine . September 2 , 2015 . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` CYANOACRYLATE ( SUPERGLUE ) FUMING '' . Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Gulick , Gary ( May -- June 2008 ) . `` Lifting Latent Fingerprints from Difficult Surfaces '' . Evidence Technology Magazine . 6 ( 3 ) . Retrieved January 9 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Development of STR profiles from firearms and fired cartridge cases '' . Forensic Science International : Genetics . 3 ( 4 ) : 242 -- 250 . September 2009 . doi : 10.1016 / j. fsigen. 2009.02. 007 .

 Jump up ^ `` Public Law 90 - 618 : To amend title 18 , United States Code , to provide for better control of the interstate traffic in firearms '' ( PDF ) . October 22 , 1968 . pp. 1213 -- 1236 . Retrieved May 31 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Firearms Tracing Guide '' . Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms , and Explosives . November 2011 . Retrieved January 9 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Technical Procedure for Serial Number Restoration '' . North Carolina State Crime Laboratory . September 5 , 2014 . Retrieved January 10 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Walker , Robert E. ( 2013 ) . Cartridges and Firearm Identification . CRC Press . Retrieved July 3 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` INTERPOL Firearms Reference Table ( IFRT ) '' . INTERPOL . Retrieved January 12 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` NCIC Files '' . Federal Bureau of Investigation . Archived from the original on February 20 , 2016 . Retrieved January 12 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Utrata , Dave ; Johnson , Marcus ( October 2003 ) . `` Magnetic Particle Recovery of Serial Numbers '' . Midwest Forensics Resource Center . Retrieved July 4 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Iowa Division of Criminal Investigation Criminalistics Laboratory Firearm & Toolmark Section Restoration of Obliterated Serial Numbers '' . Iowa Division of Criminal Investigation . Retrieved July 2 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Serial Number Restoration '' . Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension . Retrieved July 2 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` FEU08 -- SOP for Serial Number Restoration of Obliterated Stampings in Various Metal Surfaces '' ( PDF ) . District of Columbia Department of Forensic Sciences . November 26 , 2013 . p. 2 . Retrieved December 17 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : National Research Council ( 2009 ) . Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States : A Path Forward ( PDF ) . National Academies Press . ISBN 0 - 309 - 13131 - 6 . Retrieved June 12 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Randerson , James ( June 3 , 2008 ) . `` Forensics : Fingerprints can be recovered from fired bullet casings '' . The Guardian . Retrieved June 18 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Cracking the Case : The Crime - Solving Promise of Ballistic Identification ( PDF ) ( Report ) . The Education Fund to Stop Gun Violence . June 2004 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on April 14 , 2008 . Retrieved June 18 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Crime Gun Identification , Bill No. 1471 of 2007 . Retrieved on June 18 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Mather , Kate ( January 23 , 2014 ) . `` Smith & Wesson says it wo n't follow California ' microstamping ' law '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved June 18 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : DiMaio , Vincent J.M. ( 2016 ) . Gunshot Wounds : Practical Aspects of Firearms , Ballistics , and Forensic Techniques ( 3rd ed . ) . CRC Press . Retrieved June 4 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Firearms & Tool Mark '' . North Carolina Department of Justice . Retrieved June 4 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Firearms and Toolmarks in the FBI Laboratory '' . Forensic Science Communications . 2 ( 2 ) . April 2000 . Archived from the original on September 20 , 2015 . Retrieved June 5 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Fisher , Barry A.J. ; Tilstone , William J. ; Woytowicz , Catherine ( 2009 ) . Introduction to Criminalistics : The Foundation of Forensic Science . Elsevier Academic Press . p. 39 . Retrieved June 5 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Thomas , Dylan ( February 25 , 2016 ) . `` A high - tech approach to tracking gun crimes '' . Southwest Journal . Retrieved June 20 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Intelligence service links 350 guns to crimes '' . BBC News . January 11 , 2010 . Retrieved June 20 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Bullets , Casings , and You '' . Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives . Retrieved June 21 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Gardner , Ross ( 2012 ) . Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation ( 2nd ed . ) . CRC Press . pp. 300 -- 301 . Retrieved May 28 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Lewinski , William ; Hudson , William ; Karwoski , David ; Redmann , Christa ( November 2010 ) . `` Fired Cartridge Case Ejection Patterns From Semi-Automatic Firearms '' ( PDF ) . Investigative Sciences Journal . 2 ( 3 ) . Retrieved May 28 , 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Solomon , John ( November 18 , 2007 ) . `` FBI 's Forensic Test Full of Holes '' . The Washington Post . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Randich , Erik ; Duerfeldt , Wayne ; McLendon , Wade ; Tobin , William ( July 17 , 2002 ) . `` A Metallurgical Review of the Interpretation of Bullet Lead Compositional Analysis '' . Forensic Science International . 127 ( 3 ) : 174 -- 191 . doi : 10.1016 / S0379 - 0738 ( 02 ) 00118 - 4 .

 Jump up ^ `` FBI Laboratory Announces Discontinuation of Bullet Lead Examinations '' ( Press release ) . FBI National Press Office . September 1 , 2005 . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 .

 Jump up ^ Forensic Science in Criminal Courts : Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature - Comparison Methods ( PDF ) ( Report ) . President 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology . September 2016 . pp. 104 -- 114 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on January 12 , 2017 . Retrieved December 31 , 2016 .

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Dead Sea - wikipedia

 Dead Sea

 Jump to : navigation , search For the novel , see Dead Sea ( novel ) .

 Dead Sea ים המלח  ( in Hebrew ) البحر الميت ( in Arabic )

 A view of the sea from the Israeli shore

 Location

 Israel Jordan Palestine

 Coordinates

 31 ° 30 ′ N 35 ° 30 ′ E  /  31.500 ° N 35.500 ° E  / 31.500 ; 35.500 Coordinates : 31 ° 30 ′ N 35 ° 30 ′ E  /  31.500 ° N 35.500 ° E  / 31.500 ; 35.500

 Lake type

 Endorheic Hypersaline

 Primary inflows

 Jordan River

 Primary outflows

 None

 Catchment area

 41,650 km ( 16,080 sq mi )

 Basin countries

 Israel Jordan Palestine

 Max. length

 50 km ( 31 mi ) ( northern basin only )

 Max . width

 15 km ( 9.3 mi )

 Surface area

 605 km ( 234 sq mi ) ( 2016 )

 Average depth

 199 m ( 653 ft )

 Max . depth

 298 m ( 978 ft ) ( elevation of deepest point , 728 m BSL ( below sea level ) , minus current surface elevation )

 Water volume

 114 km ( 27 cu mi )

 Shore length

 135 km ( 84 mi )

 Surface elevation

 − 430.5 m ( − 1,412 ft ) ( 2016 )

 References

 Shore length is not a well - defined measure .

 Play media Short video about the Dead Sea from the Israeli News Company

 The Dead Sea ( Hebrew : יָם הַמֶּלַח  Yam ha - Melah lit . Sea of Salt ; Arabic : البحر الميت  Al - Bahr al - Mayyit ) is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west . Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres ( 1,412 ft ) below sea level , Earth 's lowest elevation on land . The Dead Sea is 304 m ( 997 ft ) deep , the deepest hypersaline lake in the world . With a salinity of 342 g / kg , or 34.2 % , ( in 2011 ) , it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water . This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals can not flourish , hence its name . The Dead Sea is 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) long and 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) wide at its widest point . It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley , and its main tributary is the Jordan River .

 The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years . It was one of the world 's first health resorts ( for Herod the Great ) , and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products , from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers . People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets .

 The Dead Seawater has a density of 1.24 kg / litre , which makes swimming similar to floating .

 The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate . Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession , which had begun causing many problems . The Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance project , carried out by Jordan , will provide water to neighbouring countries , while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its levels . The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021 .

 Contents

 ( hide )

 1 Etymology and toponymy

 2 Geography

 3 Natural history

 4 Climate

 5 Chemistry

 6 Putative therapies

 6.1 Psoriasis

 6.2 Rhinosinusitis

 6.3 Osteoarthritis

 7 Fauna and flora

 8 Human settlement

 9 Human history

 9.1 Biblical period

 9.2 Greek and Roman period

 9.3 Byzantine period

 9.4 Modern times

 10 Tourism and leisure

 10.1 British Mandate period

 10.2 Israel

 10.3 Jordan

 10.4 West Bank

 11 Chemical industry

 11.1 British Mandate period

 11.2 Israel

 11.3 Jordan

 11.4 West Bank

 11.5 Extraction

 12 Recession and environmental concerns

 13 See also

 14 References

 15 Further reading

 16 External links

 Etymology and toponymy

 In Hebrew , the Dead Sea is Yām ha - Melaḥ ( help info ) ( ים המלח  ) , meaning `` sea of salt '' ( Genesis 14 : 3 ) . The Bible uses this term alongside two others : the Sea of the Arabah ( Yām ha - ' Ărāvâ ים הערבה  ) , and the Eastern Sea ( Yām ha - Mizraḥî ים המזרחי  ) . The designation `` Dead Sea '' never appears in the Bible .

 In prose sometimes the term Yām ha - Māvet ( ים המוות  , `` sea of death '' ) is used , due to the scarcity of aquatic life there . In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al - Bahr al - Mayyit ( help info ) ( `` the Dead Sea '' ) , or less commonly baḥru lūṭa ( بحر لوط , `` the Sea of Lot '' ) . Another historic name in Arabic was the `` Sea of Zoʼar '' , after a nearby town in biblical times . The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites ( Attic Greek ἡ Θάλαττα ἀσφαλτῖτης , hē Thálatta asphaltĩtēs , `` the Asphaltite sea '' ) .

 Geography

 Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea east of the Mediterranean Sea

 The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley , a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform ( DST ) . This left lateral - moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate . It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai . It is here that the Upper Jordan River / Sea of Galilee / Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end .

 The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea , although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea , forming pools and quicksand pits along the edges . There are no outlet streams .

 The Mujib River , biblical Arnon , is one the larger water sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan . The Wadi Mujib valley , 420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley , is a biosphere reserve , with an area of 212 km ( 82 sq mi ) . Other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh ( Arabic ) / Nahal Dragot ( Hebrew ) , and Nahal Arugot . Wadi Hasa ( biblical Zered ) is another wadi flowing into the Dead Sea .

 Rainfall is scarcely 100 mm ( 4 in ) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50 mm ( 2 in ) in the southern part . The Dead Sea zone 's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains . The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself .

 To the west of the Dead Sea , the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east . Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m ( 700 ft ) tall halite formation called `` Mount Sodom '' .

 Natural History

 There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea . The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone , an extension of the Red Sea Rift , or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa . A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a `` step - over '' discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform , creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence .

 Around 3.7 million years ago , what is now the valley of the Jordan River , Dead Sea , and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea . The waters formed in a narrow , crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon , which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley . The floods of the valley came and went depending on long - scale climate change . The Sedom Lagoon deposited beds of salt that eventually became 2.5 km ( 1.55 mi ) thick .

 Approximately two million years ago , the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area . Thus , the long lagoon became a landlocked lake . The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from the Sea of Galilee in the north to somewhere around 50 km ( 30 mi ) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea , and the subsequent lakes obviously never surpassed this expanse . The Hula Depression was never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of the Korazim block separating it from the Sea of Galilee basin .

 The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is named Lake Amora , followed by Lake Lisan and finally by the Dead Sea . The water levels and salinity of these lakes have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom , and due to climate variation . As the climate became more arid , Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier , leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder .

 Pebbles cemented with halite on the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi .

 In prehistoric times , great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora . The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom ( on the southwest side of the lake ) . Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed , forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket . When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces , the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs ( see salt dome ) .

 From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago , the lake 's level was 100 m ( 330 ft ) to 250 m ( 820 ft ) higher than its current level . This lake , Lake Lisan , fluctuated dramatically , rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago , indicating a very wet climate in the Near East . Around 10,000 years ago , the lake 's level dropped dramatically , probably to even lower than today 's . During the last several thousand years , the lake has fluctuated approximately 400 m ( 1,300 ft ) , with some significant drops and rises . Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity ; therefore , it may have been a seismic event .

 Climate

 The Dead Sea 's climate offers year - round sunny skies and dry air . It has less than 50 millimetres ( 2 in ) mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 ° C ( 90 and 102 ° F ) . Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 ° C ( 68 and 73 ° F ) . The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation , particularly the UVB ( erythrogenic rays ) . Given the higher atmospheric pressure , the air has a slightly higher oxygen content ( 3.3 % in summer to 4.8 % in winter ) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level . Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude . ( This barometric measure is about 5 % higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa , which is the global ocean mean or ATM . ) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate . During the winter , sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures , and vice versa during the summer months . This is the result of the water 's mass and specific heat capacity . On average , there are 192 days above 30C ( 86F ) annually .

 ( hide ) Climate data for Dead Sea , Sedom ( 390 m below sea level )

 Month

 Jan

 Feb

 Mar

 Apr

 May

 Jun

 Jul

 Aug

 Sep

 Oct

 Nov

 Dec

 Year

 Record high ° C ( ° F )

 26.4 ( 79.5 )

 30.4 ( 86.7 )

 33.8 ( 92.8 )

 42.5 ( 108.5 )

 45.0 ( 113 )

 46.4 ( 115.5 )

 47.0 ( 116.6 )

 44.5 ( 112.1 )

 43.6 ( 110.5 )

 40.0 ( 104 )

 35.0 ( 95 )

 28.5 ( 83.3 )

 47.0 ( 116.6 )

 Average high ° C ( ° F )

 20.5 ( 68.9 )

 21.7 ( 71.1 )

 24.8 ( 76.6 )

 29.9 ( 85.8 )

 34.1 ( 93.4 )

 37.6 ( 99.7 )

 39.7 ( 103.5 )

 39.0 ( 102.2 )

 36.5 ( 97.7 )

 32.4 ( 90.3 )

 26.9 ( 80.4 )

 21.7 ( 71.1 )

 30.4 ( 86.7 )

 Daily mean ° C ( ° F )

 16.6 ( 61.9 )

 17.7 ( 63.9 )

 20.8 ( 69.4 )

 25.4 ( 77.7 )

 29.4 ( 84.9 )

 32.6 ( 90.7 )

 34.7 ( 94.5 )

 34.5 ( 94.1 )

 32.4 ( 90.3 )

 28.6 ( 83.5 )

 23.1 ( 73.6 )

 17.9 ( 64.2 )

 26.1 ( 79 )

 Average low ° C ( ° F )

 12.7 ( 54.9 )

 13.7 ( 56.7 )

 16.7 ( 62.1 )

 20.9 ( 69.6 )

 24.7 ( 76.5 )

 27.6 ( 81.7 )

 29.6 ( 85.3 )

 29.9 ( 85.8 )

 28.3 ( 82.9 )

 24.7 ( 76.5 )

 19.3 ( 66.7 )

 14.1 ( 57.4 )

 21.9 ( 71.4 )

 Record low ° C ( ° F )

 5.4 ( 41.7 )

 6.0 ( 42.8 )

 8.0 ( 46.4 )

 11.5 ( 52.7 )

 19.0 ( 66.2 )

 23.0 ( 73.4 )

 26.0 ( 78.8 )

 26.8 ( 80.2 )

 24.2 ( 75.6 )

 17.0 ( 62.6 )

 9.8 ( 49.6 )

 6.0 ( 42.8 )

 5.4 ( 41.7 )

 Average precipitation mm ( inches )

 7.8 ( 0.307 )

 9.0 ( 0.354 )

 7.6 ( 0.299 )

 4.3 ( 0.169 )

 0.2 ( 0.008 )

 0.0 ( 0 )

 0.0 ( 0 )

 0.0 ( 0 )

 0.0 ( 0 )

 ( 0.047 )

 3.5 ( 0.138 )

 8.3 ( 0.327 )

 41.9 ( 1.65 )

 Average precipitation days

 3.3

 3.5

 2.5

 1.3

 0.2

 0.0

 0.0

 0.0

 0.0

 0.4

 1.6

 2.8

 15.6

 Average relative humidity ( % )

 41

 38

 33

 27

 24

 23

 24

 27

 31

 33

 36

 41

 31.5

 Source : Israel Meteorological Service

 Chemistry

 Halite deposits ( and teepee structure ) along the western Dead Sea coast . Beach pebbles made of halite ; western Dead Sea coast .

 With 34.2 % salinity ( in 2011 ) , it is one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water , though Lake Vanda in Antarctica ( 35 % ) , Lake Assal in Djibouti ( 34.8 % ) , Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea ( up to 35 % ) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica ( such as Don Juan Pond ( 44 % ) ) have reported higher salinities .

 Until the winter of 1978 -- 79 , when a major mixing event took place , the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature , density , age , and salinity . The topmost 35 meters ( 115 ft ) or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of 342 parts per thousand ( in 2002 ) , and a temperature that swung between 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) and 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) . Underneath a zone of transition , the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride ( NaCl ) . Since the water near the bottom is saturated , the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor .

 Beginning in the 1960s , water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large - scale irrigation and generally low rainfall . By 1975 , the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer . Nevertheless , the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense . When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer , the waters mixed ( 1978 -- 79 ) . For the first time in centuries , the lake was a homogeneous body of water . Since then , stratification has begun to redevelop .

 The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water . The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season , depth and temperature . In the early 1980s , the concentration of ionic species ( in g / kg ) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl ( 181.4 ) , Br ( 4.2 ) , SO ( 0.4 ) , HCO ( 0.2 ) , Ca ( 14.1 ) , Na ( 32.5 ) , K ( 6.2 ) and Mg ( 35.2 ) . The total salinity was 276 g / kg . These results show that the composition of the salt , as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis , was calcium chloride ( CaCl ) 14.4 % , potassium chloride ( KCl ) 4.4 % , magnesium chloride ( MgCl ) 50.8 % and sodium chloride ( NaCl ) 30.4 % . In comparison , the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85 % sodium chloride . The concentration of sulfate ions ( SO ) is very low , and the concentration of bromide ions ( Br ) is the highest of all waters on Earth .

 The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5 % . This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg / l . Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy . In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States .

 An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt . From deep seeps , the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance . Asphalt - coated figurines and bitumen - coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found . Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region .

 Putative therapies

 This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources . Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can . Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed . ( March 2015 )

 The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons . The mineral content of the water , the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere , the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation , and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects . For example , persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure .

 The region 's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies :

 Climatotherapy : Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature , humidity , sunshine , barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents

 Heliotherapy : Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun 's radiation

 Thalassotherapy : Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water

 Psoriasis

 Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for psoriasis by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased cloud cover over the Dead Sea .

 Rhinosinusitis

 Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study .

 Osteoarthritis

 Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees . According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev , treatment with mineral - rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy .

 Panorama of the Dead Sea from the Mövenpick Resort , Jordan .

 Fauna and flora

 Dead Sea in the morning , seen from Masada

 The sea is called `` dead '' because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms , such as fish and aquatic plants , from living in it , though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present .

 In times of flood , the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35 % to 30 % or lower . The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters . In 1980 , after one such rainy winter , the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red . Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of alga called Dunaliella . Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid - containing ( red - pigmented ) halobacteria , whose presence caused the color change . Since 1980 , the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers .

 In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva , Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface . These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter the Dead Sea . They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea .

 Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea . Hikers can see ibex , hares , hyraxes , jackals , foxes , and even leopards . Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well . Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea .

 The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a jungle of papyrus and palm trees . The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described Jericho as `` the most fertile spot in Judea '' . In Roman and Byzantine times , sugarcane , henna , and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley wealthy . One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree , which could be made into perfume . By the 19th century , Jericho 's fertility had disappeared .

 Human settlement

 There are several small communities near the Dead Sea . These include Ein Gedi , Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council : Kalya , Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat . There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi , and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar . Highway 90 runs north - south on the Israeli side for a total distance of 565 km ( 351 mi ) from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat .

 Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea , and others including Suweima . Highway 65 runs north - south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan 's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba .

 Human History

 Mount Sodom , Israel , showing the so - called `` Lot 's Wife '' pillar ( made of halite like the rest of the mountain ) A cargo boat on the Dead Sea as seen on the Madaba Map , from the 6th century AD

 Biblical period

 Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan , and extensively at the time of King David .

 Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho . Somewhere , perhaps on the southeastern shore , would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham : Sodom and Gomorra ( Genesis 18 ) and the three other `` Cities of the Plain '' , Admah , Zeboim and Zoar ( Deuteronomy 29 : 23 ) . Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham 's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom ( Genesis 19 : 21 - 22 ) . Before the destruction , the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits , which was called the vale of Siddim . King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby .

 In Ezekiel 47 : 8 - 9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will `` be healed and made fresh '' , becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life . A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14 : 8 , which says that `` living waters will go out from Jerusalem , half of them to the eastern sea ( likely the Dead Sea ) and half to the western sea ( the Mediterranean ) . ''

 Greek and Roman period

 Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters . The Nabateans and others discovered the value of the globs of natural asphalt that constantly floated to the surface where they could be harvested with nets . The Egyptians were steady customers , as they used asphalt in the embalming process that created mummies . The Ancient Romans knew the Dead Sea as `` Palus Asphaltites '' ( Asphalt Lake ) .

 King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea . The most famous was Masada , where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple . The zealots survived until 73 CE , when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants . Another historically important fortress was Machaerus ( מכוור ) , on the eastern bank , where , according to Josephus , John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died .

 Also in Roman times , some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea 's western shore ; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words , `` on the west side of the Dead Sea , away from the coast ... ( above ) the town of Engeda '' ( Natural History , Bk 5.73 ) ; and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today , that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that `` the Dead Sea Scrolls '' discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library .

 Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom . However , he referred to the lake by its Greek name , Asphaltites .

 Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea . The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran , who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls . The town of Ein Gedi , mentioned many times in the Mishna , produced persimmon for the temple 's fragrance and for export , using a secret recipe . `` Sodomite salt '' was an essential mineral for the temple 's holy incense , but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness . The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake . These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity .

 Byzantine period

 Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west , the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge . The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era . Their monasteries , such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert , are places of pilgrimage .

 Modern times

 In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily by Christopher Costigan in 1835 , Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847 , William Francis Lynch in 1848 , and John MacGregor in 1869 . The full text of W.F. Lynch 's 1949 book Narrative of the United States ' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea is available online . Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817 - 18 , but did n't navigate on its waters .

 World 's lowest ( dry ) point , Jordan , 1971

 Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate .

 After the find of the `` Moabite Stone '' in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea , Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al - Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed `` Moabite '' antiquities , and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the `` Shapira Strips '' , a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea . The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace .

 In the late 1940s and early 1950s , hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran , about one mile ( 1.6 kilometres ) inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea ( presently in the West Bank ) . They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls .

 The world 's lowest roads , Highway 90 , run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea , along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side , at 393 m ( 1,289 ft ) below sea level .

 Tourism and leisure

 Ein Bokek , a resort on the Israeli shore

 British mandate period

 A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore .

 Israel

 The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad , and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex .

 Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore , generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012 . Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a six - kilometre ( 3.7 - mile ) stretch of the southern shore .

 Jordan

 Kempinski Hotel , one of the many hotels on the Jordanian shore

 On the Jordanian side , nine international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center , along with resort apartments , on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea . The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side 's capacity to 2,800 rooms .

 On November 22 , 2015 , the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan , to become live on Google Street View .

 West Bank

 The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres ( 25 miles ) long . The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs . However , Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism - related investments on the Dead Sea . According to the World Bank , Officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement , but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000 .

 Chemical industry

 The southern basin of the Dead Sea as of 1817 - 18 , with the Lisan Peninsula and its ford ( now named Lynch Strait ) . North is to the right . View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea , taken in 1989 from the Space Shuttle Columbia ( STS - 28 ) . The southern half is separated from the northern half at what used to be the Lisan Peninsula because of the fall in level of the Dead Sea . View of the mineral evaporation ponds almost 12 years later ( STS - 102 ) . A northern and small southeastern extension were added and the large polygonal ponds subdivided . The dwindling water level of the Dead Sea

 British mandate period

 In the early part of the 20th century , the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of potash ( potassium chloride ) and bromine . The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929 , after its founder , Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation , Moses Novomeysky , worked for the charter for over ten years . The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine . Employing Arabs and Jews , it was an island of peace in turbulent times . The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East , and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore , in the Mount Sodom area , south of the ' Lashon ' region of the Dead Sea . Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain 's potash during World War II . Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War .

 Israel

 The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state - owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company . In 1995 , the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals . From the Dead Sea brine , Israel produces ( 2001 ) 1.77 million tons potash , 206,000 tons elemental bromine , 44,900 tons caustic soda , 25,000 tons magnesium metal , and sodium chloride . Israeli companies generate around US $3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals ( primarily potash and bromine ) , and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals .

 Jordan

 On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea , Arab Potash ( APC ) , formed in 1956 , produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually , as well as sodium chloride and bromine . The plant is located at Safi , South Aghwar Department , in the Karak Governorate .

 Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales ( equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan 's GDP ) .

 West Bank

 The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres ( 25 miles ) long . The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access , permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate . The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918 m incremental value added per year , `` almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today '' .

 Extraction

 Both companies , Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash , use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite , potassium magnesium chloride , which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride . The ponds are separated by a central dike that runs roughly north - south along the international border . The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal ( by a subsidiary , Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd . ) .

 Due to the popularity of the sea 's therapeutic and healing properties , several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products .

 Recession and environmental concerns

 The planned Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance , whose first phase will begin construction in 2018 , will work towards stabilizing the falling levels of the Dead Sea .

 Since 1930 , when its surface was 1,050 km ( 410 sq mi ) and its level was 390 m ( 1,280 ft ) below sea level , the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously . In recent decades , the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north . The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works , a company that converts the sea 's raw materials . From a water surface of 395 m ( 1,296 ft ) below sea level in 1970 it fell 22 m ( 72 ft ) to 418 m ( 1,371 ft ) below sea level in 2006 , reaching a drop rate of 1 m ( 3 ft ) per year . As the water level decreases , the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change .

 The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop , causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater . This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore -- incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers , rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes .

 Gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea sediments exposed by recession of water levels . It was excavated by floods from the Judean Mountains in less than a year .

 In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum , Jordan announced its plans to construct the `` Jordan National Red Sea Development Project '' ( JRSP ) . This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea . Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan , with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment . The early planning called for developer and financier selection to be completed by year 's end , with detailed design to begin in early 2010 , and water delivery by 2017 . Israel expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region . Some hydro - power will be collected near the Dead Sea from the dramatic change in elevation on the downhill side of the project .

 At a regional conference in July 2009 , officials expressed concern about the declining water levels . Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced . Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea . Currently , only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river 's channel . Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts . They said agriculture should not be expanded , sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced .

 Year

 Water level ( m )

 Surface ( km )

 1930

 − 390

 1050

 1980

 − 400

 680

 − 407

 675

 − 411

 670

 − 417

 662

 − 423

 655

 2016

 − 430.5

 605

 Sources : Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research , Haaretz , Jewish Virtual Library , Jordan Valley Authority .

 In October 2009 , the Jordanians announced accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic metres ( 11 billion cubic feet ) of water per year from the Red Sea , desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel , despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact . According to Jordan 's minister for water , General Maysoun Zu'bi , this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance .

 In December 2013 , Israel , Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea . The pipeline will be 180 km ( 110 mi ) long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete . In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water is now dropping by 1 m ( 3 ft ) a year .

 On 27 November 2016 , it was announced that the Jordanian government is shortlisting five consortiums to implement the project . Jordan 's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project will begin construction in the first quarter of 2018 , and will be completed by 2021 .

 Views in 1972 , 1989 , and 2011 compared

 See also

 Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance

 Aral Sea

 Dead Sea Works

 Great Salt Lake

 List of drying lakes

 List of places on land with elevations below sea level

 Mediterranean -- Dead Sea Canal

 Benjamin Elazari Volcani

 World Discoveries III : Dead Sea

 References

 ^ Jump up to : `` Virtual Israel Experience : The Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 21 January 2013 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` The Dead Sea Is Dying Fast : Is It Too Late to Save It , or Was It Always a Lost Cause ? '' . Haaretz. 7 October 2016 . Archived from the original on 22 December 2016 .

 ^ Jump up to : Dead Sea Data Summary 2015. Water Authority of Israel . The World Bank - ' The Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program ' - 2013 Archived 2013 - 09 - 15 at the Wayback Machine ...

 ^ Jump up to : `` Long - Term changes in the Dead Sea '' . Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research - Israel Marine Data Center ( ISRAMAR ) .

 ^ Jump up to : The first article al - is unnecessary and usually not used .

 Jump up ^ `` Israel and Jordan Sign ' Historic ' $900 Million Deal to Save the Dead Sea '' . Newsweek .

 Jump up ^ Goetz , P.W. , ed. ( 1986 ) . `` The New Encyclopædia Britannica ( 15th ed . ) '' . 3 . Chicago : 937 .

 Jump up ^ RW McColl , ed. ( 2005 ) . Encyclopedia of world geography . Facts on File . p. 237 . ISBN 9780816072293 .

 Jump up ^ `` Dead Sea - Composition of Dead Sea Water '' . Archived from the original on 2013 - 11 - 04 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` 5 alliances shortlisted to execute Red - Dead 's phase I '' . The Jordan Times . 27 November 2016 . Retrieved 3 December 2016 .

 Jump up ^ David Bridger ; Samuel Wolk ( September 1976 ) . The New Jewish Encyclopedia . Behrman House , Inc. p. 109 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 87441 - 120 - 1 . Retrieved July 25 , 2011 . It was named the `` Dead Sea '' because of the fact that no living thing can exist there , since the water is extremely salty and bitter .

 Jump up ^ See bitumen and asphalt for more about asphaltite .

 Jump up ^ `` Springs and quicksand at the Dead Sea '' . Retrieved August 27 , 2008 .

 ^ Jump up to : Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study ( RSDSC ) Program : Dead Sea Study , July 2010 , p. 64

 Jump up ^ `` Mujib '' . UNESCO . Retrieved 7 May 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Dead Sea '' . Exact Me.org . Archived from the original on January 20 , 2013 . Retrieved January 21 , 2013 .

 ^ Jump up to : Mordechai Stein . `` The limnological history of late Pleistocene -- Holocene water bodies in the Dead Sea basin '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 05 - 13 .

 ^ Jump up to : Uri Kafri ; Yoseph Yechieli ( 2010 ) . Groundwater Base Level Changes and Adjoining Hydrological Systems . Springer Science & Business Media . p. 123 . ISBN 978 - 3642139444 .

 Jump up ^ Geochemical Society ; Meteoritical Society ( 1971 ) . Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta . Pergamon Press . Retrieved April 12 , 2011 .

 Jump up ^ `` Natural Resources '' . Dead Sea Research Center . Retrieved 27 October 2013 .

 Jump up ^ `` Lowest Elevation : Dead Sea '' . Extreme Science . Retrieved May 22 , 2007 .

 Jump up ^ Kramer , MR ; Springer C ; Berkman N ; Glazer M ; Bublil M ; Bar - Yishay E ; Godfrey S ( March 1998 ) . `` Rehabilitation of hypoxemic patients with COPD at low altitude at the Dead Sea , the lowest place on earth '' ( PDF ) . Chest. 113 ( 3 ) : 571 -- 575 . doi : 10.1378 / chest. 113.3. 571 . PMID 9515826 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2013 - 10 - 29 . PMID 9515826

 Jump up ^ `` Climatological Averages for Dead Sea '' . IMS . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2011 . Retrieved June 9 , 2011 .

 Jump up ^ `` Averages and Records for several places in Israel '' . Israel Meteorological Service . June 2011 . Archived from the original on 2010 - 09 - 14 .

 ^ Jump up to : `` Dead Sea Canal '' . American.edu. 1996 - 12 - 09 . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2009 . Retrieved May 5 , 2009 .

 Jump up ^ I. Steinhorn , In Situ Salt Precipitation at the Dead Sea , Limnol . Oceanogr. 28 ( 3 ) , 1983 , 580 - 583

 Jump up ^ Bein , A. ; O. Amit ( 2007 ) . `` The evolution of the Dead Sea floating asphalt blocks : simulations by pyrolisis '' . Journal of Petroleum Geology . Journal of Petroleum Geology. 2 ( 4 ) : 439 -- 447 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1747 - 5457.1980. tb00971. x .

 Jump up ^ Niemi , Tina M. , Zvi Ben - Avraham and Joel Gat , eds. , The Dead Sea : the lake and its setting , 1997 , Oxford University Press , p. 251 ISBN 978 - 0 - 19 - 508703 - 1

 Jump up ^ J. Rullkötter ; A. Nissenbaum ( December 1988 ) . `` Dead sea asphalt in Egyptian mummies : Molecular evidence '' . Naturwissenschaften. 75 ( 12 ) : 618 . Bibcode : 1988NW ... 75 ... 618R . doi : 10.1007 / BF00366476 .

 Jump up ^ `` Asthma , Cystic Fibrosis , Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease '' . Dead Sea Research Center . Retrieved May 22 , 2007 .

 Jump up ^ Cohen , Arnon D. ; Van ‐ Dijk , Dina ; Naggan , Lechaim ; Vardy , Daniel A. ( 2005 ) . `` Effectiveness of climatotherapy at the Dead Sea for psoriasis vulgaris : A community - oriented study introducing the Beer Sheva Psoriasis Severity Score '' . Dermatological Treatment . 16 ( 5 -- 6 ) : 308 -- 313 . doi : 10.1080 / 09546630500375841 .

 Jump up ^ S. Halevy ; et al. `` Dead sea bath salt for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris : a double - blind controlled study '' . 9 ( 3 ) . Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : 237 -- 242 .

 Jump up ^ Michael Friedman ; Ramakrishnan Vidyasagar ; Ninos Joseph ( June 2006 ) . A Randomized , Prospective , Double - Blind Study on the Efficacy of Dead Sea Salt Nasal Irrigations. 116 . The Laryngoscope . pp. 878 -- 882 . doi : 10.1097 / 01. mlg. 0000216798.10007. 76 .

 Jump up ^ Flusser , Daniel ; Abu - Shakra , Mahmoud ; Friger , Michael ; Codish , Shlomi ; Sukenik , Shaul ( August 2002 ) . `` Therapy With Mud Compresses for Knee Osteoarthritis : Comparison of Natural Mud Preparations With Mineral - Depleted Mud '' ( PDF ) . 8 ( 4 ) . Journal of Clinical Rheumatology : 197 -- 203 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on 2011 - 08 - 16 .

 Jump up ^ `` PLOS ONE '' .

 Jump up ^ `` Asphaltites examples from ancient sources '' . Wordnik.com . Retrieved 2013 - 08 - 22 .

 Jump up ^ Josephus , Antiquities of the Jews 18.119 .

 Jump up ^ Josephus. `` 9 '' . Antiquities of the Jews . 1 .

 Jump up ^ Found today in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum of Jerusalem

 Jump up ^ `` Sodomite salt could cause blindness '' . Archived from the original on 2009 - 08 - 15 .

 Jump up ^ A synagogue mosaic floor ( circa 100 BCE ) at Ein Gedi repeats the Mishna , portraying a curse on whoever reveals the town 's secret persimmon recipe . Papyrus parchments found in caves near the Dead Sea document the vast amount of cultivated land in the area , especially persimmon trees , but also olive and date trees

 Jump up ^ `` History of the Dead Sea - Discover the Dead Sea with Us ! '' . 1 July 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` ' The unfortunate Costigan ' , first surveyor of the Dead Sea '' . 25 February 2013 .

 ^ Jump up to : World Bank , Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department , Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy , October 2 , 2013

 Jump up ^ `` Dead Sea , Aqaba hotels packed during Eid Al Fitr holiday '' . The Jordan Times . 10 July 2016 . Retrieved 12 July 2016 .

 Jump up ^ `` Google Street View '' .

 Jump up ^ `` Wealth From The Dead Sea '' . Popular Mechanics . Chicago : Hearst Magazines . 54 ( 5 ) : 794 -- 798 . November 1930 .

 Jump up ^ Hurlbert , Stuart H. ( 6 December 2012 ) . `` Saline Lakes V : Proceedings of the Vth International Symposium on Inland Saline Lakes , held in Bolivia , 22 -- 29 March 1991 '' . Springer Science & Business Media -- via Google Books .

 Jump up ^ Schechter , Asher ( 14 April 2013 ) . `` Who Really Owns the Dead Sea ? '' -- via Haaretz .

 Jump up ^ `` Overview of Middle East Water Resources_Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . December 1998 . Retrieved 31 May 2014 .

 Jump up ^ C. Klein ; A. Flohn . Contribution to the Knowledge in the Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Level . 38 . Theoretical and Applied Climatology . pp. 151 -- 156 , 1987 .

 Jump up ^ M. Abelson ; Y . Yechieli ; O. Crouvi ; G. Baer ; D. Wachs ; A. Bein ; V. Shtivelman ( 2006 ) . Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes in . special paper 401 . Geological Society of America . pp. 241 -- 253 .

 Jump up ^ Ehud Zion Waldoks ( July 8 , 2009 ) . ( tp://www.jpost.com/Features/Article.aspx?id=148034 `` Back from the Dead ? '' ) . The Jerusalem Post .

 Jump up ^ `` Water level of the Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 31 May 2014 .

 Jump up ^ `` Water level and surface area of the Dead Sea '' . Jewish Virtual Library . Retrieved 31 May 2014 .

 Jump up ^ Eng . Sa'ad Abu Hammour , JVA . `` River Basin Management '' ( PDF ) . Jordan Valley Authority . Retrieved 31 May 2014 .

 Jump up ^ `` Jordan to refill shrinking Dead Sea '' . Daily Telegraph . 10 October 2009 .

 Jump up ^ Sherwood , Harriet ( 2013 - 12 - 09 ) . `` Dead Sea neighbours agree to pipeline to pump water from Red Sea '' . The Guardian .

 Jump up ^ Catholic Online . `` Dead Sea Dying : Levels of salt water are dropping by three feet annually '' .

 Jump up ^ `` The Dead Sea : Image of the Day '' .

 Further reading

 The World Bank - ' The Red Sea - Dead Sea Water Conveyance Study Program ' - 2013 , and source of basic data on the Dead Sea .

 Yehouda Enzel , et al. , eds ( 2006 ) New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research , Geological Society of America , ISBN 0 - 8137 - 2401 - 5

 Niemi , Tina M. , Ben - Avraham , Z. , and Gat , J. , eds. , 1997 , The Dead Sea : The Lake and Its Setting : N.Y. , Oxford University Press , 286 p .

 World Bank , Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Department , Area C and the Future of the Palestinian Economy , October 2 , 2013

 External links

 Media related to Dead Sea at Wikimedia Commons

 Dead Sea travel guide from Wikivoyage ( Israeli and West Bank part and Jordanian part )

 The dictionary definition of Dead Sea at Wiktionary

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